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Health, Physical, and Creative Arts - Grade 8

Nervous System
The nervous system is a vital organ system responsible for controlling and
coordinating the internal and external activities of the human body. It is also known
as the 'Master System' or 'Command Centre.'

The basic unit of the nervous system is a nerve cell or neuron.

A neuron contains an axon, dendrites, and a nucleus.

Parts of the Nervous System

Central Nervous System (CNS)
Peripheral Nervous System
Automatic Nervous System

A. Central Nervous System (CNS)

The central nervous system (CNS) consists of the brain and spinal cord.

It combines information from the entire body and coordinates activities

across the whole organism.

a. Brain

The brain is housed inside the skull.

The average weight of an adult brain is 1.5 kg.

It is made up of soft tissue and protected by a thin layer of membrane known
as the meninges.

Main Parts of the Brain

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Cerebrum
Cerebellum
Midbrain
Pons Varolii
Medulla Oblongata

Cerebrum:

The largest part of the brain, located at the top of the head.
Divided into two hemispheres: right and left.
Enables us to think, remember, and use logic.
Manages the functions of senses.

Cerebellum:

Located under the cerebrum and at the back of the pons varolii.
Controls and coordinates muscle movements such as walking, running, and eye
movement.
Helps to maintain balance and posture.

Midbrain:

Located between the cerebrum and pons varolii.

Works as a bridge for transmitting information between the cerebrum and the
spinal cord.

Pons Varolii:

Works as a bridge between the midbrain and medulla oblongata.

Transmits information from the cerebrum to the medulla oblongata.

Medulla Oblongata:

The bottom-most part of the brain.

Connects the brain to the spinal cord.
Regulates and controls circulation and respiration.
Regulates reflex actions.

b. Spinal Cord

The spinal cord is an extension of the central nervous system.

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Begins at the bottom of the brain stem and ends in the lower back.
Surrounded by the backbones (vertebrae).
About 45 cm in length and cylindrical in shape.
Carries nerve signals from the brain and vice versa.
Regulates reflex actions.

B. Peripheral Nervous System

The peripheral nervous system is composed of 12 pairs of cranial nerves and 31
pairs of spinal nerves that branch out from the brain and spinal cord, respectively.

It establishes a communication network between the central nervous

system and body parts.

C. Automatic Nervous System

The automatic nervous system is an auto-running system that controls activities in
our body without conscious thought.

Divided into the sympathetic and parasympathetic nervous systems.

Sympathetic System:

Speeds up the respiration rate and heartbeat.

Enlarges the pupils.
Slows down the rate of digestion.

Parasympathetic System:

Lowers the heartbeat.

Increases the rate of digestion.
Contracts the pupils.

Functions of the Nervous System

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Receives internal and external information of the body.

Sends information to the brain and spinal cord.
Implements the received information into action.
Commands and controls organs and glands to react properly.
Enables us to think, remember, and analyze situations or events.
Coordinates and controls the activities of the body.

Endocrine System
The endocrine system, also known as the gland system, consists of different glands
that secrete hormones and enzymes.

The secreted hormones and enzymes travel throughout the body by ducts
and blood.

Exocrine glands
Endocrine glands

A. Exocrine Glands
Exocrine glands produce and release essential substances such as sweat, tears,
saliva, and digestive juices.

The produced hormones and enzymes travel to relative organs through

ducts.

Examples: sweat glands, lacrimal glands, slavery gland, inammary glands,

and liver.

Functions of exocrine glands are to absorb nutrients, control the body

temperature, and protect the inner lining of the body.

B. Endocrine Glands
Endocrine glands are glands without ducts or tubes.

The secreted hormones and enzymes by these glands are released

directly into the blood and travel to tissues and organs all over the body.

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a. Pituitary Gland

Located in the middle of the brain, just below the cerebrum.

Called the master gland because it commands and controls other endocrine
glands.
Plays a vital role in the growth of the body.
Activates the mammary glands to produce milk during pregnancy and after
childbirth.
Controls blood pressure and water retention.
Stimulates adrenal glands.
Helps produce sex hormones.

b. Pineal Gland

A tiny gland located in the middle of the brain.

Produces melatonin hormone, which plays a role in managing our sleep-wake
cycle.

c. Thyroid Gland

Located at the base of the neck and shaped like a butterfly.

Produces thyroxine hormone.
Regulates vital body functions such as breathing, heartbeat, digestion rate, and
body temperature.
Controls the growth of bones and muscles.
Helps in mental development.

d. Parathyroid Gland

Four parathyroid glands at the back of the thyroid.

Releases parathormone hormone.
Controls calcium levels in the blood.
Manages the balance in the level of phosphorus and calcium in the body.
Plays a vital role in the growth and development of bones.

e. Adrenal Gland

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A triangular-shaped gland located on top of both kidneys.

Has two parts: the cortex and the medulla.
The cortex and medulla secrete corticosteroids and adrenaline hormones,
respectively.
These hormones affect digestive activity, heart rate, the amount of oxygen in
the blood, and sexual activity.

f. Thymus Gland

Located inside the chest and protected by chest bones.

Produces white blood cells called lymphocytes.
Develops an antibody in our body that helps our immune system fight disease
and infection.

g. Gonad

Gonad is a sex gland or reproductive gland.

Male gonad: testis

Female gonad: ovary

Testis:

Releases testosterone hormone.

Helps to produce sperms.
Responsible for the development of male characteristics.

Ovary:

Secretes estrogen and progesterone hormone.

Estrogen plays a role in producing ova and developing female characteristics.
Progesterone prepares a suitable environment to implant and grow the
fertilized ovum.
Supports the fetus to develop and grow in the uterus.
Helps to produce milk after childbirth.

h. Pancreas

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Located below the abdomen and attached to the duodenum of the small
intestine.
Called a mixed gland because it performs both functions of exocrine and
endocrine glands.
Releases digestive juice as an exocrine gland.
Produces insulin and glucagon hormone as endocrine glands.
These hormones control the sugar level in the blood.

Functions of the Endocrine System

Helps in circulation, respiration, and digestion.
Helps to control the body temperature.
Absorbs essential nutrients.
Plays a vital role in the growth and development of the bones.
Develops the immune system to protect from disease and infection by
producing antibodies.
Helps the reproductive process by producing sex hormones.

Reproductive System
The reproductive system is the system of organs that facilitate the production of
offspring.

Fertilization takes place when a sperm and an ovum meet each other
during intercourse.

The fertilized egg is called a fetus that gets implanted in the uterus of the
female.

A. Female Reproductive System

The female reproductive system is a group of organs in a female and their functions
that contribute to the reproductive process.

It produces the essential sex hormones and ova, makes a favorable

environment for the growth and development of a fetus, and facilitates
childbirth.

The female reproductive system is divided into internal and external parts.

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a. External Female Reproductive Organs

The group of external reproductive organs is collectively known as vulva.

Includes labia majora, labia minora, clitoris, hymen, and vestibules.

Labia Majora:

Skin folds situated on both sides of the vagina.

Made up of fibrous and fat tissues.
Hairs grow on the skin during puberty.

Labia Minora:

Small folds of thin and delicate skin that lie just inside the labia majora.
Surround the opening to the vagina and urethra.

Clitoris:

Located above the vestibules.

Made up of erectile tissues.
Very sensitive.

Hymen:

A thin piece of tissue that covers the vaginal opening.

Vestibule:

The area between the labia minora.

Contains the opening to the urethra and the vaginal opening.

b. Internal Female Reproductive Organs

1. Vagina

A muscular canal that joins the cervix to the outside of the body.
7 to 10 cm long and 4 to 7 cm wide.
Provides a passageway for blood from the uterus during menstruation.
Receives the penis during sexual intercourse.
Provides a passageway for a child during delivery.

2. Uterus

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A hollow, pear-shaped muscular organ.

Helps to nourish and house a fetus until delivery.
Also known as a womb.

3. Fallopian Tube

Narrow tubes attached to the upper part of the uterus.

Serve as pathways for the ovum to travel from the ovaries to the uterus.
Fertilization normally occurs in the fallopian tubes.

4. Ovary

Small, oval-shaped glands located on either side of the uterus.

Produce eggs and hormones.
An ovary releases an egg each month (ovulation).

B. Male Reproductive System

The male reproductive system is a group of organs in a male and their functions that
contribute to the reproductive process.

It produces the essential sex hormones and sperm.

Made up of internal and external parts.

a. Testes

Men normally have two testes.

Lie in the scrotum under the penis.
Produce sperm and testosterone.

b. Epididymis

A long, coiled tube that rests on the backside of each testis.

Carries and stores sperm cells created in the testes.
Helps the sperm to pass into the vas deferens.
Brings the sperm to maturity.

c. Vas Deferens

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A long, muscular tube that extends from the epididymis to the ejaculatory duct.
Helps to transport mature sperms to the urethra for ejaculation.

d. Seminal Vesicle

A sac-like pouch attached to the vas deferens.

Produces semen and provides nutrition to the sperm.

e. Ejaculatory Duct

Formed by the fusion of the vas deferens and the seminal vesicles.
Delivers the semen and sperm into the urethra.

f. Prostate Gland

Located below the urinary bladder.

Secretes seminal fluid that protects the sperm.
Provides mobility to the sperm.

g. Urethra

A narrow tube that begins at the lower opening of the bladder and extends to
the urethral orifice.
Expels the urine and the sperm out of the body.

h. Penis

An external organ of the male reproductive system.

Composed of erectile tissues.
Takes part in sexual intercourse and delivers the semen into the vagina.
Allows for the excretion of urine.

Community Health
Community health is a practice of individual and collective activities and efforts in
the community to identify health problems and solve them.

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Different components come under community health such as nutrition,

cleanliness, health service, mental health, prevention and treatment of
disease, awareness and promotion of health, rehabilitation, etc.

Community Health Problem

Common community health problems are:

Loss in social harmony and participation in community-based activities

Lack of knowledge about community health and environmental issues
Lack of health service and facility, and low access to it
Lack of proper and sustainable use of locally available resources
Negligence in controlling pollution
Poverty, hunger, and low nutritious food
Natural disasters and epidemics
Unmanaged settlements and improper sewage management
Lack of protection and promotion of historical and cultural heritages
Lack of awareness about community health

Solution of Community Health Problem

Various programs are being implemented in Nepal to promote community health.

Some major measures can be mentioned as follows:

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Awareness programs related to personal and environmental health should be

conducted.
Compost manure should be prepared from biodegradable waste, and non-
biodegradable waste should be reduced, reused, and recycled.
Programs related to nutrition awareness and locally available nutritious food
should be launched to reduce malnutrition.
Safe motherhood programs should be implemented to reduce maternal
mortality and vaccination to reduce infant and child mortality.
Infectious diseases should be timely controlled from spreading.
Active participation of the community should be increased for the proper
management of safe drinking water, public toilet, and sewage.
Quality health service should be expanded and it should be gender-friendly,
child-friendly, teenager-friendly, and senior citizen-friendly.
Health insurance programs should be promoted and expanded.
Active mobilization of stakeholders should be made for the integrated health
services.

Community Health Programmes in Nepal

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Program Description

Provides services and education related to family

Family Planning Programme
planning methods.
National Immunization Aims to protect children from vaccine-preventable
Programme diseases.
Focuses on improving maternal health and reducing
Safe Motherhood Programme
maternal mortality.
Addresses malnutrition issues and promotes
Nutrition Programmes
healthy eating habits.
Female Community Health Empowers female community health volunteers to
Programme deliver basic health services.
Aims to prevent and control non-communicable
Non-communicable Disease
diseases such as heart disease, cancer, and
Prevention Programme
diabetes.
Adolescent and Sexual Provides information and services related to
Reproductive Health Programme adolescent sexual and reproductive health.
Communicable Disease Control Focuses on controlling and preventing the spread of
Programme communicable diseases.
Epidemic and Outbreak Monitors and responds to disease outbreaks and
Surveillance Programmes epidemics.
Primary Health Care Outreach Delivers basic health services to remote and
Programme underserved areas.
Safe Abortion Programme Provides safe abortion services to women.
Disaster Management Prepares for and responds to natural disasters and
Programme other emergencies.

Total Sanitation
Total sanitation refers to the condition of all sectors of the community such as tole,
settlements, schools having the availability of quality health services and
environmental cleanliness.

Storage and use of safe drinking water, balanced diets, personal hygiene,
domestic and institutional hygiene, menstrual hygiene, proper use of
toilets, sewage management and cleanliness, formation of sanitation
committee, sanitation plan, etc. come under total sanitation.

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We need the integrated efforts of individuals, families and the whole community to
maintain total sanitation.

Roles and Responsibilities of an Individual

Individuals should regularly brush their teeth, keep the body clean, and have
nails and hair cut.
They should keep their clothes, rooms, and utensils clean.
They should wash their hands with soap before cooking food, having a meal,
feeding the child and after using the toilet, and touching dirt.
Women should keep their pads and vagina clean during menstruation and
dispose of the used pad properly.

Roles and Responsibilities of a Family

Rooms, floors, walls, windows, doors, ceilings, and the yard of the house should
be regularly cleaned.
Taps and toilets should be maintained and repaired.
The kitchen waste should be separated into biodegradable and non-
biodegradable, and decomposable waste should be used to make compost
manure.
Backyard farming, rooftop farming, and gardens should be kept neat and clean
and managed properly.

Roles and Responsibilities of a Community

There should be a proper supply of safe drinking water in the community.
There should be regular monitoring, cleaning, and maintenance of the sources
of water.
All the institutions in the community should keep their surroundings neat and
clean.
There should be regular cleaning and maintenance of public places such as
streets, parks, temples, pati, pauwa, ghat, stupa, and mosque.
There should be the availability of safe drinking water and public toilets and a
proper drainage system in public places.
There should be child-friendly, gender-friendly, and disable-friendly toilets.

Proper Sanitation

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Essential Sanitation Practices

Proper management of excreted urine and feces is essential for total sanitation.

The following practices should be implemented in schools and other offices:

Menstruation pads should be available.

Menstrual pads should be disposed of properly.
Proper waste management and drainage systems should be in place.
Hospital wastes, which are hazardous to health, should be disposed of and
managed safely.

Types of Toilets

Water-seal Toilet
Water-seal toilets are commonly constructed in houses, schools, offices, and public
places, especially in towns and villages.

Key features:

Easy to flush.
Water is poured into the bowl to flush excreta away.
A little water is stored after flushing to prevent odors from coming up the pipe.

Construction and Maintenance:

Can be constructed in or near the house.

Should be cleaned regularly to maintain hygiene.
Sufficient water is needed to move the excreta after use.
Use water, a toilet brush, and toilet cleaners such as phenol.
Solid wastes like plastics, rubbers, papers, and menstrual pads should not be
flushed down the toilet.
Should not be constructed near water sources.
A hand-washing station with soap should be close to the toilet.

Ecosan Toilet
Ecosan toilets involve collecting and disposing of urine and feces separately.

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Key aspects:

Urine and feces are collected into separate safety tanks.

Human excreta is recycled through a natural process to transform it into natural
compost and fertilizer.
Feces and urine take 5-6 months and 15-30 days, respectively, to completely
compose into organic manure.
The manure contains nitrogen, phosphorus, and potassium, similar to chemical
fertilizers.

Benefits:

Increases soil fertility and soil productivity.

Saves money from buying chemical fertilizer.
Protects farming from insects and diseases.
Does not use water for flushing, making it useful in places with water scarcity.
Sustainable and environmentally friendly, designed to protect and preserve the
environment.
Human excreta are used as valuable resources, not as waste products.

Design:

Has three parts:

Shallow front for urine collection.
Drop hole in the middle for feces.
Shallow part in the rear for self-cleansing.

Usage Guidelines:

Use these three parts properly.

Do not mix water into the urine and feces.
Wash the excreta in the respective part only.

School Health Screening Test

A school health screening test is conducted to check the physical and health
condition of students, including height, weight, vision, teeth, and hearing.

Implementation:

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Run in the school with the participation of teachers, nurses, and students.
Requires trained and experienced professionals and some equipment.
The school administration should keep records of the screening test and inform
the parents.

Importance:

Health problems can be identified that are not recognized through general
observation.
The health of students can be checked at a minimal cost.
Students become aware of their health condition.
Early identification of problems makes them easier to treat.
Helps parents seek treatment for their children at respective health institutions.
Health difficulties in the future can be identified early on and treated in time.

Measuring Height and Weight

Weight: Step onto the scale (weighing machine) and stand still with feet even
and flat. Record the weight.
Height: Stand facing the wall with your back against it. Have a friend place a
flat straight object on your head and mark the wall. Measure the height with a
measuring tape and keep the records.

Mental Health

Definition
Mental health includes emotional, psychological, and social well-being. It
influences a person's thoughts, actions, and feelings. It helps people
manage stress, establish and strengthen relationships with others, and
make the right decisions.

Importance:

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Mentally healthy people can perform daily tasks meaningfully.

They can manage their stress themselves.
They can express their feelings and opinions confidently.
They can interpret situations and present their logic.
They can find solutions to problems.
They can make the right decisions at the right time.
They can easily adjust to changed contexts.
They can evaluate themselves and identify their own abilities.

Mental Health Problems

Stress
Stress is a mental pressure that arises when people cannot solve
problems using their abilities. Relationship issues with family, relatives,
friends, and society can cause stress. Failure to achieve expected success
can also lead to stress.

Anxiety
Anxiety is a feeling of unease that occurs as a reaction to stress. It arises
when daily activities and stress are not managed promptly. People often
worry about achieving success, earning recognition, and improving their
financial condition, as well as past mistakes, unexpected incidents, and
death.

Depression
Depression is a condition caused by feeling weak and empty, often
triggered by small things. Physical and mental abuse, exploitation,
loneliness, family problems, drug addiction, losing a close relative, losing
achieved status, and unexpected betrayal can all cause depression.

Effects of Stress, Anxiety, and Depression:

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Headache
Muscle pain
Insomnia (sleeplessness)
Inability to concentrate on tasks
Annoyed mood and irritable behavior
Difficulty making decisions, remembering things, and expressing feelings and
opinions
Inability to do self-evaluation and take responsibility
Feelings of weakness and worthlessness
Loss of self-confidence
Physical, mental, social, and emotional effects

Management of Mental Health Problems

Think positively, play games, read books, write, and do creative work.
Engage in family activities such as interacting with family members, helping
each other, and participating in family functions.
Get enough sleep, eat nutritious food, and exercise regularly.
Stay in contact with neighbors, relatives, and friends and interact with them
regularly.
Keep busy and active in daily activities by making a schedule.
Practice yoga and meditation regularly.
Utilize social media properly.
Consult a teacher, psychiatrist, or counselor for treatment in time.

Conversion Disorder
Conversion disorder is a mental health condition that causes physical
symptoms. These symptoms are caused by stressful events, sexual
assault, physical abuse, disturbed relationships, and an inability to fulfill
needs.

Mass Conversion Disorder:

Sometimes occurs in groups or masses, known as mass conversion disorder.

Symptoms:

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Fainting
Body tremors
Foaming at the mouth
Over-excitement

Management:

Consult parents and other individuals to identify the real problem and find
solutions.
People suffering from this problem should come forward to manage it.
Share problems with friends, teachers, and parents and seek help from them.
It can be treated promptly with a doctor's advice and counseling.

Legal Provisions on Drug Abuse

Definition of Drugs
Legally banned substances such as cannabis, opium, heroin, morphine,
and cocaine. The World Health Organization (WHO) defines drugs as
substances not essential for a healthy body that affect the functions of the
central nervous system and alter a person's thoughts and feelings.

Problems Created by Drug Abuse:

Physical problems
Emotional problems
Mental problems
Social problems

Legal Status
The production, use, and trading of drugs are illegal and criminal activities.
The Narcotic Drugs (Control) Act, 2033 (1976) lists narcotic drugs and defines
prohibited acts related to their use, export, and import.

Prohibited Acts:

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Cultivating
Producing
Preparing
Purchasing
Exporting or importing
Distributing
Storing
Consuming drugs

Punishment Provisions According to the Narcotic Drugs

(Control) Act, 2033:

Offense Punishment

Imprisonment up to one month or a fine

Consuming cannabis
up to Rs. 2000
Imprisonment up to three years or a fine
Cultivating cannabis
up to Rs. 25000
Producing, preparing, selling, distributing, Imprisonment up to 10 years and a fine
trafficking cannabis up to Rs. 1000000
Consuming opium, cocaine, and other Imprisonment up to one year and a fine
narcotic drugs up to Rs. 10000
Cultivating opium, cocaine, and other Imprisonment up to 10 years and a fine
narcotic drugs up to Rs. 200000

Additional Information
The person shall be punished or fined according to the gravity of the offenses.

Nutrition and Food Security

Definition of Food Security

Food security is the measure of an individual's ability to access food that is
nutritious and sufficient in quantity, ensuring an active and healthy
lifestyle.

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Importance of Nutrition
Nutritious food is essential for the development and security of the human
body.
Nutrients support physical and mental growth and protect against diseases.
People of all ages need a balanced diet.
Proper management of food security is necessary for easy access and
consumption of a balanced diet.

Malnutrition

Definition
Malnutrition is a physical condition caused by a lack of or excess of
nutrients, or an imbalance between nutrients.

Effects:

Affects physical, mental, and emotional development.

Increases susceptibility to diseases.

Causes of Malnutrition
Lack of breastfeeding for the first six months and inadequate nutritious diet
after six months.
Inadequate nutrients in food and wrong eating habits.
Limited access to nutritious food.
Eating the same types of food items.
Dieting practices among teenagers to lose weight.
Consuming oily, salty, and spicy food items.
Excess washing, chopping, overcooking, overheating, reheating, and drying,
leading to nutrient loss.
Diseases like roundworm, dysentery, diarrhea, and tuberculosis.
Consuming junk food and processed food items with harmful chemical mixtures
due to attractive advertisements.
Wrong beliefs and misconceptions about food items.
Food scarcity, lack of food security, and lack of food storage.

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Types of Malnutrition and Malnutritional Diseases

Malnutrition is caused by under-nutrition and over-nutrition.

Under-nutrition
Under-nutrition is a condition of insufficient nutrients in the body,
occurring when enough essential nutrients are not consumed for a long
period.

Effects:

Children may not grow and put on weight at the expected rate.
Can lead to stunting and wasting.

Stunting

Stunting is a condition of having low height according to age, negatively

impacting physical and mental growth and development.

Normally noticed after the age of two years.

If people are stunted by under-nutrition in childhood, they remain stunted in
adulthood.

Wasting

Wasting is a condition of having low weight according to the age of the

children, caused by nutrient deficiency for a short period.

Children lose weight drastically, and it can lead to death.

Malnutrition Diseases

Marasmus

Marasmus is caused by a lack of carbohydrates in the body for a long time.

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Generally occurs in children under the age of five.

Causes include feeding inadequate food for a long period and lack of a
balanced diet.
Infectious diseases such as diarrhea, measles, and roundworm can also cause
marasmus.

Symptoms:

Getting thin
Quarreling all the time
Appearing old and having a wrinkled face
Dry skin

Kwashiorkor

Kwashiorkor is caused by a lack of protein in the consuming food.

Symptoms:

Too much fluid in the body's tissues, causing swelling under the skin.
Visible loss of muscle mass
Diarrhea
Weight loss
Enlarged belly
Swollen face
Dry hair that easily falls out
Loss of hair and skin color
Red rashes on the skin

Marasmic Kwashiorkor

The condition of having signs and symptoms of both diseases, marasmus

and kwashiorkor.

Symptoms:

Swollen body parts

Drastic weight loss

Preventive Measures of Malnutrition Diseases

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The infant should be given exclusive breastfeeding for the first six months.
Complementary feedings such as bean soup, meat and fish soup, fruit juice,
dalbhat, curry, and super flour (nutritious weaning food) should be given to the
infant after six months.
Balanced diet should be consumed regularly.
Iodized salt should be used.
Roundworm and other infectious diseases should be treated in time.
Vaccination should be ensured for the child.

Over-nutrition
Over-nutrition is a condition of excessive nutrients in the body.

Effects:

Unwanted weight gain and fat in the body.

Increases the risk of heart, lung, liver, and kidney-related problems.

Obesity

Obesity is caused by eating too much and moving too little.

Extra calories are stored as fat in the body.

Caused by eating junk foods, oily food, fried food items, and sweet food items.

Effects of Obesity:

Overweight compared to the average age and height.

Breathing problems
High blood pressure
Feeling tired

Control Measures:

Eating vegetables, fruits, and legumes.

Avoiding oily and sweet food items, as well as processed and packaged foods.
Adopting a healthy lifestyle such as regular physical exercise and yoga practice.

Body Mass Index (BMI)

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BMI is a method of calculating the weight (in kilograms) of the body

according to the height (in meters) of a person. It is measured from 18.5 to
24.9. A BMI of more than 25 is overweight, and less than 18.5 is
underweight.

Formula:

weight(kg)
BM I =
2
height(m)

This formula is normally used for adults from 18 to 65 years old; however, it
can be applied to teenagers.

Micronutrient Deficiency Disorder

Micronutrients are vitamins and minerals needed by the body in very
small amounts but are vital to healthy development, disease prevention,
and well-being.

Micronutrient deficiencies can cause several serious health issues, such as night
blindness, anemia, and scurvy.

Anemia
Anemia is a condition in which the body does not have enough red blood
cells, caused by the lower-than-normal amount of hemoglobin.

Due to the lack of iron and vitamin B and C in the body, red blood cells cannot
develop, and anemia occurs.
There is a high possibility of this disorder among children, teenagers, and
pregnant women.

Symptoms:

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Dizziness when standing up

Weakness and tiredness
Breathing problems
Irregular heartbeats
Chest pain
Headache
Pale or yellow face, tongue, nails, and skin

Prevention:

Children and pregnant women should have iron-rich foods such as liver, fish,
green vegetables, beans, eggs, fruits, and millet.
If the doctor recommends the iron tablet, the pregnant woman can take it.
Regular checkups for children and pregnant women.
Teenage school girls may take iron tablets with a doctor's recommendation.
If there is heavy bleeding during menstruation, visit health institutions and
make checkups.
Hookworm can also cause anemia and should be treated timely.

Night Blindness
Night blindness is an eye problem in which a person has poor vision at
night or in dim light. This problem is caused by vitamin A deficiency.

Vitamin A helps the eyes work properly.

If people lack it, they cannot see well at night and in poor light.

Symptoms:

Difficulty seeing objects in places with poor light.

Problems with bright light.
May be struck or fall down while walking.
The cornea becomes dry and seems blurred and swollen.

Prevention:

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Consume food items regularly that are rich in vitamin A to avoid the risk of night
blindness.
Examples: Green vegetables, yellow fruits, milk, and curds.
Take special care of the eyes to keep them clean.
Vitamin A capsules should be supplemented every six months for children of
six months to five years.
Infectious diseases such as measles, diarrhea, and hookworm should be treated
timely.
Awareness programs should be launched in the community.

Scurvy
Scurvy is a disease caused by a deficiency of vitamin C, characterized by
swollen bleeding gums.

People of all age groups can suffer from this problem.

Symptoms:

Swollen and bleeding gums

Tooth pain and teeth fall out
No appetite
Feeling tired and weak
Delayed wound healing
Anemia

Prevention:

Eat vitamin C-rich food items regularly.

Examples: Lemon, guava, mango, orange, amla, and tomato.
Take special care of the teeth and gums to keep them clean.
Scurvy should be treated on time if any symptoms are seen.
Awareness programs should be launched in the community.

Rickets
Rickets is caused by vitamin D deficiency.

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Our body needs an adequate amount of calcium and phosphorus for the growth
and development of the bones.
Vitamin D absorbs calcium and phosphorus from the food.
If vitamin D lacks in the body, the body cannot absorb calcium and phosphorus.

Signs, Prevention, and Treatment of Rickets

Rickets is a condition that affects bone development in children.

Symptoms of Rickets
Bowed or curved legs
Pain in the bones of the knees and spinal cord
Delayed growth and development
Unusual shape of the ribs and breastbone
Wide joints of elbows and wrists

Preventive Measures for Rickets

Consume vitamin D-rich foods regularly, such as:
Yellow portions of an egg
Milk
Fish
Butter
Beans
Green vegetables
Get vitamin D from sunlight: Cholesterol in the skin absorbs radiation and
converts it into vitamin D. Expose a sufficient amount of skin to sunlight.
Consult a doctor and seek treatment if bone shape and development problems
are noticed.

Food Security
Food security is a state where all people, at all times, have physical, social, and
economic access to sufficient, safe, and nutritious food that meets their dietary needs
and food preferences for an active and healthy life. The concept of food security was
developed for the availability and accessibility of food to people at all times.

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The right of an individual to have nutritious and safe food is known as the
right to food.

The Constitution of Nepal includes food security as a fundamental right, ensuring

every citizen is safe from the danger of life due to food scarcity. The Right to Food
and Food Sovereignty Act has been enacted for effective implementation. It is the
state's duty to ensure food security for all citizens.

Four Components of Food Security

Food security has four components:

Availability of Food
Condition of having a sufficient quantity of quality food.
Essential for quality and healthy life.
The state should provide nutritious food through domestic production, food
stocks, and import capacity.
Promote agricultural production and its producers.
Protect and promote traditional food items.

Access to Food
Easy access to food avoids hunger.
People need physical and economic access to safe and nutritious food.
Every citizen should be safe from the danger of life from food scarcity.
The state should ensure access to food for all citizens.

Utilization of Food
Condition in which individuals can utilize sufficient nutritious food as per their
needs.
The state must ensure the quality standard of the available foods.

Stability of Food

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Availability and access to adequate food at all times.

Individuals should not risk losing access to food due to sudden shocks.
The state should establish production, storage, and well-distribution
systems.

Things to Consider for Protecting Consumer's

Health

Awareness
Every consumer must be conscious of their health.
Check company name, manufacture date, expiry date, and quality before buying
goods.
Collect necessary information before visiting a clinic or hospital.
Low-quality goods and harmful chemicals may be mixed in food items.

Actions to Take
Consumers must be aware and advocate for consumer's health.
Regular watching and warning are necessary for quality food and service
production.
Take legal action to punish those whose products harm health, money, and
other effects.

Other Considerations
Check the standard while buying goods and taking services, as defined by
authorized agencies.
Avoid goods with negative effects on health.
Manufacturing companies should be responsible for consumer health and
produce healthy food items.
Avoid excessive use of pesticides.
The place of food storage should be clean and safe.
Inform concerned agencies, such as the District Administration Office, District
Police Office, Local Government, and other consumer health-related agencies,
of any malpractices.

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Sexually Transmitted Infections (STIs)

A sexually transmitted disease (STD) is an infection transmitted from an
infected person to an uninfected person through sexual contact.

Examples of STDs:

AIDS
Syphilis
Human Papillomavirus
Gonorrhea

How STDs Spread

Sexual intercourse with an infected person
Non-sterile syringes used by infected individuals
Sharing toilets used by infected persons
Blood transmission
Sharing sheets, towels, clothes, and used razors

Treatment and Cure

Treatment is available for all STIs, but a cure is not possible for all.
Some STDs can be cured with medicines.
There is no cure for HIV/AIDS, but medicine is available to reduce their effect.

HIV and AIDS

HIV is the main cause of AIDS.
HIV damages the body's immune system.
The late stage of HIV infection is known as AIDS.
There are no symptoms in the early stage, but symptoms can be noticed
gradually.
HIV-infected people can live normal lives with proper care and treatment.

Preventive Measures

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Avoiding unsafe sexual intercourse

Using condoms
Getting tested on time
Using only sterile syringes

Non-Communicable Diseases
Non-communicable diseases refer to diseases that cannot transmit from
one person to another.

Examples of Non-Communicable Diseases:

Cardiovascular diseases
Cancer
Diabetes
Chronic lung illness

Causes
Wrong eating habits
Poor diet
Smoking
Alcohol consumption
Environmental pollution
Genetic factors
Lack of exercise

Prevention and Treatment

Treatment is difficult and expensive.
A healthy lifestyle during childhood and adolescence can protect from these
problems.
These diseases can be cured if diagnosed and treated early.

Heart Diseases
Heart diseases are diseases related to the heart and blood vessels.

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Causes of Heart Diseases

Eating habits
Lack of exercise
Accidents
Other factors

High Blood Pressure

Blood pressure is created by the contraction and expansion of the heart.
Ideal blood pressure is considered to be 120/80 mmHg.

Risk Factors of High Blood Pressure

Obesity
Stress
Excessive oil and salt
Smoking and alcohol consumption
Lack of exercise
Age and genetic factors

Coronary Heart Disease

Arteries of the heart cannot deliver enough oxygen-rich blood to the heart.
Caused by a buildup of fatty material in the wall of the arteries.

Risk Factors for Coronary Heart Disease

Smoking
Alcohol consumption
High blood pressure
High cholesterol
Lack of regular exercise
Diabetes

Symptoms of Heart Diseases

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Headache
Chest pain
Tiredness
Dizziness
Weakness
Sweating
Irregular heartbeat

Preventive Measures for Heart Diseases

Avoid smoking and alcohol consumption.
Avoid oily, spicy, salty, fried, and packaged food items.
Maintain body weight according to height.
Do regular exercise.
Regular checkups.
Pay attention to stress management.
Promote eating green vegetables and fruits.

Rheumatic Fever
Common in school-age children, 5 to 15 years old.
Caused by bacteria called Group A Streptococcus.
Affects the joints, heart, brain, and skin.
Weakens the valves and the heart cannot work properly if not treated timely,
leading to death.

Symptoms of Rheumatic Fever

Tickling sensation and pain in the throat.
Pain in joints, especially in the knees, ankles, and wrists.
Heart murmur and chest pain.
Fever, headache, and sweating.

Preventive Measures for Rheumatic Fever

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Keep patients away from moisture, cold, and dirty places.

Avoid foods and cold drinks kept in the fridge.
Treat sore throats promptly as per the doctor's advice.

Diabetes
Diabetes is a condition of having too high blood glucose, also known as
sugar disease.

The pancreas gland produces insulin.

Insulin helps glucose from food get into cells for energy.
The body doesn't secrete enough insulin, glucose stays in the blood, increasing
its amount.

Causes of Diabetes
Unhealthy eating habits
Obesity
Stress
Lack of physical exercise
Genetic factors

Symptoms of Diabetes
Very thirsty and hungry.
Frequent urination, often at night.
Very tired and sleepy.
Weight loss.
Blurry vision and dry skin.
Numbing and tingling hands and feet.
Wounds take a long time to recover.

Preventive Measures for Diabetes

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Avoid fatty and salty food items.

Take enough rest and sleep.
Do regular exercise.
Manage stress timely.
Follow regular checkups and treatment.

Asthma 🫁
Asthma is a major non-communicable disease affecting both children and
adults.

Air passages in the lungs become narrow due to inflammation and tightening of
muscles around the small airways.
Lungs cannot inhale sufficient oxygen.

Causes of Asthma
Having a parent with asthma.
Having a viral respiratory infection.
Having an allergic condition.
Being exposed to air pollution and industrial smoke and dust.
Smoking and obesity.

Symptoms of Asthma
Breathing difficulty.
Wheezing, coughing, and chest tightness.
Fast heartbeat and breathing faster.
The body becomes blue due to the lack of oxygen.

Preventive Measures for Asthma

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Protect from the cold.

Wear warm clothes during the cold season.
Have timely checkups and identify allergy factors.
Treat common cold, pneumonia, tuberculosis in time.
Avoid smoking, alcohol consumption, and drugs.
Escape smoky and dirty places.
Wear a mask while staying or working in such places.

Cancer
Cancer is a disease in which some of the body's cells grow uncontrollably
and spread to other parts of the body.

Causes of Cancer
Unhealthy eating habits and lifestyle.
Smoking.
Alcohol consumption.
Drug consumption.
Harmful chemicals or pesticides.
Genetic factors.
Human papillomavirus (cervical cancer).
Helicobacter pylori (stomach cancer).

Common Symptoms of Cancer

Unusual lumps.
New moles or changes in existing moles.
Coughing for long periods of time, sometimes coughing up blood.
Sore throat and hoarseness.
Slow wound healing.
Unexplained weight loss.
Bleeding from the urethra and anus.

Preventive Measures for Cancer

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Eat fresh and healthy food.

Avoid food items with chemicals and pesticides.
Avoid alcoholic drinks and drugs.
Avoid smoking.
Have medical checkups for unusual lumps and moles.

Awareness is necessary as cancers can be cured if detected early and treated

effectively.

School Safety
School safety is creating a safe environment for children, starting from
homes to their school and back.

It includes:

Physical safety
Social safety
Emotional safety
Cyber safety
Emergency preparedness

Necessary to build mutual relationships between students, teachers, and student-

teacher.

School safety also includes safety from any kind of abuse, violence, and psycho-
social issues, as well as disasters. School disaster risks can be mitigated through
identifying the risks earlier and applying appropriate ways of management.

Identification of School Hazards and its Mapping

Identify possible school hazards (inside and surrounding the school) through
stakeholder interaction and participation.
Map these hazards.
Prepare a school safety plan with the help of identified and mapped hazards.
Minimize disaster risks by implementing the plan.
Display school disaster risk reduction measures in appropriate places.
Launch different awareness programs such as interaction, interviewing,
lecturing by experts, dramatization, etc.

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School and Playground Safety Measures

A safe and secure environment is essential for effective teaching and learning.

Safety Measures for Schools and Playgrounds

Windows and doors should allow enough air and light.
Different types of play materials in lower classes should be according to the
ages of the students.
Play materials should be managed well in proper places; damaged materials
should be repaired in time.
The playground should be kept smooth and the holes are to be filled.
Outdoor games should be played in an open and safe ground.
Dangers on the playground such as stones, bricks, bottles, and other sharp
objects should be managed properly.
The compound wall of the school needs to be strong and safe.
First aid should be available for general injuries and accidents in the school.
There should be a friendly environment between students and teachers.
Extra-curricular activities and other regular activities should be promoted in the
schools.

Safety Measures During Disaster

Disaster is a serious disruption to the functioning of a community that is
caused by natural, manmade, or technological factors.

Examples of disasters:

Fire
Hurricanes
Floods
Landslides
Earthquakes

Disaster risks can be reduced through systematic efforts before, during, and after
disaster phases.

Fire Safety

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Fire is often caused by human errors. Fire hazards are caused by cooking, organizing
picnics and gatherings in open places, and preparing clay pots in an oven.

Fire Hazards Can Be Controlled By:

Turning off the regulator of the gas cylinder after the task is over.
Turning the oven off after cooking.
Keeping matches and lighters far from the access of the children.
Proper management of road infrastructure for the arrival of a fire brigade,
ambulances, etc.
Fire extinguishers should be installed in the public buildings.
Skilled and well-equipped human resources and necessary equipment should
be ready for twenty-four hours.

During a Fire Outbreak:

Timely inform respective institutions and persons.
Take shelter in a safe place at first.
Try to go out safely from the house.
Try to rescue all the family members safely.
Prioritize getting out of the house and let domestic animals get free.
Control fire outbreaks anyhow, even by damaging a portion of a house.
Make a combined effort for controlling it.
Dial 101 for necessary information and help.
Manage first aid and take injured people to the health institution for treatment.
Help people who lose their houses and property with their shelter, food, and
clothes.

Methods and Ways of First Aid

First aid is an immediate care given to an injured or ill person by utilizing
local means and resources until full medical treatment is available.

First aid may be enough for minor conditions; for serious problems, it should be
continued until medical care becomes available. It prevents the situation from getting
worse and saves a person's life, helping the injured person for quick recovery.

ABC is a popular method of first aid:

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A stands for Airway

B for Breathing
C for Circulation

First, open the airways, next check the breathing, and then check the circulation.
Immediately remove blockages and clear the airways and loosen tight clothing to
regulate breathing and circulation.

Cardio-Pulmonary Resuscitation (CPR)

CPR is a temporary method to restore blood circulation and respiration to save the
life of someone who is in cardiac arrest.

Chest Compression
1. Lay the person on their back and open their airway. Kneel beside their chest.
2. Place the palm of one hand on the middle of the chest. Then place your other
hand on top of your bottom hand and grasp your wrist or interlock your fingers.
3. Keep your arms straight and press down on their chest with your fingers or
palm and release (but ensure that your palm is touching the chest), pushing
down 2 inches each time. Let the chest rise fully between compressions.
4. Repeat the cycle of 30 chest compressions until the person starts breathing.

Rescue Breathing
1. Remove any blockage (vomit, blood, other objects) from the mouth, throat, or
nose and clear the airways. Then close the nose and pinch the nose with your
thumb and fingers.
2. Then place the other hand on their chin and tilt the head back a little.
3. Take a deep breath. Then place your mouth fully over theirs and blow steadily
for about one second, watching for the chest to rise and open their nostrils.
Ensure that the chest is going up and down.
4. Remove your mouth from theirs and take a deep breath. Again, repeat steps 1-
3. Continue to give 30 chest compressions, followed by 2 breaths. Repeat it five
times.

First Aid During Accident and Injury

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Provide first aid and admit the injured person to the nearest health institution as soon
as possible.

Foreign Body in Eye

An object or something stuck inside the eye, such as a small piece of dust, a
wood chip, a metal shaving, an insect, etc.
Symptoms: sharp pain, burning

First Aid for Common Emergencies

Eye Irritation
When the eye experiences irritation, it becomes watery and red. If not treated
promptly, it can lead to blindness.

Avoid rubbing eyes with fingers.

Wash hands with soap and water before touching the eyes.
Flush the eyes with clean water.
Help the person sit comfortably.
For major injuries, cover the eye with a clean, soft cloth or pad.

Foreign Bodies in Nose and Ear

The presence of a foreign object in the nose or ear can cause pain and infection.

Keep the person in a well-lit area.

Attempt to remove the foreign body gently.
Never forcefully try to remove the object.
If it cannot be easily removed, seek help from the nearest health institution.

Foreign Body in Throat 🫁

When an object gets stuck in the throat, especially during swallowing, it can cause
choking, hiccups, and difficulty in speaking.

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Immediate attention is required if the object obstructs the airway.

Encourage the person to cough forcefully to expel the object.
If the person is choking and having trouble speaking:
Wrap your arms around their waist.
Tip them slightly forward.
Hit their back just above the waist with one arm.
If the object is removed, perform abdominal thrusts just above the navel.
If the person becomes unconscious, lower them to the floor.
Seek medical help if the object cannot be easily removed.

Tooth Fracture
A tooth fracture can occur from various causes, like biting hard foods, sports, or
accidents.

Help the person sit comfortably.

If the fracture is due to a fall, rinse the mouth by gargling.
For a total tooth fracture, wrap the bleeding area with cotton or cloth.
Seek additional treatment at the nearest health institution.

Heat Stroke
Heat stroke is a heat-related illness caused by high temperatures, usually above
40°C (104°F).

Symptoms: Thirst, headaches, restlessness, flushed and pale faces, vomiting, and
fainting. Body temperature can reach 104°F.

Move the person to a cool, fresh, and well-ventilated place.

Apply ice packs or wet cloths on the forehead, arms, and feet.
Encourage them to drink more liquids like water, fruit juice, and soup.
Keep them indoors during the daytime.

Altitude Sickness
Altitude sickness is a respiratory problem caused by low oxygen levels at high
altitudes.

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Symptoms: Headache, tiredness, dizziness, vomiting, loss of appetite, difficulty in

walking, and shortness of breath. The skin and nails may turn blue due to lack of
oxygen.

Descend immediately from the high-altitude location.

Provide more liquids.
Seek medical attention in severe cases.
Pack necessary first aid items before going to high altitudes.

Snow Bite
Snow bite is an injury caused by exposure to cold weather conditions, leading to the
freezing of skin and underlying tissues.

Commonly Affected Areas: Fingers, toes, nose, ears, cheeks, and chin.

Symptoms: Pale appearance, numbness, and potential fluid-filled blisters.

Immediately move the affected person to a safe and warm place.

Soak the affected fingers or feet in water for 20-30 minutes.
Provide warm liquids.
Use a warm blanket or quilt to keep the body warm.
Seek medical attention depending on the severity of the condition.

First Aid for Injuries

Seek medical attention immediately for serious injuries.
For minor injuries:
Rest: Avoid using the injured area.
Ice: Apply ice to reduce swelling.
Compression: Use a bandage to support the area.
Elevation: Keep the injured area raised.

Making a Homemade Pad

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1. Gather necessary materials.

2. Cut the cloth into the desired shape and size.
3. Fold the fabric to create layers for absorption.
4. Sew the layers together.
5. Leave a corner open for smoothing the fabric.
6. Join the fabric lengthwise to make a pocket.
7. Sew the pad and stitch the sides.
8. Attach the pad to the panty.
9. Wash the pad with soapy water and dry it in the sun before reuse.

Exercise Questions and Answers

Multiple Choice
1. What is nightfall?

iii. ejaculation in dreams

2. Legally, for how long can an abortion be performed?

iv. 20 weeks

3. Which contraceptive also prevents the transmission of sexually infectious

diseases like AIDS?

iv. Condom

4. Where should the cloth pad used during menstruation be dried?

i. in the sun

5. In which stage does the ovum release?

iii. ovulatory phase

Fill in the Blanks

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1. According to the World Health Organization, it is considered an abortion if the

pregnancy is lost within 28 weeks.
2. Minilap and vasectomy are permanent methods of contraception.
3. Sperm can survive for 72 hours after reaching the uterus.
4. The use of emergency contraceptive pills should be taken within 72 hours of
sexual intercourse.
5. Household pads should be washed with soapy water and dried in the sun.

Short Answers

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1. 'Sexual curiosity in adolescence can be managed in a controlled manner.' Justify

this statement with examples.
Provide education and open communication about sexuality.
Encourage adolescents to seek information from reliable sources.
Promote responsible decision-making and respect for personal
boundaries.
2. Under what conditions can a safe abortion be performed? Write in four points.
When the pregnancy poses a risk to the woman's health.
In cases of fetal abnormalities.
When the pregnancy is a result of sexual assault.
When the woman is not ready or able to care for a child.
3. Write a short note on:
Condom: A barrier contraceptive that also protects against sexually
transmitted infections.
Copper-T: A long-acting reversible contraceptive device inserted into the
uterus.
Minilap: A permanent method of contraception involving the tying or
cutting of the fallopian tubes.
4. Write any four advantages of using domestic pads.
Cost-effective.
Environmentally friendly.
Reusable.
Easy to make and customize.
5. Introduce the menstrual cycle and briefly describe its stages.
The menstrual cycle is a monthly series of changes a woman's body goes
through to prepare for a possible pregnancy.
Bleeding phase: Menstruation occurs, and the uterine lining is shed.
Proliferative phase: The uterine lining thickens in preparation for
ovulation.
Ovulatory phase: The ovum is released.
Estrogen phase: the level of estrogen increases

Physical Exercise and Drill

Physical training (PT): Physical activities done to keep the body strong
and fit. Drills: A type of group activity practiced as per commands for
physical balance and discipline.

Physical Exercise

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Exercise of Neck
1. Initial Position: Stand-at-ease, hands on armpits.
2. Position of the Body during Exercise:
1. Count 1: Turn head to the left, try to touch the shoulder with the ear.
2. Count 2: Keep head straight.
3. Count 3: Turn head to the right, try to touch the shoulder with the ear.
4. Count 4: Keep head straight.
5. Count 5: Try to touch the chest with the chin.
6. Count 6: Keep head straight.
7. Count 7: Look up to the sky, raising the chin up.
8. Count 8: Keep head straight.
9. Counts 9-16: Repeat activities from count 1 to 8.
3. Final Position: Ready for the next exercise, keeping both hands on the armpits.

Exercise of Chest, Trunk, Abdomen, and Hand

1. Initial Position: Stand-at-ease, hands on armpits.
2. Position of the Body during Exercise:
1. Counts 1, 2, 3: Bend body and head forward, try to touch the ground with
the fingers of both hands on each count.
2. Count 4: Keep the body straight.
3. Counts 5, 6, 7: Put hands on the back of the waist and bend the body
backward on each count.
4. Count 8: Keep the body straight.
5. Counts 9-16: Repeat activities from counts 1 to 8.
3. Final Position: Attention position, keeping the hands on the armpits.

Exercise of Hands, Arms, and Shoulders

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1. Initial Position: Attention position, keeping both hands on the armpits.

2. Position of the Body during Exercise:
1. Count 1: Keep the left leg front and stand on the toes, supported by the
toes of the right leg. Keep both hands straight in front at the level of the
shoulder. Keep the thumbs up.
2. Count 2: Keep both hands up, keeping the legs in the same position.
3. Count 3: Stretch both hands sideways at the level of the shoulders. The
palms should face the ground.
4. Count 4: Keep the stretched hands on the armpits and be in the attention
position.
5. Counts 5-8: Put the right leg in the front and repeat the above activities.
6. Counts 9-16: Repeat the activities from count 1 to 8.
3. Final Position: Attention position, keeping the hands on the armpits.

Drill
Drills involve information, command, and action stages.
Team leaders give commands for the drill.
Rhythm can be given through count, drums, madal, whistle, and music.

Drill Activities

Drill Activity Description

Straighten body, puff chest out, hands at sides with loose fists,
Attention
heels together at 30-45 degree angle.
Head and chest in attention position, arms behind back, right hand
Stand at Ease
on left hand, interlock thumbs, lift left foot.
Lift left foot, turn to the right with the help of the right heel and the
Right Turn
left toes, come to attention position.
Lift right foot, turn to the left with the help of the left heel and the
Left Turn
right toes, come to attention position.
Lift left foot and place it on the ground, then raise the right foot and
Mark Time
place it on the ground, continue.
Stop marking with the check on the right foot, count 1 on the left
Halt
foot, and count 2 on the right foot.
Disperse and Move a step ahead and greet/salute, turn right, move three steps
Dismiss ahead, and go back to your place/end the drills.

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Drill Commands and Rhythms

Drill Commands Beats/Rhythm

Attention, Stand at Ease Beat once for a single rhythm

Right Turn, Left Turn, About Beat three times; two for quick rhythm and one for
Turn slow rhythm
Mark Time, Forward March Beat continuously in the rhythm of march
Halt Beat in the rhythm of (1-2), (1-2), and finally (1, 2, 3)
Eyes Right, Eyes Straight Beat in the rhythm of the movement of the feet.

Athletics
Athletics: Combination of activities like walking, running, throwing, and
jumping.

Also called track and field.

Walking and running are track events.
Throwing and jumping are field events.

3,000 m Race
A long race, also known as the 3K run.
Requires running 7.5 laps around a 400 m track or 15 laps around a 200 m
track.
Necessary: speed, energy and patience.
Practice short and middle distance running in preparation.

Relay Race
A group event with four players in each group.
Players pass the baton while running.
Types:
Visual pass technique (looking)
Non-visual pass technique (without looking)
Down-sweep pass
Up-sweep pass

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Long Jump
Steps:
1. Approach: Run at high speed.
2. Take Off: Jump from the take-off board.
3. Flight: Lift the body in the air.
4. Landing: Land on the sandpit with the body pushed forward.

High Jump
Types: Scissors Style, Western Roll, Eastern Roll, Straddle, and Fosbury Flop.
Steps (Straddle High Jump):
1. Approach: Run in a half circle.
2. Take Off: Jump with one leg.
3. Clearance: Jump over the clearing bar with the whole body.
4. Landing: Land on the mat on the shoulders.

Shotput
Steps:
1. Holding: Grip the shot correctly with fingers.
2. Stance: Carry the shot above the shoulder, plan to throw.
3. Gliding: Shift the body in the throwing direction.
4. Throwing and Reverse: Throw the shot and rotate the body.

Adventurous Activities
Adventurous activities: Recreational activities that are different from
normal activities.

Require high morale and security protocols.

Examples in Nepal: Paragliding, rafting, mountain climbing, and bungee
jumping.
Can be done in the air, on snow, or on land.

Bungee Jumping

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Done in the air, helps reduce fear.

Bhotekoshi River bungee jump in Nepal is one of the longest jumps in the
world.

Adventurous Games
This section covers various adventurous games, including bungee jumping,
paragliding, parachuting, and ice skating/climbing. It also touches upon the
importance of following health protocols and the potential for sports tourism in
Nepal.

Bungee Jumping
Bungee jumping is an adventurous game that involves jumping from a high place
with an elastic rope tied to the body.

Risks: Can cause fractures of bones, diseases like epilepsy, and high blood
pressure.
Safety: People with high blood pressure, heart problems, and pregnant women
should avoid this activity.

Paragliding
Paragliding is an interesting game played in the air where pilots run on a slope area
at high speed after equipping parachutes.

Equipment: Requires a wing, ropes, harness, helmet, and sunglasses.

Requirements: Participants should weigh less than 100 kg and must wear a
helmet.
Safety:
Check wind speed.
Ensure there are no obstructions in the flying area.
Carry a first aid box.
Pregnant women and people with asthma, heart disease, and epilepsy
should not participate.

Parachuting

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Parachuting involves flying or diving from a height using a parachute to reduce the
speed of the fall.

History: Initially done using hot air balloons, now from aeroplanes.
Technique: The direction of the parachute can be controlled after it opens.
Safety: Requires careful landing to avoid injuries.

Ice Skating and Ice Climbing

Ice skating is done on ice using ice skates, while ice climbing involves climbing up ice
formations.

Location: Can be played indoors or outdoors, with natural settings being more
interesting.
Safety: Following health protocols, such as wearing ice-skating shoes and
helmets, is compulsory.
Tourism: These activities can promote sports tourism in Nepal, given the
presence of the eight highest peaks in the world.

Introduction to Games

Definition of a Game
A game is an activity done with or without materials for the development
of physical and mental health, recreation, and utilization of leisure time.

Types of Games
Games can be categorized based on:

Nature and purpose

Location (outdoors or indoors)
Group or individual play
Level of play (local or global)

Examples of Global Games: Volleyball, basketball, football, cricket.

Volleyball

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Volleyball is a sport played between two teams of six players each. It is the national
game of Nepal. Key skills include digging, volleying, service, spiking, and blocking.

A. Digging
Digging involves lifting a weight (like a ball).

Technique: Knees should be slightly bent and apart, wrists of bent arms
together, extend arms straight while hitting the ball.
Practice: Circular or semi-circular formation, focusing on readiness to hit the
ball with legs split open and connecting wrists.

B. Volleying
Volleying is used for balls above the waist.

Technique: Bow the body, keep knees slightly back and forth, spread fingers
above the forehead, and raise the ball with the fingers.
Practice: Use rows, circular or semi-circular positions.

C. Service
Service starts the volleyball game.

Definition: Delivering the ball from the service area to the opponent's court,
crossing over the net with one-handed shot.

Underhand Service
Definition: Pushing the ball to the opponent's court with an open one-handed
shot from under the waist.

Overhand Service

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Definition: Pushing the ball past the net with one-handed balanced shot with
the palm by throwing the ball straight up in the air just above the head and
bringing it straight from the back.
Practice: Players line up on the court, kneeling with one leg, attempting to pick
the ball up with the hand on the same side as knelt leg.

D. Spiking
Definition: Jumping over the net and pushing the ball into the opponent's court.
Practice: Divide players into groups, hitting the ball hard with one hand, aiming
for the opponent's court.

E. Blocking
Definition: Stopping the spiked ball coming directly over the net to your court.
Technique: Done with one hand, two hands, or by two or three players
simultaneously.
Practice: Line up players on either side of the net, jump, and touch or shake
hands.

Simple Rules of Volleyball

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Rule Description

Court Size 18 x 9 meters, rectangular.

Offensive Line 3 meters parallel from the center line.
Net Height 2.43 meters for men, 2.24 meters for women.
Team Size Maximum of 12 players.
Libero Player One libero player with a different colored jersey.
Player Zones Three players in the attacking zone, three in the back zone.
Service Start Service from behind the end line of the court every time.
Rotation Clockwise direction each time there is a service change.
Net Contact No player should touch the net during the game.
25 points with a difference of at least two points to win the
Scoring
set.
Tie at 24-24 Game continues until there is a difference of 2 points.
Interval between
Three minutes.
sets

Football
Football, also known as soccer, is a popular game played globally. The objective is to
score a goal within a specified time.

Game Duration
Usually lasts for 90 minutes with a 15-minute interval.
Additional 15-minute periods if the game goes to knockout.
Tiebreaker: Five penalties each if the game is still tied.

Points System
Winner: Three points
Loser: Zero points
Tie: One point each

Basic Skills of Football

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A. Kicking
The act of hitting a football with the foot. Used for passing and scoring. Types include
rolling kick and high kick.

Rolling Kick: Hitting the ball so it rolls on the ground.

High-Kick: Hitting the ball so it flies off the ground.

B. Dribbling
Moving forward with the ball under control.

Short Dribbling: Pushing the ball forward a short distance, hitting it from the inside
of the leg.

Long Dribbling: Passing the ball forward over a long distance.

C. Trapping
Controlling the ball coming towards you with a part of the body (feet, knees, thighs,
stomach, head, chest).

D. Heading
Hitting a football with the head to control, pass, or score.

E. Goal Keeping
Preventing the ball from hitting the goal post.

Goalkeeper Skills: Blocking, hitting, catching the ball.

F. Throw-In
Bringing the ball back into the field when it goes beyond the sideline. The ball should
be kept above the head without raising the legs.

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G. Passing
Sending the ball by kicking or heading it to a teammate.

Simple Rules of Football

Rule Description

Game Start Lucky draw to choose between goalpost side or kick-off.

Restart after Goal The ball must be played from the center after each goal.
The game starts by kicking the ball sent from the goal line by the
Initial Play
opposition into the goal area.
Player Conduct Players cannot use any kind of shock, splash, or lethal object.
Game Duration 90 minutes with a 15-minute interval.
Players, with the exception of the goalkeeper, cannot touch the
Handling the Ball
ball with their hands.
Throw-In Players cannot raise their legs while doing the throw-in.
Goalkeeper
The goalkeeper cannot catch the ball outside the penalty area.
Restrictions

Basketball
Basketball is a group game that requires agility, speed, and endurance. It enhances
hand and eye coordination.

Basic Skills of Basketball

A. Ball Catching and Passing

Types of passes: chest pass, bounce pass, and overhead pass.

Chest Pass

Throwing the ball from the chest towards teammates by extending the arms out and
using both hands.

Bounce Pass

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Hitting the ball on the ground and passing it to a friend.

Overhead Pass

Passing the ball to a teammate above an opponent player.

B. Dribbling
Keeping the ball under control while moving.

C. Shooting
Throwing the basketball towards the basket to score points. Types of shots include
layup shot and jump shot.

Layup Shot

Going close to the basket, taking two steps, and dropping the ball directly.

Jump Shot

Shooting when the opponent is ahead, releasing the ball at the peak of the jump.

Simple Rules of Basketball

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Rule Description

Court Size Length: 28 meters, Width: 15 meters

Center Circle 1.8 meters
Game Duration 40-minute game in four 10-minute innings.
Game Start Throwing the ball in the air in the center.
Team Size Five players in a team.
Restricted Area Attacking player cannot stay inside the restricted area with the ball
Stay for more than three seconds.
Ball Holding
A player cannot hold the ball for more than five seconds.
Time
Dribbling Do not dribble again after stopping the dribbled ball.
Opponent player should not be touched in an unnecessary and
Player Contact
harmful way.

Cricket
Cricket originated from England and involves batting and bowling in groups of 11
players.

Basic Skills of Cricket

A. Batting
Essential skills include grip, stance, back lift, stroke, drive, hook-shot, cut-shot.

Grip: Skill of holding the bat or the ball.

Stance: Batsmen make their stance based on the bowler.

Back Lift: The batsman's eyes should be towards the bowler.

Stroke: Hitting the ball defensively or aggressively.

Drive: Aggressive batting, taking a step forward.

Hook Shot: Played when the bowler's short pitched ball bounces away from the
batsman.

Cut Shot: Played by the batsman on a short pitched ball by the bowler.

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B. Bowling
Throwing the ball towards the stumps on a wicket pitch to prevent batsmen from
scoring.

Run-up: Requires a bowler to run at a certain pace.

Delivery: Balancing body weight, landing of the leg, and focus on the batsmen.

C. Fielding and Catching

Stopping the ball hit by the batsmen to limit runs. Catching is catching the ball
without it touching the ground.

D. Wicket Keeping
Wicket keeper wears safe clothes and waits for the ball.

Cricket

Simple Rules of Cricket

1. The team that wins the toss can choose between batting or fielding.
2. The pitch is 20.12 meters long and 3.04 meters wide.
3. A team has 11 players.
4. An over consists of six balls.
5. A catch out occurs when a fielder catches a batted ball before it touches the
ground.
6. Batsmen score runs by running into the popping crease while the ball is active.
7. A batted ball crossing the boundary by running scores four runs, while
crossing the boundary in the air scores six runs.
8. A ball thrown against the rules by the bowler is a no ball.
9. The batsman is out if the ball or bat dislodges the bails from the stumps.
10. The pitch cannot be changed without the consent of both captains and the
umpire.

Kabaddi

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Kabaddi: An Overview
An old and popular game in Asia with standardized international rules.
Played in three categories: male, female, and junior, based on weight.

Standard Kabaddi Court Sizes

Dimension Males Females & Juniors Sub-Juniors

Length 13m 12m 11m

Breadth 10m 8m 8m
Midline 10m 8m 8m
Baulkline from Midline 3.75m 3m 3m
Bonus Line 1m 1m 1m
Lobby 1m 1m 1m

Strategy and Basic Skills

Two types of skills: offensive and defensive.

Defensive Strategy and Skill

Avoiding the opponent
Holding different parts of the raider's body to prevent escape (ankle, heel,
waist, wrist).
Chain trapping
Blocking.

Offensive Strategy and Skill

Raiding is the primary offensive skill.

Cant: The action of the raider making a noise by saying "kabaddi kabaddi"
in the opponent's court.

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Offensive skills include:

Hand touch
Foot touch
Back kick
Mule kick
Side kick
Chain break (jumping).

Simple Rules of Kabaddi

1. The team with the turn must raid within five seconds.
2. A raid lasts only 30 seconds.
3. Only one person should raid at a time.
4. The raider is out if they return without clearing the baulkline or touching a
player.
5. The baulkline is 3.75 or 3 meters from the center line.
6. A bonus line is one meter from the end line.
7. Playing time: two halves of 20 minutes for men, 15 minutes for women.
8. One point is awarded for each dismissal by a raider.
9. Raiding should be done only on your own time.
10. The team with more points in the specified time wins.
11. If points are equal, each team gets five raids. The baulkline is recognized as the
bonus line during these raids.
12. In case of a tie after extra raids, a golden raid is given to the team that started
raiding at the beginning. If the raid is successful, that team wins; if caught, the
raiding team loses.

Kho Kho

Kho Kho: An Overview

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'Kho' means 'go and seek'.

Develops physical fitness, strength, flexibility, agility, and quick decision-
making.
Each team has 12 players, with 9 on the field.
Eight passive chasers and one active chaser.
Runners leave the field when ready.
Teams switch between chasing and running.
The side with the higher score after both innings wins.

Methods of Sitting in a Box

Parallel toe method: Sitting with both knees and hands parallel.
Bullet toe method: Sitting with one leg forward and the other knee behind.

Method of Giving Kho

Cross-step method: Tapping a teammate sitting in the opposite direction.
Proximal method: Using the same knee and hand, regardless of direction.
Different types of 'Kho':
Simple Kho: Giving Kho with one or both hands.
Late Kho: Giving Kho with one foot in the lane.
Early Kho: Giving Kho before reaching the lane.
Fake Kho: Pretending to give Kho.

Running Skill
Avoiding active chasers.
Runners can run anywhere but cannot obstruct or push passive chasers.
A defensive skill.

Simple Rules of Kho Kho

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1. Referees decide runner or chaser roles by draw.

2. Nine players from each team must be on the field.
3. One active chaser is at the pole, with eight passive chasers.
4. The runner captain divides the group into three subgroups with three players
each.
5. If the active chaser commits a foul, they must go in the opposite direction of
the chase.
6. Each group has three additional players.
7. The chaser team scores 1 point each time they touch a runner.

Yoga

Yoga: An Overview
Derived from the Sanskrit word yuj, meaning "to join or become one."
Keeps the body and mind healthy and thoughts pure.
Connects the body and mind through self-discipline.
Raises our level of consciousness.
A medical method and the science and art of organizing life for healthy people.
Maharishi Patanjali brought yoga to common people.

Eight Limbs of Yoga

1. Yama
2. Niyama
3. Asana
4. Pranayama
5. Pratyahara
6. Dharana
7. Dhyana
8. Samadhi

Introduction to Folds of Yoga

Described in Maharishi Patanjali's Yoga Sutras.

Dhyana Path

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Controlling the mind through meditation to focus on a higher level.

A way to reach samadhi by perceiving a form through visualization.

Dharana Path
High development and control of the senses under a guru's guidance.

Concentration on a single subject.

Consciousness is maintained to bring the picture to memory repeatedly.

Practice of Sukshma Kriya

Short and simple yoga activities that can be practiced anywhere.

1. Massage the head with both hands.

2. Gently pull the eyelids of both eyes five to six times with the index finger and
thumb.
3. Roll your eyes clockwise and anticlockwise five to six times.
4. Close the eyes tightly 10-12 times and open them wide.
5. Pull and release the earlobe for 10-15 seconds.
6. Pinch, pull, and release the cheek with the thumb and index finger.
7. Hold the skin of the jaw under the cheek and repeat until the chin.
8. Open your mouth wide and caress your cheek with your hand.
9. Rotate the head clockwise and anticlockwise five to six times.
10. Shake both hands and knees for two minutes.

Bhramani and Vastrika Pranayama

Pranayama is the act of moving, spreading, and controlling breath.

Prana refers to various types of life force including breath.

Aayam refers to the operation and control of those life forces.

Bhramani Pranayama

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1. Sit comfortably in Padmasana or Sidhasana.

2. Straighten your back.
3. Inhale and exhale while relaxed.
4. Keep mouth closed and teeth unclenched.
5. Close your eyes and cover ears with index fingers (optional).
6. Take a deep breath, inflate lungs, and make a deep "Bhun..." sound from the
throat for 10-15 seconds.
7. Repeat five times, like a bee's sound.
Reduces stress, anxiety, anger, and depression.
Lowers blood pressure and removes throat diseases.

Vastrika Pranayama
1. Sit in Bajrasana or Sukhasana.
2. Straighten your back.
3. Bend arms and bring fists to shoulders.
4. Straighten arms and take a deep breath.
5. Drop abdomen and chest quickly and exhale abruptly.
6. Repeat about 20 times.
7. Put hands on knees and breathe in a relaxed state.
Provides oxygen to the body.
Increases lung capacity and removes contaminants.
Prevents respiratory diseases.

Practice of Setubandasana, Makarasana, and Halasana

Setubandasana
1. Sleep on a mat.
2. Lift hip while exhaling.
3. Lift the body with the head and shoulders, leaning against the mat.
4. Slowly lift the head with your hands.
5. Hold for 5-10 seconds.
Strengthens the back of the knees, chest, and neck.
Relieves stress and relaxes the body.
Improves digestion.

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Makarasana
1. Sit in Bajrasana, then lie down with your stomach on the floor.
2. Bring the right hand forward and place it on the left shoulder. Similarly, bring
the left hand forward and place it on the right shoulder, resting your chin.
3. Spread the toes of both feet outwards. Close your eyes.
4. Relax the whole body.
5. Lock both hands behind the head and try to lift the head by supporting the neck
and try to balance the body on the support of the stomach by lifting both knees.
6. Keep the head and knees on the ground and return to the original position.
Place the chin between the palms. Bend both knees and slowly move them up
and down.
Removes stomach disorders.
Relieves high blood pressure, stress, and sleeplessness.

Halasana
1. Lie on your back. Place both hands side by side with palms facing down. Slowly
lift both knees off the ground while inhaling. Support the hips with both hands
and straighten the knees 90 degrees from the ground.
2. Try to touch the ground with the palms while moving the ankle further behind
the head.
3. While bringing the ankles to the ground, come to the starting position.
Reduces fatigue and stress.
Strengthens neck, shoulder, and spine muscles.
Improves ankle flexibility.
Helps with diabetes, heart disease, and constipation.

Introduction to Arts, Line Art and Color

Introduction to Art
Fine art is creating something that expresses a person's emotions through
images or sounds.

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Art includes paintings, sculptures, music, performing arts, and architecture.

It's a way to show emotions, thoughts, and feelings.
Methods to convey emotions:
Literature: stories, poems, essays.
Performing art: singing, playing music, dancing, acting.
Sculpture or painting: shapes, forms, dimensions, and colors.
Architecture: considered fine art.

Historical Significance
Stone Age: Art was magic, artists were magicians.
Egyptians: Art made their afterlife glorious.
Art can show victory over enemies, good actions, and a nation's grandeur.
Art is timeless, inspiring many generations.

Nepali Art

Early Examples
Date back to the Licchavi period (430-879 CE).
Paintings, sculptures, and architecture.
Sculptures are the most available from ancient times.
Sculpture practices existed before the Common Era (BCE).
No artifacts to claim as Kirati art.
Terracotta and stone figurines from Lumbini and Tilaurakot (Yaksha, sun god,
mother goddess, and Nandi).

Key Sculptures
Statue of Virupaksha from Pashupati Aryaghat: Potentially the oldest
sculpture.
Vishnuvikrant from Lazimpat.
Jalasayan Vishnu from Budhanilkantha.
Varaha of Dhumbarahi.
Vishworoopa of Pashupati.
Garuda Narayan of Changunarayan.
Mayadevi of Deopatan.

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Metal and Wood Carvings

Metal sculpture excelled during the 13th century.
Araniko led a troupe to Tibet and China.
Wood carving is significant in Nepali sculpture, especially during the Malla
period.

Paintings
No evidence of Licchavi period paintings.
Manuscripts are important, especially in Buddhist viharas of the Kathmandu
Valley.
Palm leaves were used; sheets were 12-18 inches long and 3-4 inches wide.
Religious texts were written and copied in Buddhist viharas.
Images and patterns painted on sheets, perforated and tied with string.
Wooden planks served as covers, painted with details.
Oldest palm-leaf manuscript: Astasahasrika Prajnaparamita.
Patachitra (painting on cloth) is called Paubha.

Western Influences
Rose with Jung Bahadur Rana.
Pioneers: Rajman Singh Chitrakar, Bhajuman Chitrakar, Purnaman Chitrakar,
Bakhatman Chitrakar, and Dhirgaman Chitrakar.
Chandra Man Singh Maskey and Tej Bahadur Chitrakar were academically
trained.
First art school: Juddha Kala Pathshala, established in 1934 CE.
Lain Singh Bangdel brought modern art in 1961 CE.

Fundamentals of Art
Rules that ensure successful artwork creation.

Include: composition, harmony, balance, rhythm, proportion, perspective, and

foreshortening.
Study focus: balance, proportion, and composition.

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Balance
The painting seems stable and gives a feeling of correctness.

How line, shape, color, form, and texture relate.

Visual weight is balanced so one side does not appear heavier.

Types of Balance

1. Formal or symmetrical balance

2. Informal or asymmetrical balance

Formal or Symmetrical Balance

Both sides of a composition have the same elements in the same position,
like a mirror image.

Common in traditional paintings, patterns, and architectural elements.

Informal or Asymmetrical Balance

The picture is balanced because of the difference between the different

parts of the image.

Achieved by placing a large circle on one side and a small square on the other.
Gives artists more freedom.

Proportion
How big one thing is compared to another.

Important in realistic drawings or paintings.

Artists can use proportion to create an impression.
Changing sizes can make subjects appear powerful, weak, humorous, or
mysterious.
Artists who create caricatures change the size of different parts of the subject’s
body to make a unique and exaggerated image.
Scale: The size of an element.
When drawing a picture of a person, it is believed that the total length of an
adult figure is equal to 7.5 parts of the head.

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Composition
How the different parts of a picture are put together.

The main subject and how elements are positioned.

Includes line, shape, form, color, and texture.
Composition refers to how the different elements are arranged within the
picture space.
Types include:
Diagonal
Triangular
Central
Open

Drawing One or More Objects with Drapery

Artists use cloth## Drawing Drapery Drapery refers to cloth or fabric arranged
to provide attractive forms, express gesture, dramatize light and shade, and add
force, rhythm, and colors to a drawing or painting. It also provides an interesting
background for the subject.

Stages of Drawing Drapery

1. Hang a cloth or handkerchief on a wall or any other surface. Draw the contour
or outline of the drapery.
2. Observe the folding of the drapery and draw with soft lines.
3. Observe the light and shade on the drapery. Start shading your drawing.
Lighter parts require softer shading, while shadow parts need darker shading.
Cross-hatching techniques can be used for shading.
4. Continue from lighter parts to darker shades.
5. If highlights are needed, erase the unnecessary shading.

Still Lifes with Drapery

While drawing still lifes, drapery provides an attractive background. It can be
arranged to add light and shadow to the composition, making the drawing look
realistic and attractive if the effect of light and shadow is well observed.

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Drawing the Human Figure

Drawing human figures is one of the most difficult skills in art and requires
continuous practice.

Proportions
Consider the proportion of the head while drawing a human figure.

Ideally, an adult is equal to seven and a half times the size of the head.
Children are around four times their head size.

Not all humans have the same features in height, weight, and volume.

Quick Sketching
To quickly draw human figures is called quick sketching, which captures the gesture
of the human being. It develops confidence and drawing skills.

The best place to do quick sketching is a marketplace where you will find many
people in different positions and gestures. Observe people in different positions and
quickly draw in your sketchbooks. Start with quick sketches of people sitting or with
minimum movement.

Printmaking
Printmaking is making art by printing it on paper or other surfaces. Various
techniques exist for creating prints.

Wood Carving for Prints

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1. Choose a type of soft wood that is easy to carve yet maintains details. Ensure
the wood is cleaned and dried, and the surface is smooth.
2. Sketch designs, shapes, or letters on paper and stick them on the wood.
3. Use carving tools to remove extra parts. Remember, the carved-out surface
won't hold ink and won't be printed.
4. Clean the surface well after carving. Use a roller to apply a thin layer of printing
ink on the wood surface.
5. Place a piece of paper on top and softly rub it with a spoon or a baren.
6. Verify the ink transfer by gradually lifting a portion of the paper. If the ink has
been properly transferred, remove the paper.

Clay Work
Clay is a popular material for making objects for daily use and can be burned to make
utensils, ceramics, and sculptures. It is a versatile medium that can be worked using
coiling, pinching, additive, or subtractive methods.

Process of Making Clay Sculptures

1. Pick soft and clean clay. Remove unnecessary particles from the lump and add
water to knead it. Ready-made clay is also available.
2. Decide what you want to create and start with simple forms like pots or
jewelry.
3. Do some research to explore your interests.
4. Choose suitable methods such as pinching, coiling, or any other.
5. Use additive and subtractive processes.

Collage
Collage is an artwork made by pasting various different materials such as
photographs, fabric, newspaper, pieces of paper, or fabric onto a surface.
The term comes from the French word 'Papier colle,' which means pasted
paper.

Types of Collage
Photo montage: A collage made by combining photographs.
Fabric collage: A collage made by sticking items like cloth, jute, sack, etc.
Digital collages: Created using computers and information technology.

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Steps to Construct a Collage

1. Select the material on which the collage will be made, such as paper, canvas,
hardboard, or wooden boards.
2. Collect materials like photographs, cloths, threads, jute, etc.
3. Choose a theme and select photographs according to the shape, color, and
feeling.
4. Keep the subject according to the picture, and cut out or tear the edges of the
picture.
5. Apply your favorite color on the background as needed, but do not use too
much color.
6. Let it dry in a place without sunlight.
7. After drying, put it on the wall and observe.
8. Complete the collage by pasting or writing letters at the required place.

Construction
Construction work involves using different types of materials such as
wood, wire, rope, cardboard, metal, hardboard, etc., to create three-
dimensional artworks.

Construction with Paper and Cardboard

Use paper, cardboard, packaging boxes, egg trays, or wasted newspapers. Decide
what kind of artwork you wish to create and collect materials accordingly. Join these
materials using tape, stapler pins, thread, or glue. Paint your construction if you wish
to.

Construction with Wire

Understand lines, shapes, forms, and movement. Wire can be made straight, twisted,
or curved as required. Flexible wire, electrical wire, and other metal wire would be
suitable.

Wire Sculptures

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Wire sculptures do not need to be painted. Be careful while handling wires to avoid
injuries from sharp edges.

Singing and Playing Instrument

Singing: The art of presenting one's feelings through words, melody, and
rhythm.
Playing: The art of playing various musical instruments in tune and rhythm.

A person who has the art of singing is called a singer, while a person who has the art
of playing an instrument is called a musician.

Importance of Music in Human Life

Physical Benefits
Music is a powerful medium for physical and mental happiness. It can be used in
music therapy to treat different types of patients, improve memory, bring good sleep,
and provide comfort to people in pain. It is effective in improving memory and
increasing immunity.

Psychological Benefits
Music helps to overcome fear, anger, anxiety, and grief, and increases self-esteem
and self-confidence. It is considered helpful for peace of mind and increases
happiness, memory, and learning ability.

Social Benefits
Music promotes positive social integration, enhances friendly relationships, awakens
people's consciousness, removes social distortions and disparities, and promotes
social harmony. It plays an important role in cultivating a sense of national unity.

Spiritual Benefits

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Music keeps the mind stable and focused. Reciting Vedic mantras in the tone and
rhythm of music has a positive effect on the environment, improves clarity in
pronunciation, increases memory power, and keeps the mind serene and calm.

Terminology of Music

Octave
An octave is a series of eight notes in a musical scale. There are seven
different consecutive notes of the musical scale, and the eighth note is the
repetition of the first or root note which is double the frequency of the first
or root note.

In Western musical system it is called octave but in Nepali Classical music it is called
"Saptak". Harmoniums usually have 37 to 42 keys to play those notes; while grand
pianos have up to 88 frets in which there are 52 white and 36 black keys.

The average human vocal range is about three octaves. The low octave is used for a
deep or hoarse voice, the middle octave is used for a normal voice, and the high
octave is used for a sharp voice.

Thaat
Thaat refers to a structured group of seven notes that form the basis of
ragas.

Thaat is not sung, but it is used to organize and systematize ragas. In modern times,
scholars have created ten such groups of notes, from which all ragas are said to have
been derived, with some exceptions.

Scale
A scale is a set of musical notes ordered by fundamental frequencies or
pitches based on the principles of music theory.

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Ascending: The scale starts with the note which has the lowest pitch and goes
up to the note with the highest pitch.
Descending: The scale starts with the note which has the highest pitch and
goes down to the note with the lowest pitch.

Songs are composed based on scales. Scales are the building blocks of any musical
composition. The scale of the song is determined by examining the nature of the song
and the singer.

There are two processes to identify the notes in the scale:

1. First process: Move in one interval at a time (half step or semitone).

2. Second process: Skip one note and play the next note (whole step).

Major Scale
The C major scale is easy to play because it does not use black keys. The notes of the
C major scale are played when all the keys from 1 to 8 in the image are played. The
major scale consists of seven notes. The intervals can be expressed with the
following equation:

W − W − H − W − W − W − H

W = Whole step H = Half step

Playing the major scale requires playing the root note first and then Tone, Tone,
Semitone, Tone, Tone, Tone, and Semitone respectively. It is also called the pattern of
whole step, whole step, half step, whole step, whole step, whole step, half step
(WWHWWWH).

Minor Scale
The minor scale also includes seven notes. Alright, here's a markdown study guide
based on the provided lecture transcript, designed to be comprehensive, clear, and
easily appended to other study guides.

Minor Scales
In the minor scale, there's a half-step interval specifically between:

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Re and Komal Ga
Pa and Komal Dha

No other notes are played between these tones.

Constructing a Minor Scale

1. Leave out Tivra Ma (F#).
2. Move one tone up to Pa (G).
3. Move to Komal Dha (Ab).
4. Move to Kamal Ni (Bb).
5. Finally, move to Sa1 (C1).

This progression can be summarized as: Tone, Semitone, Tone, Tone, Semitone, Tone,
and Tone, respectively.

Alternatively: Whole step, half step, whole step, whole step, half step, whole step,
and whole step (W-H-W-W-H-W-W).

Practical Application
Practice familiarizing yourself with the sounds. Use the colored keys as a reference.

Raga (Raag)
Raga is a melodic framework or a musical mode consisting of a set of
notes arranged in a specific sequence, often associated with a particular
mood or emotion. Ragas are not fixed compositions but rather a set of
guidelines that provide a framework for improvisation.

Characteristics of a Raga

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Minimum Notes: A raga should have at least 5 swaras (notes).

Maximum Notes: At most, it should have 7 swaras.
Classification by Notes Used:
Audava: Raga using 5 notes.
Shadava: Raga using 6 notes.
Sampoorna: Raga using 7 notes.
Thaat Basis: Each raga is based on a particular thaat.
Note Importance: Notes are named based on usage importance: vadi, samvadi,
anuvadi, vivadi, varjya, etc.
Singing Times: Ragas have different prescribed singing times.

Prominent Ragas
Alhaiya Vilaval
Yaman
Bhupali
Durga
Kafi
Bhairav
Bhairavi
Khamaj
Ashawari
Marwa
Purvi
Todi

Most ragas use the swaras according to the thaats mentioned above.

Example Activity: Raga Yaman

1. Play 'Sa' and 'Pa' continuously on a harmonium or keyboard.
2. Sing Sa, Pa in harmony with the harmonium.
3. Practice singing embellishments after vowels in Sa and Pa.
4. Play the harmonium while singing.

Aaroh, Avaroh and Alapswaras of the Raga Yaman

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Aroh (ascent): Ni Re Ga Ma Dha Ni Sa'

Avroh (descent): Sa' Ni Dha Pa Ma Ga Re Sa
Pakad: Ni Re Ga Re, Ni Re Sa, Pa Ma Ga Re Ni Re Sa

Sthayi and Antara

Sthayi
The starting two lines or couplet at the beginning of any song is called the
Sthayi of the song. It usually consists of two lines.

There is only one Sthayi in a song.

The sthayi is the main section of the song, which establishes the melody and is
usually repeated multiple times throughout the song.
It sets the tone and mood for the entire piece.
It carries the feeling, sweetness, and beauty of the entire song.

Antara
The Antara is a contrasting section that follows the sthayi. It typically has
a different melody or rhythm and provides a variation or contrast to the
sthayi.

The Antara can be thought of as a bridge between different parts of the song.
Antara can have two, three, four, or more lines.
Modern songs may contain two, three, or up to four antaras, while folk songs
and dohori songs may contain several antaras.

Shastriya Sangeet
Music based on scriptures is called Shastriya Sangeet.

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Artists must adhere to the rules of the scriptures.

Specific tones and intonations should be used as instructed.

Example: Raga Yaman originates from Kalyan Thaat, thus, Tivra Madhyam (F#)
note should be used.

Artists can add emotion but cannot use voices contrary to the scriptures.

Practical and theoretical aspects of raga singing and playing are studied
according to prescribed methods.

Training under a qualified teacher is essential.

Folk Songs ‍
Folk songs are simple, easy, and accessible songs of common people.

Do not adhere to rigid guidelines.

Very simple, natural, and emotional.
Sung by folk artists for folk entertainment.
Have unidentified creators.
Traditionally passed down from one generation to the next.
Play a vital role in auspicious occasions.
Performed by singing, playing, and dancing in a group.
Depict the story of human life, expressing human emotions.

Modern Songs
The songs that are composed embracing modernity according to the
demands and needs of modern times are called modern songs.

Words and expressions are major parts.

Influenced by traditional and folk songs.
Evolved from folk songs with new styles.

Class Song ‍
A class song is a song prepared for a particular class keeping in mind the
age and level of the students.

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Sung after entering the classroom following the daily morning prayer.
Contains themes of patriotism, respect, unity, and bravery.

Keyboard/Harmonium Practice

General Knowledge
Prior knowledge of the harmonium or keyboard is important.

Finger Movement
Practice correct finger movements using one or both hands.

Notation
Pay close attention to which fingers fall on which keys and play accordingly.

Major and Minor Scales in Songs

If the notes used in a song are all natural, then the song is in the major
scale.

If the song has komal ga, komaldha and komalni (Eb, Ab and Bb) notes and remaining
notes are natural then it is a minor scale song.

Shuddha (Natural), Komal (Flat) and Tivra (Sharp) notes.

Major Scale: Uses only natural notes (Sa Re Ga Ma Pa Dha Ni).
Minor Scale: Uses Kamal ga, dha and ni notes.
Major scale is denoted by English letters from A to G, such as: G/NC.
Minor scale is denoted by putting an English small letter behind these letters,
such as: Gm/Am/Cm.

Example: National anthem of Nepal "Sayaun Thunga Phulka Hami" uses Kamal ga
and komalni notes, so it is a minor scale song.

Percussion Practice (Tabla)

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Tabla
Tabla is a popular percussion instrument used in classical and soft music.
It is very popular in South Asian countries including Nepal, India, Pakistan,
Bangladesh, and Sri Lanka.

The origin of the name Tabla is believed to be from the Arabic Persian root word
Tabl.

Practice Steps
1. Arrangement: Sit properly to play the tabla.
2. Sound Production: Practice producing sounds based on syllables (bols).

Kaharwa Taal
One of the most popular Taals.
Made up of eight beats.
Has 2 vibhags (parts).
Has 1 Tali and 1 Khali.

Dadra Taal
Another most popular Tal.
Made up of 6 beats.
Has 2 vibhags.
Has 1 Tali and 1 Khali.

Rupak Taal
Another popular Taal.
Has 7 beats.
Has 3 vibhags.
Has 1 Tali and 2 Khali.
Sam falls on the Khali.

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Jhap Taal
Another popular Taal.
Has 10 beats.
There are 4 vibhags.
It has 3 Tali and 1 Khali.

Rhythm (Taal) Introduction and Practice

The relation between Sur and Taal (melody and rhythm) is indispensable.
They are incomplete without each other.

Melody, tunes played on a musical instrument, singing, and dance are all guided
by the rhythm.

A Taal is a composition made by combining different bols or syllables

coming out of a musical instrument having a certain number of beats,
division, Tali, and Khali.

Jhyaure Taal
Played in Jhyaure songs in folk music.
6 beats divided into 2 equal parts.
Used a lot in folk music.

Khyali Taal
8 beats rhythm played in Khyali songs or dances in folk music.
8 beats are divided into 2 divisions of 4 beats each.
One of the most popular taals.

Samhala Taal
Same beats as Khyali.
Belongs to the group of Khyali Taal.
8 beats are divided into 2 divisions of 4 beats each.

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Selo Taal
Same number of beats as Khyali and Samhala.
Also falls under the group of Khyali Taal.
8 beats are divided into 2 divisions of 4 beats each.
Damphu is an instrument played on the Selo.

Local Folk Instruments

Local folk instruments are made using locally available means and
materials.

Sarangi
Sarangi is a very popular instrument among the original folk instruments
of Nepal.

Traditional instrument of the Gandharva caste.

Named Sarangi because it makes a melodious sound like a stork bird.
Big sarangi is called Arbajo.
Its voice is referred to as male, while the voice of the small sarangi is referred to
as female.
Parts are named after the parts of the horse.

Music Exercises and Notation

Notation Practice
Practice playing the given musical notations on a melodic instrument.

Taal Practice
Practice playing local taals of your choice, referring to the given taals of 6 beats.

When using Saman laya, Dugun, and Tigun layas, play or recite 2 or 3 beats
simultaneously within the time it takes to play or recite 1 beat.

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For grouping the bols (syllables) of tabla or madal, each set of bols is written on a
curve symbol resembling a crescent. For example:

(Ghin) = (TaKaGhinTang)

The time taken for playing or reciting Ghin and TaKaGhinTang should be the same.

Dance and Acting

Introduction
In Nepal, dance and singing are integral to feasts, fairs, and festivals, reflecting
customs and traditions. Dance expresses emotions and life experiences through body
movement synchronized with music. Music is essential to dance, and acting is related
to dance, involving the imitation of a character's emotions using body parts,
costumes, vision, posture, and gestures.

Types of Dance and Their Importance

Folk Dance
A dance performed with independent body postures to folk music,
presenting cultural traditions and customs prevalent in folk life. It reflects
the cultural forms associated with place, costumes, religion, customs, and
culture.

Examples of popular Nepali folk dances include Jhyaure, Khyali, Kaura, Maruni,
Bhojpuri, Maithili, Sherpa, Newari, Tamang, and Tharu dances. Folk dance
emphasizes makeup, facial expressions, and costumes, embodying national identity
passed down through generations.

Classical Dance
A dance performed in line with the melody, rhythm, tempo, and beats of
music, using acting to express moods and emotions through body
postures (mudras) and movements.

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Classical dance follows the rules of scriptures with prescribed music and body
postures (angamudra). Singers, instrumentalists, and dancers need sound knowledge
of classical music and acting. Examples include Bharata Natyam, Kathak dance, and
Charya dance.

Modern Dance
Occurs when a creator adds something new to folk or classical dances, or
when an old tradition is modified and presented in a new style.

These dances are always evolving, suiting the needs of the nation, time,
circumstance, and audience. Examples include Lyrical Hip-hop, Lyrical B-boying, and
Lyrical Contemporary. These dances focus on the meaning of each word.

Traditional Dance
Dances that are a mixture of classical and folk dances, using traditional
music and postures.

Influenced by ethnic costumes, religion, and culture, they often involve religious
rituals with a belief in divine powers. Examples include Bhairava dance, Nrisimha
dance, Sorathi, and Ghatu.

Postures (Mudra)

Hasta Mudra
Hand gestures used in dance and acting.

Samyukta Hasta Mudra: Joint hand gestures.

Asamyukta Hasta Mudra: Disjointed hand gestures.

Asamyukta Mudras (Disjointed Hand Gestures)

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Mudra Description Use

All fingers straight and together,

thumb bent to touch the base of the Giving blessings, taking an oath,
Pataka
index finger. Also called Abhaya forbidding something, closing a door.
Mudra.
Four fingers bent from Musthi Mudra, Denoting Kamadeva, holding a bow,
Shikhar
thumb raised up. asking questions, hugging.
Showing the chakra, showing locks
Soochi Index finger raised upright.
of hair, indicating something.
Denoting a full-grown lotus, asking
Spreading all fingers yet ending them
Alpadma a question, explaining beauty,
slightly.
showing one's village surroundings.

Samyukta Mudras (Joint Hand Gestures)

Mudra Description Use

Humble greeting, a sense of unity,

Two hands joined together
Kapot obedience, respect, peace, respectful
bending the fingers slightly.
acceptance, or acceptance of something.
Both hands arecrossed and is
Utsang brought below the shoulder Denoting hug, shyness, ornament.
without touching each other

Folk Dance: Introduction and Practice

Folk dances are performed on local folk songs and instruments. Examples include
Kauda, Jhyaure, Maruni, Mayur, Sorathi, Dhime, Tamang, Bhojpuri, Maithili, Jhangad,
Tappa, Deuda, and Hudkeli.

Jhyaure Dance
A complement to Nepali culture, especially based on the theme of love.

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Popular among young people, it expresses happiness when lovers meet. It can be
danced at any time and on any occasion, presenting acting based on the union or
separation of lovers. Jhyaure is danced in almost all parts of Nepal. It is a means of
entertainment in the Gandaki region.

Jhyaure Taal: Rhythm specifically played in Jhyaure songs.

Sorathi Dance
A popular dance in the mid-hills of Nepal, it is the main dance song of the
Dura, Kumal, Rai, Gurung, and Magar ethnic groups around Gandaki,
Lumbini, and Karnali Pradesh.

The name Sorathi is said to have come from being danced for sixteen days or from
praising Queen Sorathi. Madal players do the makeup of the dancing girls and
awaken Saraswati in them.

Sung with Madal, mujura, cymbals, Kartal, bansuri.

Characters dance in traditional costumes:
Men: bhoto, kachhad, istakot, feta, top or kundal, rittha garlands.
Women: chaubandi choli, ghanghar, kannu, patuki, pachhyaura, gold
jantar, naugedi mala, gold bangles, khankar.
Laami Taal: Has 14 beats, 4 divisions, and is played slowly.
Chhoti Tal: Has 8 beats, 2 divisions, and is played at a fast pace.

Selo Dance
The identity of the Tamang people.

Tamang people have their own traditional language, religion, customs, and culture.
Selo is a very important cultural dance of the traditional Tamang society, often
performed during festivals like Sonam Lhosar and Buddha Poornima to the rhythm of
Damphu. Damphu and Selo are complementary.

Khyali Dance
More prevalent in the Western region, famous among the Gurung and
Magar castes in the Gandaki Pradesh.

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Khyali is the main root for the different rhythms of folk songs and is sung and danced
by playing the rhythm of Khyali. Various mythological songs, Sorathi songs, and
historical songs are sung and danced in Khyali. The expressions are mostly laughter,
teasing, and retorting among young men and women.

Khyali Taal: A popular rhythm of 8 beats.

Samhala Taal: Another taal used in folk music with the same number of beats
as Khyali, divided into two divisions of 4 beats each.

Acting
A performing art in which the actor presents incidents from society on
stage with all the necessary materials in accordance with the rules for
exhibiting art.

Acting conveys the emotions of the subject using body posture, language, costumes,
and jewelry, imitating the character's behavior and lifestyle as if it were real. It helps
in personality development, developing skills in speaking, thinking, singing, dancing,
and understanding the situation of their village.

Types of Acting
1. Vachik: Expressions presented through speech.
2. Angik: Presenting action through body language.
3. Aharya: Acting decorated with make-up, clothes, and ornaments.
4. Satvik: Translating other people's emotions into acting, including expressions
like surprise, fainting, changes in voice, changes in the face, body trembling,
excitement, the flow of tears, and sweating.

Character Acting
The presentation of acting that imitates a person, character, or subject, with suitable
characters, costumes, and dialogues.

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