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Table of Contents
Preface
Acknowledgments
About the Authors
PART I EXAMINING THE FOUNDATIONS OF EDUCATIONAL
RESEARCH
CHAPTER 1 • Studying Education Practice With Research
Considering the Value of Research
Introduction
Practitioner-Scholars Defined
Using Problems of Practice to Frame Research
Reflective Opportunity 1.1
An Overview of the Problems of Practice
Problem of Practice 1: Promoting Educational Equity in Student
Achievement
Problem of Practice 2: Implementing Education Policies
Problem of Practice 3: Reforming and Improving Educational
Organizations
Problem of Practice 4: Improving Instructional and Leadership
Practice
The Purposes and Types of Educational Research
Link to Practice 1.1
Reflective Opportunity 1.2
Research Paradigms
Unpacking Five Research Paradigms
Reflective Opportunity 1.3
Defining Research Methodologies and Research Methods
Link to Practice 1.2
CHAPTER 2 • Designing a Research Study
Developing a Research Study
Introduction
The Overarching Research Process
Identifying a Problem of Practice and Formulating It as a Research
Problem
From the Field 2.1
Reflective Opportunity 2.1
Designing a Study
Carrying Out Your Study and Analyzing Your Data
Reflective Opportunity 2.2
Writing and Sharing Your Results/Findings
Designing a Research Study
Formulating a Research Problem
From the Field 2.2
From the Field 2.3
Developing Research Questions
Link to Practice 2.1
Identifying a Conceptual or Theoretical Framework
Selecting a Methodology: A Decision-Making Process
Link to Practice 2.2
Selecting the Research Methods
Determining the Approach to Data Analysis
Link to Practice 2.3
Qualitative Data Analysis
Quantitative Data Analysis
Link to Practice 2.4
Carrying Out the Study
Reflective Opportunity 2.3
CHAPTER 3 • Reviewing the Literature
Figuring Out Where to Begin Your Review of the Literature
Introduction
The Importance of the Literature Review
Reflective Opportunity 3.1
Unpacking the Literature Review
From the Field 3.1
From the Field 3.2
From the Field 3.3
From the Field 3.4
From the Field 3.5
Difference Between Qualitative and Quantitative Literature Reviews
From the Field 3.6
The Process of Conducting a Literature Review
Identifying a Topic for the Literature Review
Accessing Resources
Link to Practice 3.1
Reflective Opportunity 3.2
Searching the Literature and Identifying Resources
Assessing the Types of Resources Available
Identifying and Evaluating Research as Good or Reputable
Link to Practice 3.2
Reflective Opportunity 3.3
Staying Organized and Updated: A Few Reminders
Using Technology to Complete the Literature Review
Citation Management Systems
Annotation Tools
Reflective Opportunity 3.4
CHAPTER 4 • Considering Research Ethics
Facing Ethical Challenges
Introduction
Ethics and Educational Research
Inviting Participants’ Consent and Assent
Link to Practice 4.1
Legal and Institutional Ethical Requirements
From the Field 4.1
Reflective Opportunity 4.1
Link to Practice 4.2
Managing Research Relationships with Schools and Districts
Considering Ethics Across the Research Process
The Role of Ethics in Planning and Designing a Study
The Role of Ethics in Carrying Out a Study
Link to Practice 4.3
Reflective Opportunity 4.2
The Role of Ethics in Reporting Research Findings
Emerging Ethical Challenges
Reflective Opportunity 4.3
PART II CONSIDERING APPROACHES TO EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH
CHAPTER 5 • Introducing Qualitative Research
Conducting Qualitative Research
Introduction
Characteristics of Qualitative Research
Researcher as Instrument
From the Field 5.1
Focus on Context
From the Field 5.2
Reflective Opportunity 5.1
From the Field 5.3
Reflective Opportunity 5.2
Emergent Research Design
Inductive Approach
From the Field 5.4
Diverse Data Sources
Qualitative Methodologies
Link to Practice 5.1
Case Study
Grounded Theory
Narrative
Link to Practice 5.2
From the Field 5.5
Phenomenology
Link to Practice 5.3
Ethnography
Reflective Opportunity 5.3
Discourse Analysis
Link to Practice 5.4
CHAPTER 6 • Introducing Quantitative Research
Conducting Quantitative Research
Introduction
Quantitative Research: Aims and Purposes
Characteristics of Quantitative Research
Reflective Opportunity 6.1
Quantitative Research Designs
Experimental Research Designs
Single-Subject Experimental Research Designs
Non-Experimental Research Designs
Link to Practice 6.1
Reflective Opportunity 6.2
From the Field 6.1
Causal-Comparative and Correlational Designs
From the Field 6.2
From the Field 6.3
Link to Practice 6.2
Secondary Data Analysis (or Data Mining)
Reflective Opportunity 6.3
Survey Research
Link to Practice 6.3
CHAPTER 7 • Collecting Qualitative and Quantitative Data
Carrying Out Your Research
Introduction
Sampling Strategies
Sampling in Qualitative Research
Convenience Sampling
Purposeful Sampling
Snowball Sampling
From the Field 7.1
Link to Practice 7.1
Sampling in Quantitative Research
Simple Random Sampling
Systematic Sampling
Stratified Sampling
From the Field 7.2
Considerations When Sampling Effective Schools or Districts
Site Access and Participant Recruitment
Reflective Opportunity 7.1
Acquiring Access to Research Sites
Recruiting Participants for Your Research Study
Link to Practice 7.2
Collecting Qualitative Data
Interviews and Focus Groups
From the Field 7.3
Conducting the Interview
Observations
From the Field 7.4
Documents
Reflective Opportunity 7.2
Collecting Quantitative Data
Student Assessments
Research Instruments
Surveys
Public-Use Datasets or Extant Data
Considering Technology Tools to Support Data Collection
CHAPTER 8 • Completing Qualitative Data Analysis
Analyzing Qualitative Data
Introduction
Defining Qualitative Data Analysis: Aims and Purposes
From the Field 8.1
From the Field 8.2
Carrying Out Qualitative Data Analysis
Link to Practice 8.1
Preparing and Organizing Your Data for Analysis
Becoming Familiar With Your Data
Reflective Opportunity 8.1
Transcribing Your Data
Memoing Your Data
Reflective Opportunity 8.2
From the Field 8.3
Coding Your Data
Moving from Codes to Categories and Categories to Themes
Making an Analysis Map
Knowing When Your Analysis Is Complete
Link to Practice 8.2
Issues of Validity in Qualitative Research
Reflective Opportunity 8.3
Link to Practice 8.3
Technology That Supports Qualitative Data Analysis
Quotation Feature
Memo Feature
Coding Feature
Visualizing/Display Feature
CHAPTER 9 • Completing Quantitative Data Analysis
Analyzing Quantitative Data
Introduction
Quantitative Data Analysis: A Cyclical Approach
Preparing the Dataset
Identifying Types of Variables
From the Field 9.1
Descriptive Statistics: Identifying Patterns, Trends, and Frequencies
Measures of Central Tendency
From the Field 9.2
Measures of Variability
Graphing the Data
Selecting and Running Inferential Statistics
Hypothesis Testing
Link to Practice 9.1
From the Field 9.3
Link to Practice 9.2
Type-I and Type-II Error
Reflective Opportunity 9.1
Calculating Inferential Statistics
Identifying Relationships and Differences Between Variables
A Few of the Most Common Statistical Tests
t-Test
Analysis of Variance (ANOVA)
Simple Linear Regression or Multiple Regressions
Chi-Square
Identifying Missing or Out-of-Range Values
Link to Practice 9.3
Reflective Opportunity 9.2
Reliability and Validity in Quantitative Research
Technology That Supports Quantitative Data Analysis
Reflective Opportunity 9.3
CHAPTER 10 • Introducing Mixed Methods Research and Analysis
Contemplating a Mixed Methods Research Study
Introduction
Defining Mixed Methods Research
From the Field 10.1
Characteristics of Mixed Methods Research
Link to Practice 10.1
Reflective Opportunity 10.1
Mixed Methods Research Designs
Link to Practice 10.2
Models of Mixed Methods Research
Convergent Parallel Design
Explanatory Sequential Design
Exploratory Sequential Design
From the Field 10.2
Embedded Design
From the Field 10.3
Multiphase Design (Multi-Study)
Transformative Design
Reflective Opportunity 10.2
Selecting a Fixed or Emergent Mixed Methods Design
Beyond Selecting a Mixed Methods Model
Carrying Out a Mixed Methods Study
Mixed Methods Analysis
Analyzing Data in a Fixed or Emergent Mixed Methods Research
Design
Link to Practice 10.3
Reflective Opportunity 10.3
Technology to Support Mixed Methods Analysis
CHAPTER 11 • Introducing Action Research
Seeing a Need for Action Research
Introduction
Overview of Action Research
Definition of Action Research
Reflective Opportunity 11.1
Types of Action Research
From the Field 11.1
Criticisms of Action Research
Link to Practice 11.1
The Action Research Cycle
Identify a Problem of Practice for an Action Research Study
From the Field 11.2
Analyze Existing Data to Develop an Explanation
Develop an Intervention or Response
Reflective Opportunity 11.2
Systematically Collect Qualitative and Quantitative Data
Analyze Data to Identify Potential Explanations
Assess the Impact of the Intervention or Response
Link to Practice 11.2
Reflective Opportunity 11.3
Unique Considerations for Action Research
Using Technology in Action Research
From the Field 11.3
Reflective Opportunity 11.4
PART III PRODUCING RESEARCH TO IMPROVE PRACTICE
CHAPTER 12 • Writing the Research
Writing Up Your Research Findings
Introduction
Engaging in the Academic Writing Process
Determining the Type of Report or Paper
Considering Your Audience
Making Thoughtful Language Choices
From the Field 12.1
Using Language Sensitively
From the Field 12. 2
Using Pronouns
From the Field 12. 3
Link to Practice 12.1
Using APA Manuscript Style
Reflective Opportunity 12.1
The Basic Structure of a Research Report
Writing the Introduction
Writing the Literature Review
Writing the Methods Section
From the Field 12.4
From the Field 12. 5
Formulating Arguments and Presenting Findings
Link to Practice 12.2
Reflective Opportunity 12.2
Technologies to Support Writing and Disseminating Research
Technologies to Support the Writing Process
Scrivener
CHAPTER 13 • Using and Sharing Research to Improve Practice
Seeing the Process Through
Introduction
Revisiting the Meaning of Practitioner-Scholarship
From the Field 13.1
Research as an Opportunity to Reflect, Refine, and Renew
Technologies to Support Sharing Research
Blogs and Websites
Digital Storytelling
Reflective Opportunity 13.1
Summarizing the Research Process and the Methodologies Presented
Reflective Opportunity 13.2
Returning to the Place We Began: Problems of Practice
Reflective Opportunity 13.3
Glossary
References
Index
Preface
Aims of the Textbook
There are many introductory educational research textbooks available. The majority of
these textbooks provide a balanced discussion of qualitative, quantitative, and mixed
methods approaches to research and discuss the basics of how to conduct educational
research and evaluate published research studies. Similarly, this textbook offers a balanced
discussion across research methodologies and presents the basics of the research process.
However, when we set out to write this textbook, we wanted to take a slightly different
approach to the discussion of educational research. The majority of research textbooks
present research in a research-first manner, with research methodologies and methods as
the prime focus and implications for practice dealt with last or as separate “case studies.”
While this approach is useful for many students, in our own teaching we have found that
students who are currently immersed in professional practice often struggle to see the
connection between learning about the details and language of evaluating and conducting
educational research and their own professional practice. Further, many students find
research-first discussions of educational research intimidating or simply disconnected
from their daily lives. As such, we wanted to write a book for practitioners who inherently
strive to understand their professional work in more detail and who may also seek to
improve schools, districts, and educational organizations by conducting research within
these contexts. We refer to these individuals—indeed, to you—as practitioner-scholars
because we believe that it captures the nature of your work and the strength of your
interest in improving schools. More specifically, we wrote this book for classroom
teachers, teacher leaders, school and district administrators—those who individually and
collectively act as leaders in schools and districts.
The students we have worked with come from a diverse array of professional experiences,
many of which uniquely equip them to understand research through the lens of a
practitioner-scholar. Many of these practitioner-scholars enter our research methods
classrooms with a comprehensive understanding of the work that takes place on a daily
basis in their schools, districts, and educational organizations. They ask compelling and
interesting questions related to the problems of practice that they face each day. Many of
these same problems are found in the annals of educational research and are the focus of
scholars’ lives and careers. Recognizing the relationship between problems of practice and
educational research, in An Introduction to Educational Research: Connecting Methods to
Practice, we adopt a practice-first orientation. We aim to provide the reader with an
introduction to educational research in a way that aligns with their professional
experiences and illuminates the ever-present connections between these experiences and
educational research. Throughout the textbook, we incorporate problems of practice,
linking these problems to particular steps of the research process, theoretical perspectives,
research methodologies, and methods. In addition, we present links to specific research
practices throughout the textbook to highlight how practitioner-scholars undertake
research and, in practical terms, what that undertaking involves.
More particularly, this book serves five purposes. First, we provide you with a broad
introduction to the research process. Second, we assist you in becoming conversant in the
language of research, which will support you as you develop abilities related to the critical
consumption of research and the process of conducting research. Third, we offer
illustrative problems of practice that illuminate the connections between research and your
practice as a practitioner-scholar. Fourth, in exposing you to these problems of practice,
we hope to prepare you to identify research topics and ideas that you might study
independently or with your colleagues. Fifth, through reflective opportunities staged
throughout the book, we assist you in considering your identity as a researcher, identifying
your assumptions about responsibly conducting research, and weighing various
approaches to research given your particular interests and values.
It is important to keep in mind that the purpose of this textbook is not to introduce you to
all research methodologies and methods equally. Rather, the purpose is to prepare you to
connect specific research methodologies and methods with common problems of practice.
In orienting to the textbook this way, we acknowledge that some topics will not be
covered in depth or with sufficient breadth. Instead, we focus on those topics that we
believe are most essential to helping you develop the skills you need to think as a
researcher would in your own area of professional practice.
We thus strongly encourage you to see this book as a starting point in your learning
process—one that provides you with some useful tools for thinking critically about
educational research. Yet, we recognize that you will not become a practitioner-scholar
simply by reading this textbook. Rather, we invite you to view this textbook as one step in
the process toward an improved understanding of research, deeper appreciation for
professional practice, and a more compelling grasp of the connections between these two
worlds. Further, we invite you to begin thinking about how you might engage in the
practice of research in relation to your current work, as any textbook or methods course
can only take you so far. There will come a point at which you will need to go out and do
what you are reading about.
Organization of the Textbook
This textbook is organized in three parts. In Part I, we establish a broad context for
educational research methodologies (for example, qualitative and quantitative) and their
related methods (that is, procedures used to carry out a research study). We use
contemporary problems of practice (for example, the achievement gap) to orient you to
problems that can be explored through various research methodologies, while introducing
you to the varied purposes and definitions of educational research. In Part I, we also
review four broad approaches to educational research (qualitative, quantitative, mixed
methods, and action research) and associate these research methodologies with specific
problems of practice. We also consider the process of searching for relevant literature and
evaluating the quality of a published research study. We end the first section by
considering the foundational role of ethics in conducting research.
In Part II, we focus on the data collection and analysis processes, while also providing you
with an opportunity to consider some of the common approaches to qualitative and
quantitative research. In addition, we discuss mixed methods approaches to research and
analysis, as well as action research. Throughout, we highlight various technologies that
can support the data collection and analysis process.
In Part III, we provide a focused discussion around the process of writing and presenting
research findings for key stakeholders. We give particular attention to emergent practices
for disseminating research findings, particularly to groups of people who are engaged in
the work of schools, districts, and educational organizations. We conclude the textbook by
returning to the problems of practice to highlight the various ways in which research
methodologies can be used to understand, examine, critique, and address these problems.
We use this discussion as a springboard to encourage you to begin identifying, defining,
and carrying out a research study of your own.
Textbook Features to Support Learning
Throughout the textbook, we have included several features aimed at supporting your
learning. Each chapter begins by listing the key learning objectives. These objectives
point toward central ideas to consider and come back to as you read and study a particular
chapter. To support this feature, we provide Reflective Opportunities in each chapter,
which are invitations for you to think more deeply about a concept, and, at times, make
personal connections to your practice. These Reflective Opportunities are intended to help
you identify your own assumptions as a researcher, clarify your beliefs about responsibly
conducting research, and consider various strategies for carrying out research. We also
include Links to Practice in many of the chapters, which illustrate in practical terms
various steps in the research process, as well as how you might approach the research
process. As a complement to the Links to Practice, most of the chapters include From the
Field boxes, which provide illustrative examples drawn directly from published literature.
After each chapter’s summary, we list key terms with abbreviated definitions. These
defined concepts are intended to revisit the language of research and reinforce your
current understanding of the material presented in a given chapter. Following the key
terms, we provide Questions to Consider designed to facilitate individual reflection, as
well as small and large group discussions. If you are reading this book independent of a
class or without a group of colleagues, these questions might serve as a way for you to
check and extend your understanding. At the end of each chapter, four chapter exercises
are included that provide you with tasks designed to encourage you to apply what you
have read within a given chapter. We also offer recommended readings, which we refer to
as Learning Extensions. Because we assume that this textbook is only one component of
your learning process as a practitioner-scholar, we believe it is important to provide you
with suggested readings that may deepen your understanding and future practice. Finally,
there are several ancillaries available with this textbook. A student study site is available
that provides Student Quizzes, eFlashcards, and Multimedia Resources. There is also a
password-protected instructor site including a Word and Respondus Test Bank,
PowerPoimt Slides, Lecture Notes, and Multimedia Resources for each chapter.
SAGE edge offers a robust online environment you can access anytime, anywhere, and
features an impressive array of free tools and resources to keep you on the cutting edge of
your learning experience.
SAGE edge for Students provides a personalized approach to help you accomplish your
coursework goals in an easy-to-use learning environment.
11. Mutta niin pian kuin merkki oli annettu, asettuivat he ensin,
kokka barbareja vastaan, ja tunkivat peräkeulat keskustaa kohti;
toisen merkin jälkeen he, vaikka olivat suljetut tiukkaan tilaan,
kävivät käsiksi työhön, keula vasten keulaa. Siinä he valtasivat
kolmekymmentä barbarien laivaa sekä vangitsivat salaminilaisten
kuninkaan Gorgoksen veljen, Filaonin, Khersiin pojan, joka
sotajoukossa oli huomattava mies. Ensimäisenä helleenien joukosta
valloitti vihollislaivan atenalainen Lykomedes, Aiskhraioksen poika, ja
hän sai voitonpalkinnon. Mutta heidän kamppaillessaan vaihtelevalla
onnella tässä meritaistelussa yllätti ja hajoitti heidät yö. Niinpä
helleenit purjehtivat takaisin Artemisioniin, barbarit taas Afetaihin,
taisteltuaan aivan toisella menestyksellä kuin olivat odottaneet.
Tässä meritaistelussa meni kuninkaan myötä tulleista helleeneistä
ainoastaan lemnolainen Antidoros helleenien puolelle, ja atenalaiset
lahjoittivat palkinnoksi siitä hänelle maatilan Salamiissa.
12. Mutta yön tultua syntyi, vaikka oli keskikesän aika, suunnaton
sade. jota kesti läpi yön, ja kuului kumeita ukkosenjyrähdyksiä
Pelionin puolelta. Ja ruumiit ja laivan hylyt ajautuivat Afetaihin, missä
ne sotkeutuivat laivankeuloihin ja särkivät airojen lavat. Ja tämän
kuullessaan sikäläiset sotamiehet joutuivat pelon valtaan, luullen
kokonaan hukkuvansa, kun olivat moisiin onnettomuuksiin joutuneet.
Sillä ennenkuin he vielä olivat toipuneet Pelionin kohdalla
sattuneesta haaksirikosta ja myrskystä, oli heidän kestettävä ankara
meritaistelu, ja meritaistelun jälkeen seurasi raju rankkasade ja
voimakkaat tulvavedet, jotka syöksyivät mereen, sekä kumeat
ukkosenjyrähdykset.
35. Nämä barbarit siis kääntyivät sinne päin, mutta muut heistä
läksivät oppaiden johdolla Delfoin pyhättöön, jättäen Parnassoksen
oikealle puolelleen. Ja kaiken, minkä nämäkin Fokis-maasta ottivat
haltuunsa, he hävittivät. Niinpä he polttivat panopeolaisten,
daulilaisten ja aiolidien kaupungit. Ja he erosivat muusta
sotajoukosta ja matkasivat tänne, ryöstääkseen Delfoin oraakelin ja
tuodakseen Xerxes kuninkaan nähtäväksi sen aarteet. Ja Xerxes
tunsi, kuten olen kuullut, kaikki pyhätön merkilliset kalleudet
paremmin kuin kotiin jättämänsä, syystä että monet aina niistä
puhuivat, ja varsinkin hän tunsi Kroisoksen, Alyatteen pojan,
vihkilahjat.
55. Minkä vuoksi minä olen tämän maininnut, sen tahdon ilmaista.
Tässä linnassa on Erekhtheuksen temppeli, hänen, jonka sanotaan
syntyneen maasta, ja siinä on öljypuu ja "meri" ["mereksi" sanottiin
erästä Erekhtheionissa olevaa suolavesilähdettä], jotka atenalaisten
puheen mukaan Poseidon ja Athene, maan omistuksesta
kiistellessään, jättivät todistuksiksi. Tämä öljypuu paloi pyhätön
keralla barbarien käden kautta. Mutta kun ne, joita kuningas oli
käskenyt uhraamaan, palon jälkeisenä päivänä nousivat pyhättöön,
näkivät he noin kyynärän pituisen vesan versoneen kannosta. Sen he
siis ilmoittivat kuninkaalle.
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