Certificate in Teaching Program

EDUC 106 Assessment of Learning

Course Instructor: Ms. Clarisse M. Madayag

I. CONCEPTS AND RELEVANCE OF ASSESSMENT

a. Measurement
It refers to the process of assigning numerals to specific traits, abilities, or performances, such as
achievement, interest, attitudes, aptitudes, or intelligence. It is a quantitative process that provides
the raw data (often in the form of scores or grades) used for further analysis in assessment and
evaluation.
b. Testing
Testing is a specific method or tool used to measure students’ knowledge, skills, or abilities. Tests
can take various forms, such as multiple-choice exams, essays, or practical tasks. The primary
focus of testing is to obtain quantitative data about a learner’s performance in a particular area.
Tests must be valid (measuring what they are intended to measure) and reliable (producing
consistent results under similar conditions).
c. Evaluation
Evaluation is a broader process that involves the systematic collection and analysis of information
to judge the effectiveness or value of educational programs, curricula, or instructional methods. It
goes beyond individual student performance to consider the overall impact and quality of
educational components. Evaluation can be formative (ongoing, for improvement) or summative
(final, for judgment).
d. Assessment
Assessment is the ongoing process of collecting, reviewing, and using information about learners
to improve teaching and learning. It encompasses both measurement and testing but also
includes qualitative judgments and the interpretation of data. Assessment is not limited to tests;
it includes observations, projects, presentations, and other forms of evidence gathering to
understand student learning and guide instructional decisions.

Roles and Functions of Assessment

• Identifying Learner Performance
Assessment helps determine students’ current knowledge, skills, and developmental stages.
• Guiding Instruction
 By revealing strengths and weaknesses, assessment informs teachers about what to reteach or
reinforce, and helps tailor instruction to meet individual needs.
• Providing Feedback
Assessment gives students feedback on their progress, helping them understand their
achievements and areas for improvement.

• Motivating Students
Regular assessment and constructive feedback can motivate students to set goals, take
responsibility for their learning, and strive for improvement.

• Certification and Progression

Assessment results are often used for certifying student achievement (e.g., grades,
diplomas) and determining readiness for advancement.

• Quality Assurance
Assessment demonstrates academic standards and accountability, supporting institutional
quality assurance processes.

• Curriculum and Program Improvement

Assessment data helps educators and administrators make informed decisions about
curriculum development, instructional strategies, and resource allocation.

• Lifelong Learning
Assessment encourages the development of self-assessment and self-regulation skills,
which are essential for lifelong learning.

Measurement provides the numerical data

Testing a specific tool for measuring knowledge or skills
Evaluation judges the effectiveness or value of educational programs or
systems
Assessment broader process of gathering and interpreting information about
learning
 II. TAXONOMY OF LEARNING DOMAINS : Cognitive , Affective, Psychomotor
The three learning domains — cognitive, affective, and psychomotor — form a foundational
framework for understanding and designing educational objectives. Each domain targets a distinct
aspect of human learning and development, ensuring a holistic approach to education.
a. Cognitive Domain
The cognitive domain focuses on intellectual abilities and knowledge acquisition. It
encompasses how individuals process information, develop understanding, and apply what they
have learned.
Bloom's Original Taxonomy (1956)
Bloom's cognitive hierarchy originally included six levels, progressing from basic recall to
complex evaluation:
1. Knowledge: Recall facts (e.g., define, list).
2. Comprehension: Understand meaning (e.g., explain, summarize).
3. Application: Use knowledge in new contexts (e.g., solve, demonstrate).
4. Analysis: Break down concepts (e.g., compare, differentiate).
5. Synthesis: Combine elements into new structures (e.g., design, hypothesize).
6. Evaluation: Judge value or effectiveness (e.g., critique, justify).

Anderson and Krathwohl's Revision (2001)

The revised taxonomy reorganized Bloom’s levels into action-oriented verbs and added a
"Create" tier as the highest cognitive skill:
1. Remembering: Recalling facts and basic concepts.
2. Understanding: Explaining ideas or concepts.
3. Applying: Using information in new situations.
4. Analyzing: Breaking information into parts to explore relationships.
5. Evaluating: Justifying decisions or actions.
6. Creating: Producing new or original work.
This domain is central to most academic instruction, guiding lesson planning, assessments, and
learning outcomes.
b. Affective Domain
The affective domain addresses emotions, attitudes, values, and motivation. It involves how
learners feel about and value what they are learning, which can significantly influence engagement
and retention. The affective domain is structured in a hierarchy, including:
1. Receiving: Awareness and willingness to hear.
2. Responding: Active participation through reaction or response.
3. Valuing: Attaching worth or value to a concept.
4. Organization: Integrating values into one’s belief system.
 5. Characterization: Acting consistently with new values.
Assessment in this domain is often more subjective, using observations, reflections, and
discussions to gauge changes in attitudes and values.
c. Psychomotor Domain
The psychomotor domain involves physical movement, coordination, and the use of motor
skills. It describes the development of manual or physical skills, from simple actions to complex
movements. This domain is particularly important in fields requiring hands-on practice, such as
sports, performing arts, and technical trades. The stages typically include:
1. Perception: Using sensory cues to guide actions.
2. Set: Readiness to act.
3. Guided Response: Early stages of learning through imitation.
4. Mechanism: Developing proficiency and confidence.
5. Complex Overt Response: Skilled performance of complex movements.
6. Adaptation: Modifying movements to fit new situations.
7. Origination: Creating new movement patterns or skills.

Utilizing all three domains in instruction ensures that learning is comprehensive,

addressing intellectual growth, emotional development, and physical skill. This holistic
approach enhances student engagement, supports diverse learning needs, and prepares learners
for real-world challenges by fostering critical thinking, emotional intelligence, and practical
abilities.
Educators are encouraged to design lessons that incorporate objectives from all three
domains, thus supporting well-rounded development and optimizing educational outcomes.

III. VALIDITY VS. RELIABILITY

Validity and reliability are essential concepts in research that ensure the quality and
trustworthiness of measurement tools and data.
Validity refers to the accuracy of an instrument in measuring what it is intended to
measure, encompassing types such as content, construct, and criterion-related validity.
Construct validity examines whether the test actually measures the theoretical construct
it claims to measure.
Content validity focuses on whether a test measures the appropriate content area.
Reliability, on the other hand, concerns the consistency and stability of measurements
over time or across different observers, assessed through methods like test-retest reliability and
internal consistency.
 While validity ensures that the right construct is being measured, reliability ensures that
the measurement is dependable and repeatable.
The relationship between validity and reliability is interdependent but distinct: a
measurement must be reliable to be valid, but reliability alone does not guarantee validity. An
instrument can consistently produce the same results (reliable) but still fail to measure the
intended concept accurately (invalid). Ensuring both validity and reliability is critical in research
to produce credible, replicable findings and to inform sound decision-making in practice.
Researchers often pilot test instruments to evaluate and improve these qualities, thereby enhancing
the overall integrity of their studies.

IV. ASSESSMENT OF, FOR, AS OF LEARNING

a. Assessment of Learning
Assessment of Learning (AoL), often referred to as summative assessment, is designed to
evaluate and document what students have learned at the end of an instructional period. This
type of assessment typically occurs after instruction and aims to measure student achievement
against predefined standards or learning outcomes. Examples include final exams, standardized
tests, and end-of-unit projects. AoL provides important information for accountability purposes,
helping educators, parents, and policymakers understand how well students have mastered content
(Black & Wiliam, 1998). However, its primary focus is on grading and certification rather than
supporting ongoing learning processes. While AoL is essential for summarizing student
performance, critics argue that overreliance on summative assessments can lead to teaching to the
test and may neglect deeper learning (Harlen, 2007).
b. Assessment for Learning
Assessment for Learning (AfL) is formative in nature and focuses on using assessment as a
tool to promote and enhance student learning during the instructional process. Unlike AoL, AfL
is ongoing and provides feedback that students and teachers can use to identify learning gaps and
adjust teaching strategies accordingly. This approach emphasizes the role of assessment in
supporting learning rather than just measuring it (Sadler, 1989). AfL includes practices such as
self-assessment, peer assessment, and formative quizzes that inform both teaching and learning in
real-time. Research shows that AfL can significantly improve student motivation and achievement
by making learning goals clear and providing actionable feedback (Black & Wiliam, 1998). It
encourages a more interactive classroom environment where students take an active role in their
learning journey.
c. Assessment as Learning
Assessment as Learning (AaL) represents a more recent conceptualization of assessment,
emphasizing the role of assessment in developing students’ metacognitive skills and self-
regulation. In this model, students actively engage in the assessment process, reflecting on their
own learning and using assessment as a tool to monitor and direct their progress (Earl, 2003). AaL
integrates assessment with learning by encouraging students to set goals, evaluate their
understanding, and make adjustments independently. This approach fosters lifelong learning
skills and deeper cognitive engagement. It shifts the focus from external validation to internalized
learning processes, promoting autonomy and critical thinking. Studies suggest that AaL enhances
students’ ability to become self-directed learners, which is crucial in today’s rapidly changing
knowledge landscape (Torrance & Pryor, 1998).

AoL provides summative benchmarks, AfL drives instructional improvement, and AaL
empowers students to take ownership of their learning.

V. NORM-REFERENCED AND CRITERION-REFERENCED ASSESSMENT

a. Norm-Referenced Assessment (NRA)

Norm-referenced assessments compare an individual's performance to that of a peer
group or norm group. The test results are interpreted relative to how other test-takers
perform, often resulting in a ranking or percentile that shows where a person stands within a
distribution of scores. This approach is used to differentiate among test-takers and rank them
from highest to lowest performers.
b. Criterion-Referenced Assessment (CRA)
Criterion-referenced assessments measure an individual's performance against a fixed
set of predetermined criteria or standards. The focus is on whether the test-taker has
achieved specific learning objectives or competencies, regardless of how others perform.
Scores indicate mastery or non-mastery of content, not relative standing.
Norm-referenced assessments compare individuals to peers and are used primarily for
ranking and selection, while criterion-referenced assessments measure mastery against fixed
standards and are used to determine whether learning objectives have been achieved. Both
approaches provide valuable but different information, and understanding their distinctions is
crucial for effective assessment design and interpretation in educational and psychological
contexts.
VI. MEAN, MEDIAN, MODE, RANGE
These are fundamental statistical measures used to describe and summarize data sets, each
capturing different aspects of the data.
1. Mean (Arithmetic Mean)
The mean is the average of a data set, calculated by summing all the values and dividing by
the number of values. It provides a measure of central tendency, representing the "typical" value
in the data. The mean is sensitive to extreme values (outliers), which can skew the average.
2. Median
The median is the middle value in an ordered data set (from smallest to largest). If the
number of observations is odd, it is the center value; if even, it is the average of the two middle
values. It represents the central point of the data and is less affected by outliers or skewed data
than the mean.

3. Mode
The mode is the value(s) that occur most frequently in a data set. A data set can have one
mode (unimodal), more than one mode (bimodal or multimodal), or no mode if all values occur
equally. It identifies the most common value(s) and is useful for categorical data or understanding
frequency patterns.
4. Range
The range is a measure of variability or spread in a data set, defined as the difference between
the highest and lowest values. It gives a quick sense of how spread out the data is but is sensitive
to outliers. Range is the simplest measure of dispersion but does not provide information about
the distribution between the extremes.
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