UNIT IV

RENEWABLE ENERGY STORAGE AND ENERGY MANAGEMENT

Storage of Renewable Energy Systems -Solar Energy

Solar energy is one of the renewable energy sources that is available worldwide. Solar

energy, whether solar thermal or solar PV, has already been applied in various applications,

such as residential, desalination, transportation, drying, irrigation, etc. In this regard, several

works have been done to cover part of these developments and applications. Concentrated

Solar Power (CSP) technologies are one of the promising technologies for generating both heat

and electricity. Globally, significant investments have been made in the development of these

technologies. Since 2005, various commercial systems have been installed. However, we lack

the necessary experience to develop CSP into a dependable, low-cost power source. Line focus,

which focuses solar energy along a collector’s focal length (parabolic trough collectors and

linear Fresnel reflectors), and point focus, which focuses the energy of the sun on a point (solar

thermal towers and parabolic dishes), are the two types of solar collectors used, as shown in

Roadmap-Concentrating Solar Power).

When compared to photovoltaic (PV) projects, the initial investment cost of CSP power plants was
greater. However, the financial benefits of CSP plants outperformed those of photovoltaic power
plants. The PV system assembly had a greater environmental impact than CSP installations.Solar
photovoltaics is a technology that converts solar energy directly into electricity, and extensive
research is being conducted to improve its efficiency. Bifacial photovoltaics
(BPVs) are gaining popularity as potentially useful solutions with the potential to increase the energy
output by utilizing the rear side to absorb light, decreasing costs, as shown in

To realize the full potential of BPV technology, a thorough understanding of the system's physical
characteristics is required. One of the primary benefits of renewable energies, such as solar energy, is
that it can be used in arid areas with no grid connections.

SOLAR ENERGY CONVERSION

In ancient times, wood was the most common source of heat energy. The energy of flowing water and
wind was also used for limited activities. Can you think of some of these uses? The exploitation of
coal as a source of energy made the industrial revolution possible. Increasing industrialization has led
to a better quality of life all over the world. It has also caused the globaldemand for energy to grow at
a tremendous rate. The growing demand for energy was largely met by the fossil fuels coal and
petroleum. Our technologies were also developed for using these energy sources. But these fuels were
formed over millions of years ago and there are only limited reserves. The fossil fuels are non-
renewable sources of energy, so we need to conserve them. If we were to continue consuming these
sources at such alarming rates, we would soon run out of energy! In order to avoid this, alternate
sources of energy were explored. But we continue to be largely dependent on fossil fuels for most of
our energy requirements.

Energy development is increasingly dominated by major global concerns of overpopulation, air

pollution, fresh water pollution, coastal pollution, deforestation, biodiversity loss, and globalclimate
deterioration. To prevent disastrous global consequences, it would increasingly be impossible to
engage in large-scale energy-related activities without insuring their sustainability, even for
developing countries in which there is a perceived priority of energy development and use and power
generation over their impact on the environment, society, and indeed on the energy sources
themselves.

Solar Cells

A device which converts the solar energy (energy obtained from the sun) directly into electrical
energy is called 'Solar cell'. This is also called as 'Photovoltaic cell'.

Principle
The basic principle involved in the solar cells is based on the photovoltaic (PV) effect. When sun rays
fall on the two layers of semiconductor devices, potential difference between

the two layers is produced. This potential difference causes flow of electrons and thus produces
electricity. Example: Silicon solar cell

Solar cell consists of a p-type (such as Si doped with boron) and an n-type (such as Si doped with
phosphorous) semiconductor plates. They are in close contact with each other.

Working

When the solar rays fall on the top layer of p-type semiconductor, the electrons from the valence band
get promoted to the conduction band and cross the p-n junction into n-type semiconductor. Thereby
potential difference between two layers is created, which causes flow of electrons (i.e. electric
current). The potential difference and hence current increases as more solar rays falls on the surface of
the top layer.

Thus, when this p- and n- layers are connected to an external circuit, electrons flow from n-layer to p-
layer and hence current is generated.

Applications of Solar Cells

(i) Solar cells are used in street lights.

(ii) Water pumps are operated by using solar batteries.

(iii) They are used in calculators, watches, radios and TVs.

(v) Silicon Solar cells are used as power source in space crafts and satellites.

(iv) They are used for eco-friendly driving vehicles.

(vi) Solar cells can even be used in remote places and in forests to get electrical energy

without affecting the atmosphere.

TYPES OF SOLAR CELL

The solar cells depending on the type of material used can be classified as

(1) single crystal silicon solar cell,

(2) polycrystalline and amorphous silicon cell,

(3) cadmium sulphide-cadmium telluride cell,

(4) copper indium diselenide cell

(5) Gallium arsenide cell.

Single crystal silicon:

It is produced from silicon dioxide which is reduced to silica with 1% impurities. It is first purified to
polycrystalline form and then further converted into the single crystal state. The conversion process
into single crystal state is very expensive.

The single crystal p-type silicon is obtained in the form of a long cylindrical block (diameter of about
6-15 cm). The block is sawed using diamond cutter to obtain a

number of silicon slices or wafers having thickness of about 300 µm.

The, p-type silicon wafers are then exposed to phosphorous vapour (doping material)in a furnace so
that phosphorous can diffuse into the silicon wafer for a short depth, thereby forming n-silicon region
over the p-silicon bulk material.

The efficiency of single crystal silicon is about 22%. It is most efficient and robust.

Ithas two main drawbacks:

(i) it needs high energy to produce and hence is costly and

(ii) it requires high intensity of radiation to produce solar electricity.

Polycrystalline and amorphous silicon

The cells made of these materials are cost-effective but these have lower efficiencycompared to a
single crystal silicon cell.

The process to produce polycrystalline silicon cells is similar to that of single crystal silicon except
that the costly step of converting polycrystalline state to the single crystal is not required.The
polycrystalline silicon is directly melted, doped with phosphorous and cooked to the desired shape and
size. This helps in economy of materials and energy consumption for the production of
cells.Amorphous silicon cells are produced using thin film technology. These cells are a cheaper
alternative to single crystal or multicrystallinc cells. The main drawbacks are that they have low
efficiency (4-8%) and they degrade easily when used in outdoor applications. These cells are useful
for indoor lights, pocket calculator, electronic watches and electronic instruments
Cadmium sulphide cadmium telluride cells:

These cells are also produced using thin film technology. The cells require very less material. In thin
film technology, the semiconductor (cadmium telluride) is vapourisedand its film (10 µm) is deposited
on a thin layer (12 µm) of cadmium

sulphide.

A barrier layer of copper sulphide is then deposited on top of the CdS-CdTecell. The cell consists of
n-type CdS and p-type CdTe. The cell has efficiency of 10% and it has no deterioration during outside
applications.

Copper indium diselenide:

It is a thin film polycrystalline cell made from copper indium diselenide. It has an efficiency of about
14%. Its properties remain stable. It has an easier manufacturing process.

Gallium arsenide:

The cell has thin film of n-type and p-type gallium arsenide (GaAs) grown on a suitable substrate. The
efficiency of the cell is about 20%, but it has high costof production. The cell has high performance in
extraterrestrial applications

Storage of Renewable Energy Systems -wind Energy

Wind Energy

Moving air is called wind. Energy recovered from the forces of wind is called wind

energy.

• Wind power is the conversion of wind energy into a useful form, such as electricity, using wind
turbines. At the end of 2008, worldwide nameplate capacity of wind-powered generators was 121.2
gigawatts (GW).

Wind turbines produce electricity by using the natural power of the wind to drive

a generator.

The wind is a clean and sustainable fuel source, it does not create emissions and it will. never run out
as it is constantly replenished by energy from the sun.

In many ways, wind turbines are the natural evolution of traditional windmills, but now typically have
three blades, which rotate around a horizontal hub at the top of a steel tower.
Most wind turbines start generating electricity at wind speeds of around 3-4 metres per second (m/s),
(8 miles per hour); generate maximum 'rated' power at around 15 m/s (30mph); and shut down to
prevent storm damage at 25 m/s or above (50mph).

Working

• Generating electricity from the wind is simple: Wind passes over the blades exerting a turning
force. The rotating blades turn a shaft inside the nacelle, which goes into a gearbox.
• The gearbox increases the rotation speed for the generator, which uses magnetic fields to
convert the rotational energy into electrical energy.
• The power output goes to a transformer, which converts the electricity from the generator at
around 700 Volts (V) to the right voltage for the distribution system, typically between 11 kV
and 132kV.
• The regional electricity distribution networks or National Grid transmit the electricity around
the country, and on into homes and businesses.

Advantages

• It is cheap and economical.

• It is renewable and
• It does not cause pollution.

Disadvantages

• They produce noise.

• Wind farms erected on the migratory routes of birds create problems.
• Wind turbines interfere with electromagnetic signals.

solar and wind energies has grown in importance recently as a result of the need to reduce gas
emissions. Energy storage systems (ESSs) store excess energy when demand is not sufficient and
release it when demand is satisfied. Furthermore, the desire for transportation alternatives with
reduced CO2 emissions has led to an interest in energy storage. Electrochemical, mechanical,
electrical, and hybrid systems are commonly used as energy storage systems for renewable energy
sources. Electrochemical ESSs include batteries, fuel cells for hydrogen storage, and flow batteries.
Mechanical storage includes pumped hydroelectric energy storage, compressed air energy storage

(CAES), and flywheel energy storage. CAES stores compressed air in underground caverns and
releases it to generate energy during periods of high demand. Flywheel energy storage (FES) stores
kinetic energy in a rotating flywheel. The choice of mechanical energy storage system will depend on
factors, such as the available technology, cost, efficiency, and environmental impact. There are three
types of electrical energy storage technologies: supercapacitor energy storage (SES), superconducting
magnetic energy storage

(SMES), and thermal energy storage (TES). Modeling and sizing of batteries in PV and wind energy
systems, as well as PMCs in ESS technologies, are essential aspects of designing efficient renewable
energy systems. They are detailed to help our understanding of the behavior of such systems. In PV
systems, ESS has a variety of uses, such as load balancing, backup power, time-of-use optimization,
and grid stabilization. Additionally, in wind systems, ESS is used for various applications, including
grid stabilization, remote power supply, industrial applications, peak shaving, and backup power
supply. In this work, different storage and multi-storage systems are examined by providing different
advantages and drawbacks to help choose the optimal ESS technology for a specific application in
photovoltaic and wind systems.

Energy Storage Overview

The main categories of ESS are electrochemical, mechanical, thermal, electrical storage, and hybrid
systems or multi-storage.

Electrochemical Storage

Many types of electrochemical storage (ES) technologies are used, including batteries and fuel cells.
ES has several advantages. It satisfies a variety of power and energy storage requirements and is
scalable and modular. It is also highly efficient, with many electrochemical storage technologies
offering high round-trip efficiency rates. However, ES also has some limitations, including the need
for specialized infrastructure, limited life cycle, and high capital costs.

Batteries Energy Storage Systems (BESSs)

Batteries work by using a chemical reaction to create a flow of electrons, which can be harnessed to
power electronic devices or other electrical loads.. Numerous other battery types are used in energy
storage devices. The following table summarizes some characteristics of these batteries based on cost,
technology, life cycle, energy density, and efficiency. These values vary depending on the specific

battery chemistry, manufacturer, and application.

Fuel Cells for Hydrogen Energy Storage (HES)

The hydrogen generated by an electrolyzer is stored in a tank until it is needed. When the stored
hydrogen is needed, it is fed into a fuel cell where it reacts with. oxygen to generate electricity and
water. HES has several advantages as an energy storage technology. It is an excellent option for ESS
in off-the-grid or remote areas because it can be stored for a long time and can be produced using
renewable energy sources. It is also a safe and versatile energy source. However, HES also has some
limitations. One challenge is the cost of producing and storing hydrogen, which can be higher than
other energy storage technologies. HES also requires specialized infrastructure, such as pipelines and
fuel cells, which can be expensive specialized infrastructure, such as pipelines and fuel cells, which
can be expensive to install and maintain.

Mechanical Storage

Pumped Hydroelectric Energy Storage (PHES)

Pumped hydroelectric energy storage (PHES) is a type of energy storage

system that utilizes two reservoirs at different elevations to store and generate electricity. During
periods of excess power generation on the grid, typically during low-demand periods or when there is
an excess of renewable energy generation, water is pumped, thereby storing the excess energy as
gravitational potential energy. When there is a need for additional energy, such as during periods of
high electricity demand or when renewable energy generation is low, the stored water. in the higher
reservoir is released and allowed to flow downhill through turbines. The flowing water drives the
turbines, which are connected to generators, producing electricity that is fed back into the grid to meet
the demand [1]. Particularly well suited for long-term storage, PHES systems are a good choice.
However, PHES facilities usually require access to appropriate topography and water resources, and
their installation costs can be high in comparison to those of

other energy storage technologies. Compressed Air Energy Storage (CAES)

It operates by compressing air, which it then stores in underground caverns or containers as energy.
The compressed air is released and expanded through a turbine to produce energy. It is possible to use
CAES to balance the output of wind and solar electricity by offering large-scale, long-duration energy
storage. Contrary. to other ESSS, CAES facilities can be more costly to build and need access to

appropriate geological formations. Flywheel Energy Storage (FES)

It is typically made of lightweight materials such as carbon fiber and spins at high speeds inside a
vacuum-sealed enclosure, which reduces friction and energy loss. The flywheel is accelerated to store
energy when it is available, and when energy is required, the flywheel's rotational energy is
transformed back into energy via a generator. Flywheels are useful for applications, such as grid
stabilization and uninterruptible power supplies. They have fast response times, as they can respond to
changes in demand within seconds. They also have a relatively long lifespan compared to other energy
storage technologies and can operate at high efficiencies. However, FES is typically not as suitable for
long-duration energy storage as other technologies, such as pumped hydroelectric storage or battery
storage, due to energy loss through friction and other factors over time.

Gravity Energy Storage (GES)

This stores potential energy by lifting weights to a certain height. The stored energy can be used at
another moment by releasing the weights, which then fall and drive a generator to generate energy.
When there is a surplus of energy being produced, water is pumped, where it is then released to
continue generating electricity when there is a high demand. Electrical Energy Storage

Super Capacitor Energy Storage (SES)

This uses electrostatic fields to store energy. SES systems are similar to traditional capacitors but have
a much higher energy density, allowing them to

store and release larger amounts of energy more quickly

Superconducting Magnetic Energy Storage (SMES)

SMES systems consist of a superconducting coil, a power conditioning system, and a cryogenic
cooling system. The superconducting coil is typically made of a superconducting material, such as
niobium-titanium or niobium-tin, and is cooled to extremely low temperatures using a cryogenic
cooling system. When a current is applied to the coil, it generates a magnetic field, which can be used
to store energy.

Capacitor Energy Storage (CES)

Two conductive surfaces and an insulating substance known as a dielectric separate two capacitors.
An electric field forms between the plates of the capacitor when a voltage is applied, making one plate
positively charged and the other negatively charged. The capacitor's electromagnetic field stores the
energy, which

can be released when necessary Thermal Energy Storage (TES)

Applications for TES include electricity generation, industrial processes, and the heating and cooling
of buildings. TES systems use a variety of storage media, including water, molten salt, and phase
change materials. When energy is required, the heat that has been stored is released to create power,
heat, or both [45].

PV/Wind/Battery Energy Storage Systems

PV/wind/battery energy storage systems (BESSs) involve integrating PV or wind power generation
with BESSs, along with appropriate control, monitoring, and grid interaction mechanisms to enhance
the integration of renewable energy into the electrical grid, improve system stability, and support a
more sustainable energy. system by using technical basics. The most important factors are as follows:

PV or Wind Power Generation: PV systems generate electricity by converting sunlight into electrical
energy using photovoltaic panels, while wind power systems generate electricity using the kinetic
energy of wind through wind turbines. These systems can vary in size and capacity, depending on the
specific application and location.

Battery Energy Storage Systems (BESSs): They are used to store excess electricity generated by PV
or wind systems during periods of low demand or high generation. BESSs typically consist of
batteries that can store and release electrical energy as needed. They can vary in size, capacity, and
technology, and their performance characteristics can impact the overall system efficiency and
effectiveness.

➤ Charge and Discharge Control: It is a crucial aspect of the PV/wind + BESS system. During times
of high PV or wind generation and low demand, excess electricity is stored in the BESS. When
demand exceeds generation, the BESS is discharged to supply additional electricity to the grid or the
load. Sophisticated control algorithms are used to manage the charging and discharging of the BESS,
ensuring optimal operation and performance.

Inverter Systems: They are typically used in PV and wind systems to convert

the DC energy generated by PV panels or wind turbines into AC energy that can be fed into the grid or
used locally. Inverter systems also play a role in interfacing the PV/wind systems with the BESS,
managing the charging and discharging process.

Grid Interaction: PV/wind + BESS systems can interact with the electrical grid in different ways,
depending on the specific application and grid requirements. They can supply surplus energy to the
grid during periods of high generation, draw electricity from the grid during periods of low generation
or high demand, and provide grid support services as frequency regulation and voltage control,
depending on the capabilities of the BESS and the system configuration.

Monitoring and Control: They are essential for the operation and performance optimization of
PV/wind BESS systems. They typically involve sensors, communication networks, and control
algorithms that continuously monitor the performance of the PV/wind systems, the BESS, and the
grid, and make decisions on charging, discharging, and grid interaction based on real-time data.

System Integration and Design: They are critical for the effective operation of PV/wind + BESS
systems. Factors, such as the sizing of the PV or wind system, the capacity and performance of the
BESS, the control strategies, and the grid requirements, need to be carefully considered to ensure
optimal performance, system efficiency, and grid stability

Energy Storage in Micro grid, Smart Grid

MICRO AND SMART GRID

Structure

3.1 Introduction

3.2 Micro Grids

3.3 Smart Grids

3.5

3.4 Renewable Systems

Prognostics, Energy Management Systems

3.6 3.1 Smart Metering References and Further Readings

3.1 INTRODUCTION

Micro grids are localized networks that can disconnect from the traditional network to

operate independently.

Microgrids enable the integration of growing deployments of distributed energy resources such as
renewables such as solar, resulting in a more flexible and efficient electric grid is as shown in Figure
3.1. Furthermore, using local energy sources to service local loads helps decrease energy losses in
transmission and distribution, boosting the efficiency of the electric delivery system.
The Energy Department offers a diverse portfolio of operations focused on the development and
deployment of microgrids to increase grid stability and resiliency, assist communities in better
preparing for future weather catastrophes, and keep the country on track toward a clean energy future.
(System, 2019)

Microgrids help power networks become more flexible and efficient by incorporating the increased
deployment of distributed energy sources (such as renewable energy). In addition, the use of local
energy to provide services for local loads helps reduce energy loss in the transmission and distribution
process, and further improves the efficiency of the distribution system. (energy, 2021)

When addressing how technology is effecting the generation and consumption of energy, the word
"smart grid" is frequently used as a generic term, however it is rather ambiguous. Technology
influences energy usage in a variety of ways and on a variety of levels, and the term "smart grid" is
meaningless to the majority of building owners. However, owners and property managers should get
acquainted with a related idea known as the microgrid. (InBuilding Magazine, 2021)

While a smart grid is a modernized grid that uses information and communication technologies to
collect and exploit information, such as insights into supplier and consumer behaviour, according to
automated way to improve the performance, efficiency, reliability, economy and sustainability of
power generation and distribution. Transmission and operation: extensive monitoring, control and
protection. (researchgate, 2021)

A smart grid serves several purposes, and the transition from traditional electric grids to smart grids is
being driven by a number of factors, including energy market deregulation, evolutions in metering,
changes in the level of electricity production, decentralisation (distributed energy), the advent of the
involved 'prosumer, changing regulations, the rise of microgeneration and (isolated) microgrids,
renewable energy mandates with more energy sources, and new points (e.g. electrical vehicle charging
points).

An electrical grid, also known as an electric grid, is a network that transports electricity from the
producer(s) and the locations where it is generated and transformed (power plants and substations) to
the final destinations where electricity is 'consumed': homes, businesses, various facilities, and the
consumer in general. (industry-4-0/smart-grids-electrical-grid/, 2021)

3.2 MICRO GRIDS

As shown in Figure 3.2, a micro-grid is a local energy grid with control capability, which means that it
can disconnect from the traditional grid and operate on its own.

The grid is a system that connects houses, businesses, and other structures to centralised power
sources, allowing us to utilise household appliances, heating and cooling systems, and gadgets. But
this interconnection means that when one part of the network needs to be fixed, everyone is affected.
Figure 3.2: Micro Grid Diagram

A micro-grid usually works when connected to the grid, but more importantly, it can shut down and
operate on its own using local power generation in times of crisis like storms or power outages, or for
other reasons.

Distributed generators, batteries, and/or renewable resources such as solar panels can all be used to
power a micro-grid.

A micro-grid connects to the main grid at a common location and maintains the same voltage level as
the main grid. A switch is used which can detach the microgrid from the main network, which
eventually functions as an island.

It is helpful in providing network backup in emergencies and is also beneficial in cost reduction to
connect to a local resource. Thus, a micro grid makes small communities self-sustaining and
independent. (energy, 2021)

3.3 SMART GRIDS

"The grid" refers to the power grid, a network of transmission lines, substations, transformers and
which combined carries electricity from the power plant to us. The current power grid was built in the
late 1800s and has improved since then. At present, it comprises of around 9,200 power generating
units with the power generating capacity of over one
Smart grid as shown in Figure 3.3, brings the opportunity to enhance the energy industry that can help
to build the environmental and economic health globally. During the transition period, it will be
essential to carry out testing, technological improvements, consumer education, development of
standards and regulations, and information sharing between projects to ensure that the benefits we
envision of the Smart Grid becomes true. (Smartgrid, 2021)

3.4 RENEWABLE SYSTEMS

The most popular renewable energy sources currently are:

i) Solar energy - Solar energy is used around the world and is increasingly popular to generate
electricity or to heat and desalinate water. Solar energy is produced in two main ways: Photovoltaics
(PV), Concentrated solar energy (CSP)
ii) Wind energy - Wind is a renewable energy source that is clean, free, and easily available. Wind
turbines capture the wind's energy and convert it to electricity every day all around the world. Wind
power generation is becoming more significant in how we power our planet - in a clean and
sustainable way.
iii) Hydro energy - Hydropower, often known as hydroelectric power, is a renewable energy source
that produces electricity by altering the natural flow of a river or other body of water using a dam or
diversion construction.
iv) Tidal energy - Tidal energy is a renewable source of energy that is derived from the natural rise
and fall of ocean tides and currents. Turbines and paddles are two examples of these technology
The surge of ocean waters during the rise and fall of tides generates tidal energy. Tidal power is a
renewable energy source.
V) Geothermal energy - Geothermal energy is heat that exists within the earth's crust. Because heat
is constantly created inside the ground, geothermal energy is a renewable energy source. Geothermal
heat is used for bathing, heating houses, and generating energy.
vi) Biomass energy - Biomass is a sustainable energy source that is both clean and efficient. The sun
provides the initial energy, and plants or algae biomass may regenerate in a very short period of time.
Trees, crops, and municipal solid trash are all accessible on a regular basis and may be managed in a
sustainable manner.
Energy storage systems (ESS) are fundamental when it comes to renewable energy resources
integrated into smart grids. The variability of these resources can be mitigated through effective
operation of ESSs. Energy systems store excess energy during off-peak periods and release it during
peak hours.
Conventional storage technologies can provide many applications in electrical systems in addition to
their primary functions. The diagrams of operation of energy storage devices are intensively designed
for respective exclusive applications.
Their inherent degraded efficiencies and high investment costs are still questionable despite rapid
developments in other areas, due to electric vehicles (EVs). Therefore, their operation and size must
be carefully optimized.
In the development of ancillary services, electric vehicles (EVs) can be used as an independent energy
source. Once the EV is parked, the energy can be recovered in the network (Vehicle to Grid V2G).
Fixed or mobile energy storage systems can be deployed to provide sufficient spare capacity for
ancillary service purposes.
3.5 PROGNOSTICS, ENERGY MANAGEMENT SYSTEMS
Energy is a main resource of all industrial works, where it is consumed and related to the final
useful output of the same process (product or services). To calculate this input /output ratio, an energy
efficiency indicator is usually used, based on the common concept of thermodynamic efficiency.
Energy Efficiency Indicator (EEI) = EEI = Total Energy Imput
Useful Output
Where: E is the total energy input used, O is the useful output in physical units. Total energy used
includes all types of energy sources (gas, fuels, electricity, etc.) and all types of physical outputs must
be converted into a single unit (kilometre of displacement, tone of cement, volume of water, etc.).
Conventionally, the concept of prognosis deals with the prediction of the RUL (Remaining Useful
Life) of individual components and/or systems. This RUL is calculated from the current situation,
several influencing factors impacting future operation (e.g. impacts on degradation laws, operating
modes), a threshold (before the failure) and models to extrapolate or project the current situation to
cross the threshold. Thus, it corresponds to the estimated time until failure, which can be used for
decision support.
Data-driven approaches use the information from the learned data to assess the current EEL and
predict its future trend. Data-driven approaches can be classified into two large groups: statistical
approaches (regression, support vector machines, gamma processes, hidden
Markov model, etc.) and artificial intelligence approaches (fuzzy logic, neural networks, etc.). The
proposed prognostic approach focuses on the first group and is divided into 3 stages:
In the first step of the approach, this is done by acquiring/ monitoring all relevant data available at the
different layers of the application. Before this step, it is a question of setting up the instrument capable
of collecting this data. These data are representative of two categories. The first category is linked to
the data representative of the input energy, the useful outputs (2) and (5) in coherence with the
addressed layer. The second category is related to data representative of the layer context such as
operating modes, maintenance events, failure events, mission, etc.
In the second step of the process, various previously acquired data must be identified, classified and
transformed in terms of variables. This step is not so easy to perform if the amount of data is too large
requiring a long processing time (data mining) to transform the data into variables / parameters.
Indeed, from the values and changes in the data, the most important parameters that can impact the
EEI of energy objects must be highlighted (relationships between input parameters and useful output
parameters). However, most of the time, the power consumption and the output function are highly
nonlinear in structure, resulting in a lack of mathematical formulation between the parameters. In
addition, these identified key parameters must be set for each simulation period and their relationships
also depend on the deterioration / degradation threshold, etc. However, at the end of this second step,
models must be defined to support these relationships. It is proposed in this work to use modelling
tools such as multiple or nonlinear linear regression or support vector machine methods. Additional
aggregation models might also be needed to support the path between the component and the system
levels.
In the third step of the approach, the models defined in the previous step 2 can be used now for
making prognostics on EEP by considering mainly the deterioration/degradation influence factors.
Indeed, not only at the component level but also at the function/system level, the EEI can be
calculated from projected situations. In that way, some function/system features (e. g. architecture)
can be considered to impact the weighting factor of energy consumption and to quantify the output of
each component at a field level.

The energy efficiency idea and recommended prognostic technique are implemented
on the TELMA e-maintenance platform as shown in Figure 3.4. TELMA is based on a real-world
industrial application, such as punching steel sheet shapes or compressing steel forms. TELMA is
capable of unwinding metal bobbins and is made up of four sub-systems: changing bobbin, advance
motor drive (MOI), accumulator motor drive (MD2), and punching-cutting. (Hoang, 2015)
To improve the accuracy of the energy efficiency assessment, all forms of input energy (for example,
electricity, coal, and steam) must be specified. Furthermore, the connections between the physical
system, the process sequence, and the management plan must be articulated and integrated. Only
electrical energy is addressed in this case study as a distinct energy supply for the TELMA system.
Only the function of the platform permitting the punching of steel sheet is covered in this study. This
function is provided by the accumulator and advance motor drives as shown in Figure 3.5, which are
two of the most energy-consuming components. These two motors are physically similar, and each
component is made up of several components such as an electrical motor and a variable speed driver
(and an electromagnetic brake to simulate failure). The two motors are functionally independent: the
first maintains cutting steel sheet productivity, while the second maintains steel sheet stress. The
function's useful physical output is the number of products per minute, whereas the accumulator and
advance motor's useful physical output is the number of rotations. These beneficial outputs may be
altered, monitored, and recorded. (Hoang, 2015)

Each motor drive's energy usage may be monitored and recorded. By varying the force of an
electromagnetic brake that is directly linked to the roller, the impact of bearing wear and mechanical
gears is recreated. It should be noted that the electrical consumption of each motor is mostly
determined by the setting speed and the force of the electromagnetic brake. (Hoang, 2015)

The electrical consumption of the motor is monitored and recorded for various values of the
electromagnetic braking force and motor output speed. The electromagnetic brake has a force that
ranges from 0% to 100%. (the motor drive is considered failed at 100 percent). The motor's output
speed is adjustable from 300 to 1800 r/min. It is demonstrated that the motor's speed and degradation
degree have a substantial impact on its energy consumption. (Hoang, 2015)

By comparing the (learned) EEI with a pre-setting threshold, the REEL, at the function/system level,
can be determined as well as the predicted EEl value of each component. (Hoang, 2015)

3.6 SMART METERING

Smart metering is one of the essential operations in smart grid infrastructures. Smart meters are
upgraded versions of conventional power meters which are developed after Automated Meter Reading
(AMR) and Automated Metering Infrastructure (AMI) improvements. Smart metres have extensive
ICT interfaces, allowing them to be highly smart and comprehensive. Smart metres can compute many
characteristics such as power factor or THD, as well as anticipate energy usage at certain intervals, in
addition to metering operations. It also allows customers to remotely monitor and regulate their home
energy, in addition to the remote-control functions utilised by Meter Data Management System
(MDMS).
Smart meters are also defined as smart outlets because of their ability to distribute from the residential
grid to homes. Because it measures energy spent, electricity demand rates, and network power quality,
AMI is utilised to develop smart meter-based infrastructure with smart grid applications as shown in
Figure 3.6. Typical features of smart metering applications are listed as two-way communication
between network and smart meter, capability of recording data at intervals of 10-60 min, at least daily
data transmission to the monitoring centre, a built-in remote disconnect switch, Home Area Network
(HAN) interface and data, storage capacity for faults, voltage and current values, and secure data
communication infrastructure.

The latest smart meter research has focused on power quality issues such as automatic voltage
restoration, frequency and voltage control, active and reactive power

control, Demand Side Management (DSM), decentralized generation in the context of microgrid and
cyber-secure communication systems. The metering section is made up of three main subsections
which are AMR, DMS and Time of Use (TOU) pricing, while the communication system includes
control infrastructure and network connection interfaces such as HAN and WAN including Home
Energy Management System (HEMS). The communication interface can provide wired and / or
wireless communication methods that allow two-way data flow between the user and the Distribution
System Operators (DSO). In addition to the two main sections of a smart meter, it can also include
auxiliary modules such as power supply, controller, measurement and data acquisition interface, timer,
protection devices, control module, etc. 'data recording and encoding / decoding modules. The data
logging module which is essential for smart meters provides data storage capacity for consumer
information such as identification, energy usage logs, and time stamp and fault records. The
measurement section includes an analog interface that interacts with the network to connect residential
wiring to the distribution network and is equipped with voltage and current transducers to install the
measurement interface. The billing module is associated with the synchronization module to generate
TOU pricing data with time stamp.

Electric Vehicle Battery Management Systems

Battery Electric Vehicles
A Battery Electric Vehicle (BEV), pure electric vehicle, only-electric vehicle or all-electric vehicle is
a type of Electric Vehicles (EV) that exclusively uses chemical energy stored in rechargeable battery
packs, with no secondary source of propulsion. Battery electric vehicles thus have no internal
combustion engine, fuel cell, or fuel tank. Some of the broad categories of vehicles that come under
this category are trucks, cars, buses, motorcycles, bicycles, and forklifts.
Different types of batteries are used to power electric vehicles, and deciding which battery is best
depends on its energy storage efficiency, production costs, constructive characteristics, safety, and
lifespan. Lithium-ion batteries are the most utilized technology in electric cars. EVs run on high
voltage lithium-Ion battery packs. Lithium-ion batteries have higher energy density (100-265wh/kg)
compared to other battery chemistries. They pose a risk of fire under unusual circumstances. It is
crucial to operate electric vehicles in pre-defined safety limits to ensure the safety of the user as well
as the vehicle.
Battery Management System
A Battery Management System (BMS), which manages the electronics of a rechargeable battery,
whether a cell or a battery pack, thus becomes a crucial factor in ensuring electric vehicle safety. It
safeguards both the user and the battery by ensuring that the cell operates within its safe operating
parameters. BMS monitors the State Of Health (SOH) of the battery, collects data, controls
environmental factors that affect the cell, and balances them to ensure the same voltage across cells.
A battery pack with a BMS connected to an external communication data transfer system or a data bus
is referred to as a smart battery pack. It may include additional features and functions such as fuel
gauge integration, smart bus communication protocols, General Purpose Input Output (GPIO) options,
cell balancing, wireless charging, embedded battery chargers, and protection circuitry, all aimed at
providing information about the battery's power status. This information can help the device conserve
power intelligently.
A smart battery pack can manage its own charging, generate error reports, detect and notify the device
of any low-charge condition, and predict how long the battery will last or its remaining run-time. It
also provides information about the current, voltage, and temperature of the cell and continuously self-
corrects any errors to maintain its prediction accuracy. Smart battery packs are usually designed for
use in portable devices such as laptops and have embedded electronics that improve the battery's
reliability, safety, lifespan, and functionality. These features enable the development of end products
that are user-friendly and more reliable. For instance, with embedded chargers, batteries can have
longer life cycles as the chargers charge the batteries to optimal, ideal specifications within the
temperature limits. Accurate fuel gauges allow users to confidently discharge batteries to their limits
and not worry about damaging the cell. GPIO, which stands for General Purpose Input/Output
(GPIO), is an interface used to connect electronic devices and microcontrollers such as diodes,
sensors, displays, and so on.
Functions of the BMS
Fitting an EV with a BMS can improve safety. The battery management system.
performs the following four functions:
1. Monitoring battery parameters
This is the primary function of a BMS. It monitors the state of a cell as represented by
parameters such as:
Voltage-indicates a cell's total voltage, the battery's combined voltage, maximum and minimum cell
voltages, and so on.
Temperature-displays the average cell temperature, coolant intake and output temperatures, and the
overall battery temperature.
• The state of charge of the cell to show the battery's charge level.
The cell's state of health-shows the remaining battery capacity as a percentage
of the original capacity.
The cell's state of power-shows the amount of power available for a certain
duration given the current usage, temperature, and other factors,
The cell's state of safety--determined by keeping a collective eye on all the parameters and
determining if using the cell poses any danger.
The flow of coolant and its speed.
The flow of current into and out of the cell.
2. Managing thermal temperatures
Temperature is the biggest factor affecting a battery. The battery's thermal management system keeps
an eye on and controls the temperature of the battery.
These systems can either be passive or active, and the cooling medium can either be a non-corrosive
liquid, air, or some form of phase change. Using air as a coolant is the simplest way to control battery
temperatures.
Air cooling systems are often passive as they rely on the convection of the surrounding air or use a fan
to induce airflow. However, the main drawback is the system's inefficiency. Significant power is used
to run the cooling system as compared to a liquid-based one. Also, in larger systems such as car
batteries, the additional components needed for air-based systems such as filters can increase the
weight of the car, further affecting the battery's efficiency.
Liquid-cooled systems have a higher cooling potential than air because they are more thermally
conductive. The batteries are submerged in coolant, or the coolant can freely flow into the BMS
without affecting the battery. However, this indirect form of thermal cooling can create large
temperature differences across the BMS due to the length of the cooling channels. But they can be
reduced by pumping the coolant faster, so a tradeoff is created between the pumping speed and
thermal consistency.
3. Making key calculations
A BMS calculates various battery values based on parameters such as maximum
charge and discharge current to determine the cell's charge and the discharge current limits. These
include:

The energy in kilowatt-hour(s) (kWh) delivered since the last charge cycle The internal impedance of
a battery to measure the cell's open-circuit

voltage

Charge in Ampere per hour (Ah) delivered or contained in a cell (called the Coulomb counter), to
determine the cell's efficiency

Total energy delivered and operating time since the battery started being used

Total number of charging-discharging cycles the battery has gone through

A BMS has controllers that communicate internally with the hardware at a cellular level and
externally with connected devices. These external communications differ in complexity, depending on
the connected device. This communication is often through a centralized controller, and it can be done
using several methods, including:

Different types of serial communications

CAN bus communicators, often used in vehicles

DC-BUS communications, which are serial communications over power lines

Various types of wireless communication including radio, pagers, cellphones, and so on.

Only a high-level voltage BMS has internal communication; low-level centralized ones simply
measure cell voltage by resistance divide. A distributed or modular BMS must utilize a low-level
internal cell controller for modular architecture or implement controller-to-controller communication
for a distributed architecture. However, such communication is difficult, especially in high voltage
systems, due to the voltage shift between cells. What this means is that the ground signal in one cell
may be hundreds of volts higher than that of the next cell.

This issue can be addressed using software protocols or using hardware communication for volt-
shifting systems. There are two methods of hardware communication-using an optical-isolator or
wireless communication. Another factor hampering internal communication is the restriction of the
maximum number of cells that can be used in a specific BMS architectural layout. For instance, for
modular hardware, the maximum number of nodes is 255. Another restriction affecting high voltage
systems is the seeking time (for reading voltage/current) of all cells, which limits bus speeds and
causes loss of some hardware options.

Optimal Energy Utilization

Battery management systems keep the battery safe, reliable, and increase the senility without entering
a damaging state. Different monitoring techniques are used to maintain the state of the battery,
voltage, current, and ambient temperature. The BMS communicates with the onboard charger to
monitor and control the charging of the battery pack. It also helps maximize the range of the vehicle
by optimally using the
ENERGY EFFICIENCY AND ENERGY CONVERSION

Structure

Introduction

Objectives

4.2 Energy Conversion Efficiency

4.3 Values of Energy Conversion Efficiencies

4.4 Power and Energy Conversion Efficiency

4.5 Efficiency of Energy Conversion in Lighting Devices

4.6 Efficiency of Energy Conversion from Cattle Dung

4.7 Let Us Sum Up

4.8 Answers to SAQS

4.1 INTRODUCTION

You are now familiar with the concept of energy and the fact that energy can exists in many form.
You h also seen that energy is the capacity of doing work. Now the question is that when energy from
one fo converted into another form, does all energy is available to do useful work. The simple answer
to question is that energy which goes into an energy converter device; we get several kind of output.
W the desired form of energy which is available to us for doing useful work. We also get undesired
forr energy which is not available to us to do equivalent amount of useful work. The law of
conservation energy holds true which means that the total amount of energy at the end of conversion
process is the as was at the beginning of the process.

In this unit, you will learn about various energy conversion processes and their efficiency.

Objectives

After studying this unit, you will be able to

energy efficiency, and

energy loss in conversion.

 Battery Management Systems (BMS)

BMS means different things to different people. To some it is simply Battery Monitoring, keeping a
check on the key operational parameters during charging and discharging such as voltages and
currents and the battery internal and ambient temperature. The monitoring circuits would normally
provide inputs to protection devices which would generate alarms or disconnect the battery from the
load or charger should any of the parameters become out of limits.

For the power or plant engineer responsible for standby power who's battery is the last line of defence
against a power blackout or a telecommunications network outage BMS means Battery Management
Systems. Such systems encompass not only the monitoring and protection of the battery but also
methods for keeping it ready to deliver full power when called upon and methods for prolonging its
life. This includes everything from controlling. the charging regime to planned maintenance.

For the automotive engineer the Battery Management System is a component of a much more
complex fast acting Energy Management System and must interface with other on board systems such
as engine management, climate controls, communications and safety systems.

There are thus many varieties of BMS

Designing a BMS
In order to control battery performance and safety it is necessary to understand what needs to be
controlled and
why it needs controlling. This requires an in depth understanding of the fundamental cell chemistries,
performance characteristics and battery failure modes particularly Lithium battery failures. The
battery can not simply be treated as a black box.
BMS Building Blocks
There are three main objectives common to all Battery Management Systems
• Protect the cells or the battery from damage
• Prolong the life of the battery
• Maintain the battery in a state in which it can fulfil the functional requirements of the
application for which it was specified.
To achieve these objectives the BMS may incorporate one or more of the following functions. (Follow
the links to see how these functions are implemented.)
Cell Protection Protecting the battery from out of tolerance operating conditions is fundamental to all
BMS applications. In practice the BMS must provide full cell protection to cover almost any
eventuality. Operating a battery outside of its specified design limits will inevitably lead to failure of
the battery. Apart from the inconvenience, the cost of replacing the battery can be prohibitive. This is
particularly true for high voltage and high power automotive batteries which must operate in hostile
environments and which at the same time are subject to abuse by the user.
Charge control This is essential feature of BMS. More batteries are damaged by inappropriatecharging
than by any other causeDemand Management While not directly related to the operation of the battery
itself,
demand management
refers to the application in which the battery is used. Its objective is to minimise the current drain on
the battery by designing power saving techniques into the applications circuitry and thus prolong the
time between battery charges.
• SOC Determination Many applications require a knowledge of the State of Charge (SOC) of
the battery or of the individual cells in the battery chain. This may simply be for providing the
user with an indication of the capacity left in the battery, or it could be needed in a control
circuit to ensure optimum control of the charging process.
• SOH Determination. The State of Health (SOH) is a measure of a battery's capability to
deliver its specified output. This is vital for assessing the readiness of emergency power
equipment and is an indicator of whether maintenance actions are needed.
• Cell Balancing In multi-cell battery chains small differences between cells due to production
tolerances or operating conditions tend to be magnified with each charge / discharge cycle.
Weaker cells become overstressed during charging causing them to become even weaker,
until they eventually fail causing premature failure of the battery. Cell balancing is a way of
compensating for weaker cells by equalising the charge on all the cells in the chain and thus
extending battery life.
• History (Log Book Function) Monitoring and storing the battery's history is another possible
function of the BMS. This is needed in order to estimate the State of Health of the battery, but
also to determine whether it has been subject to abuse. Parameters such as number of cycles,
maximum and minimum voltages and temperatures and maximum charging and discharging
currents can be recorded for subsequent evaluation. This can be an important tool in assessing
warranty claims.
• Authentication and Identification The BMS also allows the possibility to record information
about the cell such as the manufacturer's type designation and the cell chemistry which can
facilitate automatic testing and the batch or serial number and the date of manufacture which
enables traceability in case of cell failures.
• Communications Most BMS systems incorporate some form of communications between the
battery and the charger or test equipment. Some have links to other systems interfacing with
the battery for monitoring its condition or its history. Communications interfaces are also
needed to allow the user access to the battery for modifying the BMS control parameters or
for diagnostics and test.
Intelligent Batteries
The following examples illustrate three very different applications of BMS in action.
The life of rechargeable NiCad and Nickel Metal Hydride batteries such as those used in power tools
can be extended by the use of an intelligent charging system which facilitates communications
between the battery and the charger. The battery provides information about its specification, its
current condition and its usage history which is used by the charger to determine the optimum
charging profile or, by the application in which it is used, to control its usage.
The prime objective of the charger/battery combination is to permit the incorporation of a wider range
of Protection Circuits which prevent overcharging of, or damage to, the battery and thus extend its
life. Charge control can be in either the battery or the charger. The objective of the application/battery
combination is to prevent overloads and to conserve the battery. Similar to the charger combination,
discharge control can be in either the application or in the battery.
Although some special cells incorporating intelligence have been developed, the intelligence is more
likely to be implemented in a battery pack.

The Intelligent Battery, or Smart Battery, provides outputs from sensors which give the actual status
of voltages, currents and temperatures within the battery as well as the state of charge. It can also
provide alarm functions indicating out of tolerance conditions.
The Intelligent Battery also contains a memory chip which is programmed by the manufacturer with
information
about the battery specification such as:-
• Manufacturing data (Name, date, serial number etc)
• Cell chemistry
• Cell capacity
• Mechanical outline code
• Upper and lower voltage limits.
• Maximum current limits
• Temperature limits
Once the battery is placed into use, the memory may also record:-
• How many times the battery has been charged and discharged.
• Elapsed time
• The internal impedance of the battery
• The temperature profile to which it has been subjected
• The operation of any forced cooling circuits.
• Any instances when limits have been exceeded.
The system also requires devices which may be in either the battery or the charger or both which can
interrupt or modify the charging according to a set of rules. Similarly, battery discharge can be
controlled by the battery or demand management circuits in the application.
The system also requires devices which may be in either the battery or the charger or both which can
interrupt or modify the charging according to a set of rules. Similarly, battery discharge can be
controlled by the battery or demand management circuits in the application.
The Intelligent Battery also needs an Intelligent Charger it can talk to and a language they can speak.
The charger is programmed to respond to inputs from the battery, to optimise the charging profile,
charging at the maximum rate until a preset temperature is reached, then slowing down or stopping the
charge and or switching on a cooling fan so as not to exceed the temperature limit and thus avoid
permanent damage to the battery. If a deterioration in the battery internal impedance indicates that
reconditioning is necessary the charger can also be programmed to reform the battery by subjecting it
to several deep charge, discharge cycles. Because the battery contains information about its
specification which can be read by the charger, it is possible to build Universal Chargers which can
automatically adapt the charging profile to a range of battery chemistries and capacities, so long as
they comply with an agreed message protocol.
A separate communications channel is needed to facilitate interactions between the battery and the
charger. One example used for simple applications is the System Management Bus (SMBus) which
forms part of the Smart Battery System which is used mainly in low power applications. Batteries
which comply with the SBS standard are called Smart Batteries. Intelligent batteries are however not
limited to the SMS scheme and many manufacturers have implemented their own proprietary schemes
which may be simpler or more complex, depending on the requirements of the application.
A 50% increase in battery life has been claimed by using such techniques.

Automatic Control System

This is an example of an Automatic Control System in which the battery provides information about
its actual condition to the charger which compares the actual condition with the desired condition and
generates an error signal which is used to initiate control actions to bring the actual condition into line
with the desired condition. The control signals form part of a Feedback Loop which provides
automatic compensation to keep the battery within its desired operating parameters. It does not require
any user intervention. Some form of automatic control system is an essential part of all BMS
Battery Monitoring
As well as talking to the charger, the Intelligent Battery can also talk to the user or to other systems of
which the battery may be a part. The signals it provides can be used to turn on warning lights or to
inform the user about the condition of the battery and how much charge it has left.
Monitoring the battery condition is an essential part of all Battery Management Systems. In the first of
the following two examples, the control actions are manual, the power plant maintenance engineer
fixes any deficiencies. In the second example the battery is part of an Automatic Control System made
up from several interlinked feedback loops controlling the battery itself and its role as part of the
overall vehicle energy management system.
Power Plant BMS
The battery management requirements are quite different for standby and emergency power
installations. Batteries may be inactive for long periods topped up by a trickle charge from time to
time, or as in telecommunications installations they may be kept on float charge to keep them fully
charged at all times. By their nature, such installations must be available for use at all times. An
essential responsibility of managing such installations is to know the status of the battery and whether
it can be relied upon to support its load during an outage. For this it is vital to know the SOH and the
SOC of the battery. In the case of lead acid batteries the SOC of individual cells can be determined by
using a hydrometer to measure the specific gravity of the electrolyte in the cells. Traditionally, the
only way of determining the SOH was by discharge testing, that is, by completely discharging the
battery and measuring its output. Such testing is very inconvenient. For a large installation it could
take eight hours to discharge the battery and another three days to recharge it. During this time the
installation would be without emergency power unless a back up battery was provided.
The modern way to measure the SOH of a battery is by impedance testing or by conductance testing.
It has been found that a cell's impedance has an inverse correlation with the SOC and the conductance
being the reciprocal of the impedance has a direct correlation with the SOH of the cell. Both of these
tests can be carried out without discharging the battery, but better still the monitoring device can
remain in place providing a permanent on line measurement. This allows the plant engineer to have an
up to date assessment of the battery condition so that any deterioration in cell performance can be
detected and appropriate maintenance actions can be planned.
Automotive BMS
Automotive battery management is much more demanding than the previous two examples. It
has to interface with a number of other on board systems, it has to work in real time in rapidly
changing charging and discharging conditions
as the vehicle accelerates and brakes, and it has to work in a harsh and uncontrolled environment. This
example describes a complex system as an illustration of what is possible, however not all
applications will require all the functions shown here.
In practical systems the BMS can thus incorporate more vehicle functions than simply managing the
battery. It can determine the vehicle's desired operating mode, whether it is accelerating, braking,
idling or stopped, and implement the associated electrical power management actions
Cell Protection
One of the prime functions of the Battery Management System is to provide the necessary monitoring
and control to protect the cells from out of tolerance ambient or operating conditions. This is of
particular importance in automotive applications because of the harsh working environment. As well
as individual cell protection the automotive system must be designed to respond to external fault
conditions by isolating the battery as well as addressing the cause of the fault. For example cooling
fans can be turned on if the battery overheats. If the overheating becomes excessive then the battery
can be disconnected.
Protection methods are discussed in detail in the section on Protection.
Battery State of Charge (SOC)
Determining the State of Charge (SOC) of the battery is the second major function of the BMS. The
SOC is needed not just for providing the Fuel Gauge indication. The BMS monitors and calculates the
SOC of each individual cell in the battery to check for uniform charge in all of the cells in order to
verify that individual cells do not become overstressed.
The SOC indication is also used to determine the end of the charging and discharging cycles. Over-
charging and over-discharging are two of the prime causes of battery failure and the BMS must
maintain the cells within the desired DOD operating limits.
Hybrid vehicle batteries require both high power charge capabilities for regenerative braking and high
power discharge capabilities for launch assist or boost. For this reason, their batteries must be
maintained at a SOC that can discharge the required power but still have enough headroom to accept
the necessary regenerative power without risking overcharging the cells. To fully charge the HEV
battery for cell balancing (See below) would diminish charge acceptance capability for regenerative
braking and hence braking efficiency. The lower limit is set to optimise fuel economy and also to
prevent over discharge which could shorten the life of the battery. Accurate SOC information is
therefore needed for HEVs to keep the battery operating within the required, safe limits

Methods of determining the SOC are described in the section on State of Charge.
The Battery Management System (BMS)
BMS Scope and Failure Consequences
The diagram below indicates the possible cell failure mechanisms, their consequences and the
necessary actions to be taken by the Battery Management System
 Cell Failures, Consequences and Protection Mechanisms

Multi Level Safety System

The BMS is part of a multi level safety system with the following objectives and safeguards

1. Intrinsically Safe cell chemistry

• Cell technial design audit

2. Cell Supplier and Production Audit

• Technical competence of staff

• Process controls (Installed and working)

3. Cell level (internal) safety devices

• Circuit Interrupt Device (CID) Cuts circuit if internal pressure limits exceeded
• Shut down separafor
• Pressure vent

4. External circuit devices

PTC resistors (Low power applications only)

• Fuses
 • Cell and battery isolation. Electrical and mechanical separation (Contactors
and physical

separation) to prevent event propagation

5. BMS Software

• Monitoring of all key indicators coupled to control actions. (Cooling, Power

disconnect, Loadmanagement)
• Control actions or switch off in case of out of limits condition

6. BMS Hardware - Fail safe back-up

• Hardware switch off in case of software failure. Set to slightly higher limits
• Battery switch off in case low voltage BMS power supply fails

7. Containment.
• Robust outer container with controlled venting
• Physical barriers between cells

BMS Implementation
The following diagram is a conceptual representation of the primary BMS functions. It shows the
three main BMS building blocks, the Battery Monitoring Unit (BMU), the Battery Control Unit
(BCU) and the CAN bus vehicle communications network and how they interface with the rest of the
vehicle energy management systems. Other configurations are possible with distributed BMS
embedded in the battery cell to cell interconnections.

In practice the BMS may also be coupled to other vehicle systems which communicate with the BMS
via the CAN bus (see below) such as the Thermal Management System or to anti theft devices which
disable the battery. There may also be requirements for system monitoring and programming, and data
logging using an RS232 serial bus
Battery Monitoring Unit
The Battery Monitoring Unit is a microprocessor based unit incorporating three functions or sub-
modules. These sub-modules are not necessarily separate physical units but are shown separately here
for clarity.
Battery Model
The Battery Model characterises in a software algorithm, the behaviour of the battery in response to
various external and internal conditions. The model can then use these inputs to estimate the status of
the battery at any instant in time.
An essential function of the battery model is to calculate the SOC of the battery for the functions
noted above. The SOC is determined essentially by integrating the current flow over time, modified to
take account of the many factors which affect the performance of the cells, then subtracting the result
from the known capacity of the fully charged battery. This is described in detail in the section on SOC
The battery model can be used to log past history for maintenance purposes or to predict how many
miles the vehicle may run before the battery needs recharging. The remaining range, based on recent
driving or usage patterns, is calculated from the current SOC and the energy consumed and the miles
covered since the previous charge (or alternatively from a previous long term average). The distance
travelled is derived from data provided by other sensors on the CAN bus (see below).
The accuracy of the range calculation is more important for EVs whose only source of power is the
battery. HEVs and bicycles have an alternative "Get you home" source of power should the battery
become completely discharged.

The problem of losing all power when a single cell fails can be mitigated at the cost of adding four
more expensive contactors which effectively split the battery into two separate units. If a cell should
fail, the contactors can isolate and bypass the half of the battery containing the failed cell allowing the
vehicle to limp home at half power using the other (good) half of the battery.
Outputs from the model are sent to the vehicle displays also using the CAN bus.

Multiplexing
To reduce costs, instead of monitoring each cell in parallel, the Battery Monitoring Unit incorporates a
multiplexing architecture which switches the voltage from each cell (input pairs) in turn to a single
analogue or digital output line (see below). Cost savings can be realized by reducing the number of
analogue control and/or digital sampling circuits and hence the component count to a minimum. The
drawbacks are that only one cell voltage can be monitored at a time. A high speed switching
mechanism is required to switch the output line to each cell so that all cells can be monitored
sequentially.

The BMU also provides the inputs for estimating the SOH of the battery, however since the SOH
changes only gradually over the lifetime of the battery, less frequent samples are needed. Depending
on the method used to determine the SOH, sampling intervals may be as low as once per day.
Impedance measurements for example could even be taken only in periods when the vehicle is not in
use. Cycle counting of course can only occur when the vehicle is operational.
Demand or Personality Module
The Demand Module is similar in some respects to the Battery Model in that it contains a reference
model with all the tolerances and limits relevant to the various parameters monitored by the Battery
Model. The Demand Module also takes instructions from the communications bus such as commands
from the BMS to accept a regenerative braking charge or from other vehicle sensors such as safety
devices or directly from the vehicle operator. This unit is also used to set and to monitor the vehicle
operating mode parameters.
This module is sometimes called the Personality Module since includes provision for programming
into the system, all the custom requirements which may be specific to the customer's application. For
example, the cell maker will recommend a temperature limit at which for safety reasons the battery
must be automatically disconnected. However the car manufacturer may set two lower limits, one at
which forced cooling may be switched on and another which lights up a warning light on the driver's
instrument panel.

For HEV applications, the Personality Module interfaces with the engine Electronic Control Unit
(ECU) via the CAN bus. Provision is made in this module for setting the desired system SOC
operating range and the parameters for controlling the power sharing between the electric drive and
the internal combustion engine

The Demand Module also contains a memory block for holding all the reference data and for
accumulating the historical data used for monitoring the battery SOH. Data to display the SOH or
switch on warning lights can be provided to the vehicle instrumentation module via the CAN bus.
The outputs from the Demand Module provide the reference points for setting the operating conditions
of the battery or triggering the action of protection circuits.

Test access to the BMS for monitoring or setting system parameters and for downloading the battery
history is provided through a standard RS 232 or RS485 serial bus.
Decision Logic Module

The Decision Logic module compares the status of the measured or calculated battery parameters
from the Battery Model with the desired or reference result from the Demand Module. Logic circuits
then provide error messages to initiate cell protection actions or to be used in the various BMS
feedback loops which drive the system to its desired operating point or isolate the battery in the case
of unsafe conditions. These error messages provide the input signals for the Battery Control Unit.

Practical BMS Implementation

There are many ways of implementing the battery management system and two different examples for
a 256 Volt battery made up from 80 Lithium Iron Phosphate cells are shown below.
Master and Slaves
The master and slaves, star topology, organises the cells into blocks or modules with one slave
managing each module. In the example shown, 16 X 3.2 volt cells are arranged in modules each with
an output voltage of 51.2
Volts but other module sizes and voltages are possible.
• The Slaves Each cell has a temperature sensor as well as connections to measure the voltage,
all of which are connected to the slave which monitors the condition of the cell and
implements the cell balancing.
• The Master-Multiple slaves can be connected to the master which monitors the current and
integrates it over time to calculate the net Coulomb flow and this is modified using voltage
 and temperature data from the slaves to calculate the battery SOC. The master controls the
main battery isolation contactor(s) initiating battery protection in response to data from the
main current sensor or voltage and temperature data from the slaves. The master also provides
the system communications.

the master and the slaves simplifying the management of the information processing load. Internal
communications are by means of IEC buses.
Disadvantages are that the communications between the sensors and the slaves are in analogue
form, and thus susceptible to noise, and the very large number of sensor wires, four per cell,
which are required. Opto-isolated connections between the slaves and the master are also required
since the voltages on the slaves would otherwise be progressively higher, up to the full battery
voltage, as connections are taken from further up the cell chain. Communications with the outside
world (COMS in the diagrams above and below) would typically be by means of an RS232 or
more likely a USB serial connection.
BMS Daisy Chain
The daisy chain, ring topology, uses a small simple slave printed circuit board connected to each
cell to accommodate the voltage and temperature sensors with an A to D converter, as well as a
current bypass switch to enable cell balancing by charge shunting and an communications
transceiver with built in capacitive isolation for receiving and transmitting data in digital form.
The slave takes its power from the cell it is monitoring and a single RS 485 three wire data bus
connects the nodes from all the slaves to the master which polls each node in tum and requests an
update of its cell conditions. The slave does not carry out any signal processing, apart from the A
to D conversion, as this is all carried out by the master along with all the monitoring, protection
and communications functions as in the example above.
The main advantages of this topology are its simpler design and construction and its potential for
higher reliability in an automotive environment.

The disadvantages are the large number of mini-slave printed circuit boards which are needed and
the difficulty of mounting them on some cell types. In addition the master has a higher processing
load.