Introductory Astronomy and Astrophysics

28: Stars and stellar evolution - IV

Dhruba J Saikia
IUCAA

Stars and stellar evolution - IV: stellar spectra - III

Boltzmann and Saha equations
Introductory Astronomy and Astrophysics
28: Stars and stellar evolution - IV Boltzmann and Saha equations
Stellar spectra

Spectrum of Vega and the Sun

overall spectrum: black body

superimposed on it are the absorption lines

Hα: 656.3 Hβ: 486.1 Hγ: 434.0 Hδ: 410.2 nm

Balmer lines in the Sun weaker

Credit: Michael Richmond http://spiff.rit.edu/classes/phys301/lectures/spec_lines/spec_lines.html

Introductory Astronomy and Astrophysics
28: Stars and stellar evolution - IV Boltzmann and Saha equations
Stellar spectra
Absorption: bound-bound or bound-free transitions
of atoms, ions or molecules in the outer layers of the star
• hydrogen Balmer lines Balmer jump? In O-type stars?
• neutral and singly ionized helium
• iron lines
• H and K doublet of ionized calcium at 396.8 & 393.3 nm
• G band due to CH molecule and Fe
• 422.7 nm neutral calcium line
• several metal lines around 431 nm, and the
• lines of titanium oxide http://www.handprint.com/ASTRO/specclass.html
Introductory Astronomy and Astrophysics
28: Stars and stellar evolution - IV Boltzmann and Saha equations
Stellar spectra
Absorption lines: bound-bound or bound-free transitions
of atoms, ions or molecules in the outer layers of the star
• hydrogen Balmer lines
• neutral and singly ionized helium
• iron lines
• H and K doublet of ionized Ca at 396.8 & 393.3 nm
• G band due to the CH molecule
• 422.7 nm neutral calcium line
• several metal lines around 431 nm, and the
• lines of titanium oxide
https://classic.sdss.org/dr5/algorithms/spectemplates/index.html Examine the SDSS spectra of stars
Introductory Astronomy and Astrophysics
28: Stars and stellar evolution - IV Boltzmann and Saha equations
Stellar spectra

L: https://i.ytimg.com/vi/kVewz3TzID8/hqdefault.jpg ; R: http://www.star.ucl.ac.uk/~pac/spectral_classification.html
Introductory Astronomy and Astrophysics
28: Stars and stellar evolution - IV Boltzmann and Saha equations
Stellar spectra

let’s say hydrogen is in the n = 2 state

photon of energy 2.55 eV hits the atom

atom absorbs photon; λ = 486.1 nm
jumps from n = 2 to n = 4 level => Hβ line

if electron at n = 1, atom remains unaffected

if photon energy is < 10.2 eV, atom unaffected

if electrons at n = 3 or higher, no absorption line

for absorption you need a combination of presence of species and atoms or ions at the appropriate E level
Figure: http://hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/hbase/hyde.html
Introductory Astronomy and Astrophysics
28: Stars and stellar evolution - IV Boltzmann and Saha equations

Physical basis for stellar classification

Based on our discussions in the previous classes

In which orbitals (energy levels) are the electrons likely to be?

Boltzmann distribution

What are the relative number of atoms in different stages of ionization?

Saha ionization equation

Carroll & Ostlie 2014, An introduction to modern astrophysics, Pearson

Introductory Astronomy and Astrophysics
28: Stars and stellar evolution - IV Boltzmann and Saha equations

Physical basis for stellar classification

For gas in thermodynamic equilibrium, the distribution of velocities
Maxwell – Boltzmann distribution
the number of gas particles per unit volume having velocities: v to v+dv

n: number density of particles in unit volume

nv = dn/dv; T temperature; k Boltzmann const.
James Clerk Maxwell m mass of the particle Ludwig Boltzmann
Carroll & Ostlie 2014, An introduction to modern astrophysics, Pearson; images from Wikipedia
Introductory Astronomy and Astrophysics
28: Stars and stellar evolution - IV Boltzmann and Saha equations

Physical basis for stellar classification

Maxwell – Boltzmann distribution
the number of gas particles per unit volume having velocities: v to v+dv

exponent: ratio of kinetic energy to characteristic thermal energy

differentiate to get the maximum: most probable velocity
vmp = (2kT/m)1/2
consider N2 molecule in air at room temperature 300 K
m = 28.02/6.022 × 1023 g; vmp = 421.9 m s-1
Carroll & Ostlie 2014, An introduction to modern astrophysics, Pearson; images from Wikipedia fraction of particles between v and v+dv
Introductory Astronomy and Astrophysics
28: Stars and stellar evolution - IV Boltzmann and Saha equations
Physical basis for stellar classification
Maxwell – Boltzmann distribution
the number of gas particles per unit volume having velocities: v to v+dv

vrms = (<v2>)1/2 = (3kT/m)1/2 vrms larger: long tail

fraction of gas particles in a velocity range: area under the curve

closed from solution: 0 to ∞

else numerically integrate

Carroll & Ostlie 2014, An introduction to modern astrophysics, Pearson

Introductory Astronomy and Astrophysics
28: Stars and stellar evolution - IV Boltzmann and Saha equations

Physical basis for stellar classification

Maxwell – Boltzmann distribution
the number of gas particles per unit volume having velocities: v to v+dv

fraction of gas particles in a velocity range: area under the curve

T = 10000 K
≈12.5% (12.76%)
2 – 2.5 × 104 m/s
Carroll & Ostlie 2014, An introduction to modern astrophysics, Pearson
Introductory Astronomy and Astrophysics
28: Stars and stellar evolution - IV Boltzmann and Saha equations
Physical basis for stellar classification
Boltzmann Equation
particles collide with one another: gaining and losing energy
collisions lead to excitation/deexcitation => distribution of electrons among the orbitals
orbitals of higher energy are less likely to be occupied than those of lower energy
Energy state Ea specific set of quantum numbers sa e.g. {n = 1, ℓ = 0, mℓ = 0, ms = +1/2} for H
Energy state Eb specific set of quantum numbers sb
ratio of the probability that the system is in state sb to that of in sa

e-E/kT is called the Boltzmann factor

Carroll & Ostlie 2014, An introduction to modern astrophysics, Pearson

Introductory Astronomy and Astrophysics
28: Stars and stellar evolution - IV Boltzmann and Saha equations
Physical basis for stellar classification
Boltzmann Equation

e-E/kT is called the Boltzmann factor

consider Eb > Ea
and as T → 0; −(Eb − Ea)/kT → −∞ and hence P(sb)/P(sa) → 0 (all electrons at lowest level)
while as T → ∞; −(Eb − Ea)/kT → 0 and hence P(sb)/P(sa) → 1 (all energy levels accessible)
energy levels of the system may be degenerate; same energy but more than one quantum state
number of states of a given energy: ga, gb statistical weights
H at -13.6 eV {n = 1, ℓ = 0, mℓ = 0, ms = +1/2}, {n = 1, ℓ = 0, mℓ = 0, ms = -1/2} (not exactly! why?)
these different states have to be taken account of
Carroll & Ostlie 2014, An introduction to modern astrophysics, Pearson
Introductory Astronomy and Astrophysics
28: Stars and stellar evolution - IV Boltzmann and Saha equations
Physical basis for stellar classification
Boltzmann Equation
ratio of the probabilities taking account that these may be in any of the gb states of level b or any of the ga
states of level a H atom: quantum nos. & energies

ratio of probabilities is indistinguishable from ratio

of the number of atoms; due to the large no. of atoms
Boltzmann
Equation

Carroll & Ostlie 2014, An introduction to modern astrophysics, Pearson

Introductory Astronomy and Astrophysics
28: Stars and stellar evolution - IV Boltzmann and Saha equations

Physical basis for stellar classification

Boltzmann Equation

Consider a gas of neutral H atoms. At what temperature will there will be equal number of atoms in
the ground state (n = 1) and the first excited state (n =2)? H atom via Boltzmann equation
Here Nb = Na
1 = (8/2) e-[(−13.6 eV/4)−(−13.6 eV/1)]/kT = 4 e-10.2 eV/kT
ln 4 = 10.2 eV/kT k = 8.6173423 × 10−5 eV K−1
T = 10.2 eV / (ln 4 × 8.6173423 × 10−5 eV K−1) = 8.54 × 104 K
Do we have a problem here? Lines stronger for a higher T?

Carroll & Ostlie 2014, An introduction to modern astrophysics, Pearson

Introductory Astronomy and Astrophysics
28: Stars and stellar evolution - IV Boltzmann and Saha equations

Physical basis for stellar classification

Saha Equation
Considers the relative number of atoms in different stages of ionization
χi : ionization energy required to remove an electron from an atom or ion in the ground state
this takes it from ionization state i to i+1 (HI → HII 13.6 eV from ground state)
initial and final ions may not be in the ground state
Define a partition function
For a given ionization state partition function Z is given by
sum is over all states of the atom, ground and excited
kind of statistical weight for the atom, taking into account all its excited states
Carroll & Ostlie 2014, An introduction to modern astrophysics, Pearson
Introductory Astronomy and Astrophysics
28: Stars and stellar evolution - IV Boltzmann and Saha equations

Physical basis for stellar classification

Saha Equation
Boltzmann’s equation gives us Nb/Na = (gb/ga) e –(Eb – Ea)/kT
To get Nb/N where N denotes the number in a given ionization state

ga will be replaced by the partition function for ionization state i

kind of statistical weight for the atom, taking into account its ground and all its excited states
weighted by the exponential Boltzmann term

Carroll & Ostlie 2014, An introduction to modern astrophysics, Pearson

Introductory Astronomy and Astrophysics
28: Stars and stellar evolution - IV Boltzmann and Saha equations

Physical basis for stellar classification

Saha Equation

Derived by Meghnad Saha (1894 – 1956) in 1920

Gives the number of atoms in the i+1 stage of ionization to the number of atoms at i stage
Zi+1 and Zi are the partition functions for the i+1 and i stages of ionization
ionization falls with ne why?
ionization increases with T

Carroll & Ostlie 2014, An introduction to modern astrophysics, Pearson

Introductory Astronomy and Astrophysics
28: Stars and stellar evolution - IV Boltzmann and Saha equations
Physical basis for stellar classification
Saha Equation

Carroll & Ostlie 2014, An introduction to modern astrophysics, Pearson

Introductory Astronomy and Astrophysics
28: Stars and stellar evolution - IV Boltzmann and Saha equations
Physical basis for stellar classification
Boltzmann and Saha Equations together
Consider a stellar atmosphere that is pure hydrogen, electron pressure 20 N m-2
we first determine the fraction of atoms that are ionized for temperature 5000 to 25000 K
NII / Ntotal = NII / (NI + NII)
we need to calculate the partition functions ZI and ZII
an ionized hydrogen atom is only a proton, no degeneracy ZII = 1
energy of first excited state of hydrogen E2 – E1 = 10.2 eV; E2- E1 ≫ kT; e -(E2-E1)/kT ≪ 1
recall k = 8.6173423 × 10−5 eV K−1
nearly all the HI atoms are in the ground state
therefore ZI ≃ g1 = 2(1)2 = 2
Carroll & Ostlie 2014, An introduction to modern astrophysics, Pearson
Introductory Astronomy and Astrophysics
28: Stars and stellar evolution - IV Boltzmann and Saha equations
Physical basis for stellar classification
Boltzmann and Saha Equations together
Consider a stellar atmosphere that is pure hydrogen, electron pressure 20 N m-2
we first determine the fraction of atoms that are ionized for temperature 5000 to 25000 K
NII / Ntotal = NII / (NI + NII)
with the partition functions and ionization potential
χi = 13.6 eV, Saha’s equation will give NII/NI

5000 K NII %age close to 0; 8300 K it is about 5 %

9600 K it is about 50 %; 11300 K about 95 %
Carroll & Ostlie 2014, An introduction to modern astrophysics, Pearson
Introductory Astronomy and Astrophysics
28: Stars and stellar evolution - IV Boltzmann and Saha equations
Physical basis for stellar classification
Boltzmann and Saha Equations together
Consider a stellar atmosphere that is pure hydrogen, electron pressure 20 N m-2
we first determine the fraction of atoms that are ionized for temperature 5000 to 25000 K
NII / Ntotal = NII / (NI + NII)
Now back to our question: what about strength of the Balmer lines?
This will depend on the fraction all H atoms in the N2 level: N2/Ntotal

approximation
N 1 + N 2 ≃ NI
Boltzmann Saha

most intense Balmer lines at about 9900 K

for temperatures well over 10000 K most of the H is ionized
Carroll & Ostlie 2014, An introduction to modern astrophysics, Pearson
Introductory Astronomy and Astrophysics
28: Stars and stellar evolution - IV Boltzmann and Saha equations

Physical basis for stellar classification

Boltzmann and Saha Equations together
Consider a stellar atmosphere that is pure hydrogen, electron pressure 20 N m-2

Carroll & Ostlie 2014, An introduction to modern astrophysics, Pearson

Introductory Astronomy and Astrophysics
28: Stars and stellar evolution - IV Boltzmann and Saha equations
Physical basis for stellar classification
Boltzmann and Saha Equations together
A O2 759.370
B O2 686.719

C Hα 656.281 Fraunhofer lines

a O2 627.661
D1 Na 589.592
D2 Na 588.995
E2 Fe 527.039
b1 Mg 518.362
F Hβ 486.134
G' Hγ 434.047
G Fe 430.790
G Ca 430.774
H Ca+ 396.847
K Ca+ 393.366
Carroll & Ostlie 2014, An introduction to modern astrophysics, Pearson; image and wavelength identification from Wikipedia
Introductory Astronomy and Astrophysics
28: Stars and stellar evolution - IV Boltzmann and Saha equations
Physical basis for stellar classification
Boltzmann and Saha Equations together

Sun’s photosphere: T = 5777 K, Pe = 1.5 N m-2,

500,000 H atoms for every Ca atom
relative strengths of H (Balmer lines) and Ca (CaII H and K lines)
number of neutral H atoms with e- the 1st excited state vs singly ionized Ca with e- ground state

Saha Equation: degree of ionization

Boltzmann Equation: distribution of electrons between ground and first excited states

Carroll & Ostlie 2014, An introduction to modern astrophysics, Pearson

Introductory Astronomy and Astrophysics
28: Stars and stellar evolution - IV Boltzmann and Saha equations
Physical basis for stellar classification
Boltzmann and Saha Equations together
Sun’s photosphere: T = 5777 K, Pe = 1.5 N m-2,
For hydrogen
Saha Equation
Only one ionized HII for every 13000 neutral hydrogen atoms HI; almost unionized
Boltzmann
Equation
Only one atom in the first excited state compared with 198 million in the ground state

Carroll & Ostlie 2014, An introduction to modern astrophysics, Pearson

Introductory Astronomy and Astrophysics
28: Stars and stellar evolution - IV Boltzmann and Saha equations
Physical basis for stellar classification
Boltzmann and Saha Equations together
Sun’s photosphere: T = 5777 K, Pe = 1.5 N m-2,
For calcium ionization energy χi of Ca I is 6.11 eV (half of that of H) kT ≈ 0.5 eV ≪ χ
Partition function calculations a bit more involved: ZI = 1.32 and ZII = 2.30
Saha Equation
How many are ionized?
Almost all Ca atoms are in the first ionized state CaII (only one in about 900 remains neutral)
Boltzmann Equation E2 − E1 = 3.12 eV
How many are in the ground state? g1 = 2 and g2 = 4
CaII K line (λ = 393.3 nm); ground state will produce the CaII H and K lines
Carroll & Ostlie 2014, An introduction to modern astrophysics, Pearson
Introductory Astronomy and Astrophysics
28: Stars and stellar evolution - IV Boltzmann and Saha equations
Physical basis for stellar classification
Boltzmann and Saha Equations together
Sun’s photosphere: T = 5777 K, Pe = 1.5 N m-2,
For calcium ionization energy χi of Ca I is 6.11 eV (half of that of H) kT ≈ 0.5 eV ≪ χ
Partition function calculations a bit more involved: ZI = 1.32 and ZII = 2.30
Saha Equation
How many are ionized?
Almost all Ca atoms are in the first ionized state CaII (only one in about 900 remains neutral)
Boltzmann Equation
How many are in the ground state?
CaII K line (λ = 393.3 nm); ground state will produce the CaII H and K lines; of 265 all but 1 ground st.
Carroll & Ostlie 2014, An introduction to modern astrophysics, Pearson
Introductory Astronomy and Astrophysics
28: Stars and stellar evolution - IV Boltzmann and Saha equations
Physical basis for stellar classification
Boltzmann and Saha Equations together
Sun’s photosphere: T = 5777 K, Pe = 1.5 N m-2,
Almost all of the Sun’s Ca are singly ionized and in the ground state, capable of producing the H and K
lines

Carroll & Ostlie 2014, An introduction to modern astrophysics, Pearson

Introductory Astronomy and Astrophysics
28: Stars and stellar evolution - IV Boltzmann and Saha equations
Physical basis for stellar classification
Boltzmann and Saha Equations together
Sun’s photosphere: T = 5777 K, Pe = 1.5 N m-2,
There are 500000 H atoms for every atom of Ca,
but only 5.06 × 10−9 atoms in the first excited state capable of producing the Balmer lines
500000 × 5.06 × 10−9 ≈ 0.00253 = 1/395
There are about 400 times more Ca atoms capable of producing the H and K lines of Calcium than H
atoms for producing the Balmer lines

Does not reflect abundance

Reflects temperature dependence of ionization and excitation of atomic states

Carroll & Ostlie 2014, An introduction to modern astrophysics, Pearson

Introductory Astronomy and Astrophysics
28: Stars and stellar evolution - IV Boltzmann and Saha equations
Physical basis for stellar classification
Boltzmann and Saha Equations together
Cecilia Payne-Gaposhkin (1900 -1979)
Cecilia Payne PhD thesis at Harvard College 1925

Images from Wikepedia

Introductory Astronomy and Astrophysics
28: Stars and stellar evolution - IV Boltzmann and Saha equations

IUCAA ARPIT course 2019

Stars and stellar systems For
https://www.youtube.com/playlist?list=PL3jLiVc5sr3NTNRpRLVRTEv6xAS2axAq3