Free Fall on the Rotating Earth

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Motion on Rotating Earth

Assumption 1. Neglect the motion around the Sun. Therefore,

the co-ordinate system (ECI) at Earth’s center is
inertial (why?)
Assumption 2. Rotational velocity Ω of Earth is constant in time
dΩ
dt = Ω̇ = 0

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Relative Angular Acceleration

◮ Exersise: Compute the relative angular acceleration

dΩ dΩ
= +Ω×Ω
dt abs dt rel
dΩ
=
dt rel

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Acceleration of origin
◮ Absolute acceleration of origin of ENZ relative to moving
frame
!
d 2~r0 d 2~r0 dΩ d~r0
  
= + × ~r0 + 2 Ω × + Ω × (Ω × ~r0 )
dt 2 dt 2 rel
dt dt rel

2
 
d ~r0
◮ But d~ r0
dt rel = dt 2 = 0 as the origin of ENZ is not moving
rel
w.r.t ENZ frame
◮ dΩ = 0 since Earth has constant angular acceleration
dt
◮ Therefore,

d 2~r0
= Ω × (Ω × ~r0 )
dt 2
This is the centripetal acceleration due to the Earth’s rotation
that acts on the body moving on Earth’s surface

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Newton’s Law in ECI – relative to ENZ system

d 2~rrel

dΩ
m = F − m~a0 − m × ~rrel − mΩ × (Ω × rrel )
dt 2 rel dt
− 2m [Ω × ~vrel ]
d 2~r0

d~rrel
where ~a0 = 2
and ~vrel =
dt dt rel
So

d~rrel
= F − mΩ × (Ω × ~r0 ) − 2mΩ × − mΩ × (Ω × rrel )
dt rel

Note Therefore, in the free fall on Eart there appears virtual forces
that deflect the body in x and y directions

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Newton’s Law in ECI – relative to ENZ system

◮ On the surface of the Earth because of gravity, force on the

particle

Mm~r
F = −γ
|~r |3
Mm~r0
= −γ
|~r0 |3

since ~r ≈ ~r0 near Earth’s surface

◮ So
!
d 2~rrel
m = F − mΩ × (Ω × ~r0 ) − . . .
dt 2 rel

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Newton’s Law in ECI – relative to ENZ system

◮ So
M~r0
 
m~g = m −γ 3 − Ω × (Ω × ~r0 )
|~r0 |
◮ where ~g is the experimentally determined value of acceleration
due to gravity
◮ Ω × (Ω × ~r0 ) – centripetal acceleration due to Earth’s rotation
decreases the value of gravitational acceleration
◮ Hence,
!
d 2~rrel d~rrel

m = m~g − 2mΩ × − mΩ × (Ω × rrel )
dt 2 rel
dt rel

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Newton’s Law in ECI – relative to ENZ system

◮ Now near Earth’s surface |~rrel | << |~r0 | (radius of Earth)

◮ Therefore,

mΩ × (Ω × rrel ) = mΩ × |Ω||~rrel | sin θ1~n1

= m|Ω|2 |~rrel | sin θ1 sin θ2~n2

◮ Since |Ω| is of the order 10−5 rad/s, |Ω|2 is of the order 10−10 .
◮ So the last term can be neglected
!
d 2~rrel d~rrel

= ~g − 2Ω ×
dt 2 rel
dt rel

◮ Note: ~g = −|g|~k

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ECI and NEZ frame
Z ~
K
P ~k z
~j
~rrel
y ~i
x
O

C φ

Y
Λ
X
Equator

Note x-axis is parallel to equatorial plane

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Differential Equations in NEZ

◮ ~ = cos φ~j + sin φ~k

K
◮ Ω = |Ω| cos φ~j + |Ω| sin φ~k, since Ω = |Ω|K
~
◮ Let
d~rrel

= ẋ~i + ẏ~j + ż ~k
dt rel

where, ẋ , ẏ , ż are components of relative velocity

◮ Coriolis acceleration
 ~i ~j ~k
d~rrel
Ω× = 0 |Ω| cos φ |Ω| sin φ
dt rel ẋ ẏ ż
= (ż|Ω| cos φ − ẏ |Ω| sin φ)~i + ẋ |Ω| sin φ~j − ẋ |Ω| cos φ~k

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Differential Equations in NEZ

◮ Recall
!
d 2~rrel d~rrel

= ~g − 2Ω ×
dt 2 rel
dt rel

◮ The vector differential equation in component form

ẍ = −2ż|Ω| cos φ + 2ẏ |Ω| sin φ = −2|Ω|(ż cos φ − ẏ sin φ)

ÿ = −2|Ω|ẋ sin φ
z̈ = −|g| + 2|Ω|ẋ cos φ

◮ φ latitude of origin
◮ Note: Equations of motion depend on the latitude of the
co-ordinate frame

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Solution of Equation of Motion in NEZ

◮ Exersise: Verify that the exact solutions of the above

differential equations with initial conditions x (0) = y (0) = 0,
z(0) = h, ẋ (0) = ẏ (0) = ż(0) = 0

|g| cos φ sin(2|Ω|t)

 
x= t−
2|Ω| 2|Ω|
!
t 2 1 − cos(2|Ω|t)
y = −|g| cos φ sin φ −
2 4|Ω|2
!
|g| 2 t 2 1 − cos(2|Ω|t)
z =h− t + |g| cos2 φ −
2 2 4|Ω|2

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Approximate solution of Equation of Motion in NEZ
◮ Exersise: Verify that using taylor series expansion is used the
solution is
|g||Ω|t 3 cos φ
x=
3
y =0
|g| 2
z =h− t
2
when (|Ω|t)2 terms are neglected
◮ Hint
3t3
sin(2|Ω|t) 2|Ω|t − 8|Ω|6 2|Ω|2 t 3
t− =t− =
2|Ω| 2|Ω| 3
1−1+4|Ω|2 t 2
t 2 1 − cos(2|Ω|t) t2 2
− = − =0
2 4|Ω|2 2 4|Ω|2

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Eastward deflection of mass

◮ To obtain the eastward deflection of a mass falling from

height h to ground z(T ) = 0, compute the time taken T from
the solution for z
s
2 2h 2h
T = =⇒ T =
|g| |g|

◮ Therefore, eastward deflection is

s
2|Ω| cos φh 2h
x (h) =
3 |g|

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 Eastward deflection intuitive explanation
◮ It appears paradoxial. Why east? Why not west?
◮ Consider
v1 = (R + h)|Ω|

PSfrag replacements h

v2 = R|Ω|

R
Equatorial plane
viewed from
NP North Pole

Earth
Ω

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Eastward deflection intuitive explanation

◮ Mass at height h, t = 0 in the inertial system has a larger

velocity component towards East (due to Earth’s rotation)
than an observer on the Earth’s surface
◮ It is this excessive velocity toward the East which for an
observer on the Earth lets the mass fall towards East
◮ Exersise: For mass thrown upwards verify that westward
deflection
2 v3
x (T ) = |Ω| cos φ 02
3 |g|
◮ where v0 – initial velocity with which the mass was thrown up
v0
◮ T = |g| – time of ascent

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 Consequences of coriolis acceleration
◮ Superelevation of river bank – A north flowing river in
Northern hemisphere will cause the right bank to be raised
◮ Formation of cyclones in Northern hemisphere

H T
placements

Anticyclone Cyclone
◮ Anticyclone – wind moving from high pressure to low pressure
◮ Cyclone – wind moving into low pressure area
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Foucault’s Pendulum

◮ Jean Bernard Leon Foucault [Sept. 18, 1819 – Feb. 11, 1868]
◮ In 1851 he performed the pendulum experiment in the
Pantheon in Paris as proof of the Earth’s Rotation
◮ Fact: A pendulum tends to maintain its plane of motion,
independent of any rotation of the suspension point
◮ Theorem: If such a rotation is observed in a laboratory, one
can conclude that the laboratory rotates
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 Equations of motion for Foucault’s Pendulum
ag replacements
Z Zenith

Center of Earth
~k m~g

O North
~i ~j
Y
X
East
Rotating frame of reference

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Equations of motion for Foucault’s Pendulum
◮ Recall: Force experienced by a body in moving frame
d 2~rrel

dΩ
m = F − m~a0 − m × ~rrel − mΩ × (Ω × rrel ) − 2m [Ω × ~vrel ]
dt 2 rel dt

◮ Without loss of generality the experiment can be thought to

be shifted to Earth’s center because a~0 is just a constant for
all time away from Earth’s center
◮ a0 = 0 acceleration of origin of moving frame
◮ dΩ ≈ 0 angular velocity of Earth is constant
dt
◮ mΩ × (Ω × rrel ) ≈ 0, centripetal force

◮ So
!
d 2~rrel
m = F − 2m [Ω × ~vrel ]
dt 2 rel

◮ ~rrel – position vector of mass in relative frame

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Equations of motion for Foucault’s Pendulum

◮ For point mass we have F = T + m~g

◮ Therefore, Newton’s laws gives
!
d 2~rrel
m = T + m~g − 2m [Ω × ~vrel ]
dt 2 rel

◮ It is clear from the above equation that the Earth’s rotation is

expressed for the moving observer by the appearance of the
virtual force, the Coriolis force. The Coriolis force causes a
rotation of the vibrational plane of the pendulum

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Determination of string tension T

z
ℓ
ℓ−z y
T Tz

Tx x
Ty
z e3′
~r

e1′ e2′
m~g y
x

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Tension in String

◮ ℓ – length of pendulum
◮ z – height of pendulum above x y plane
◮ x – x-coordinate of ~r
◮ y – y-coordinate of ~r
◮ ~r = xe1′ + ye2′ + ze3′
◮ Also T = Tx e1′ + Ty e2′ + Tz e3′

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Tension in String

◮ From similar trianges it can be shown that

Tx −x Ty −y Tz ℓ−z
= , = , =
|T | ℓ |T | ℓ |T | ℓ
◮ Therefore,
T (−x , −y , ℓ − z)
T = |T | = |T |
|T | ℓ
◮ For very large pendulum length
x y z
<< 1, << 1, << 1
ℓ ℓ ℓ

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Coriolis acceleration

◮ Consider Ω × ~vrel
◮ Ω = |Ω| cos φe2′ + |Ω| sin φe3′
◮ φ latitude of observer
◮ Note: |Ω| = Λ̇ – rate of change of longitude and angular
velocity are same
◮ Therefore

e1′ e2′ e3′

Ω × ~vrel = 0 |Ω| cos φ |Ω| sin φ
ẋ ẏ ż
= |Ω|(ż cos φ − ẏ sin φ)e1′ + |Ω|ẋ sin φe2′ − |Ω|ẋ cos φe3′

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Differential Equation for Foucault’s Pendulum

◮ Recall: Pendulum Equation

!
d 2~rrel
m = T + m~g − 2m [Ω × ~vrel ]
dt 2 rel

◮ Equations of components
x
mẍ = − |T | − 2m|Ω|(ż cos φ − ẏ sin φ)
ℓ
y
mÿ = − |T | − 2m|Ω|ẋ sin φ
ℓ
ℓ−z
mz̈ = |T | − 2m|g| + 2m|Ω|ẋ cos φ
ℓ

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Elimination of unknown string Tension
◮ To eliminate the unknown string tension |T | we use the
approximations
1. The pendulum is very long
2. The pendulum oscillates with small amplitude
◮ The first assumption implies
x y z
<< 1, << 1, << 1
ℓ ℓ ℓ
ℓ−z
≈1
ℓ
◮ The second assumption implies that the pendulum moves
almost in xy -plane. So acceleration in z direction can be
neglected. That is mz̈ ≈ 0
◮ Therefore from third differential equation,
|T | = m|g| − 2m|Ω| cos φẋ

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Simplified differential equations

◮ Substituting in other expressions we get

x
mẍ = − (m|g| − 2m|Ω| cos φẋ ) − 2m|Ω|(ż cos φ − ẏ sin φ)
ℓ
|g| 2
ẍ = − x + |Ω| cos φẋ x − 2|Ω|(ż cos φ − ẏ sin φ)
ℓ ℓ
◮ Assume
1. product of small term |Ω|, x /ℓ is small compared to other
terms
2. ż ≈ 0 – because no motion in z direction
◮ So we obtain
|g|
ẍ = − x + 2|Ω| sin φẏ
ℓ

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Simplified differential equations

◮ Similarly,
y
mÿ = − (m|g| − 2m|Ω| cos φẋ ) − 2m|Ω|ẋ sin φ
ℓ
|g| 2
ÿ = − y + |Ω| cos φẋ y − 2|Ω|ẋ sin φ
ℓ ℓ
◮ Assume: product of small term |Ω|, y /ℓ is small compared to
other terms
◮ So we obtain
|g|
ÿ = − y − 2|Ω| sin φẋ
ℓ

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Simplified dynamics of Foucault’s Pendulum

◮ Component wise differential equations

|g|
ẍ = − x + 2|Ω| sin φẏ
ℓ
|g|
ÿ = − y − 2|Ω| sin φẋ
ℓ
◮ These two linear coupled differential equations describe the
vibrations of a pendulum under the influence of Coriolis force
to a good approximation
q
|g|
◮ Note that represents ℓ is the pendulum frequency

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Solution of diffential equation
|g|
◮ Let ℓ = k 2 , |Ω| sin φ = α
2
Tpend
|Ω|2
◮ Assume k2
= 2
Tearth
<< 1, α << k
◮ Tpend – pendulum period
◮ Tearth – earth period of rotation = 1 day
◮ Initial conditions x0 = L, ẋ0 = 0, y0 = 0, ẏ0 = 0
◮ Pendulum is displaced by a distance L towards east and
released at time t = 0 without initial velocity
◮ Exersise: Verify that solution is given by

~r = L cos(kt)[cos(αt)e1′ − sin(αt)e2′ )]
OR x = L cos(kt) cos(αt)
y = −L cos(kt) sin(αt)

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Discussion of the solution

◮ ~r = L cos(kt)[cos(αt)e1′ − sin(αt)e2′ )]
◮ Let ~n = cos(αt)e1′ − sin(αt)e2′ )
◮ So ~r = L cos(kt)~n
1. The factor L cos(kt) describes the motion of pendulum
p that
vibrates with amplitude L and frequency k = |g|/ℓ
2. The term ~n describes a unit vector that rotates with frequency
α = |Ω| sin φ
Eg., At equator φ = 0, α = 0, ~n does not rotate
Eg., At pole, φ = ±90◦ , α = ±|Ω|, ~n rotates with the speed of
rotation of Earth

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Direction of rotation of vibrational plane
◮ Consider the rotation equation of vibrational plane
~n = cos(αt)e1′ − sin(αt)e2′ )
◮ Northern hemisphere, φ > 0, sin φ > 0
◮ So after a short while sin(αt) > 0, and cos(αt) > 0
Zenith Z
PSfrag replacements

North N

~n

East X
◮ The vibrational plane rotates clockwise (How?)

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Rotation of vibrational plane

◮ Northern Hemisphere – clockwise rotation

◮ Southern Hemisphere – counter-clockwise rotation
◮ Equator – Experiment fails, because sin φ = 0

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Pendulum released from max Pendulum pushed from center
position position
◮ Since α << k, actual path is different from above

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Videos

◮ Coriolis Force
◮ Foucault’s Pendulum

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