NJALA UNIVERSITY

DISTANCE EDUCATION UNIT

DEVELOPMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY
BED YEAR 2
SEMESTER ONE

TM DEV PSY DE
0
 CENTRE FOR DISTANCE EDUCATION
BACHELOR IN EDUCATION
FIRST SEMESTER
COURSE OUTLINE

DEVELOPMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY

UNIT 1 DEVELOPMENT PSYCHOLOGY AS A BRANCH OF PSYCHOLOGY

• Definition and description of developmental psychology
• Objectives of developmental psychology
• The nature of development
• Differences between “growth and development”
• Why is the study of the human growth and development of important to teacher-
interns or teacher trainees?
• The roles of maturation and learning in development
UNIT 2 BIOLOGICAL BASIS OF HUMAN DEVELOPMENT
• Definition of the concepts of heredity and environment
• Terms associated with heredity factors such as genes, chromosomes, sex cells etc.
• Description of the biological determinants of human development
• Description of the nature – nurture basis of human development
• Chromosomal abnormalities.

UNIT 3 SCIENTIFIC METHODS IN DEVELOPMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY.

• Identify and discuss the major scientific methods of studying developmental
psychology with appropriate examples
• Discuss some practical applications of these methods in developmental psychology

UNIT 4 BASIC PROCESSES OF GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT

• Define correctly, the basic concepts of growth and development;
• Describe the factors that affect growth and development;
• Explain the principles of growth and development;
• Describe the theories of development;
• Describe the stages of human development;
• Explain the educational implications of the various stages of human development

UNIT 5 FACTORS THAT AFFECT GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT

• Distinguish between environmental and genetic factors in growth and development;
• Explain the role of each in growth and development;
• Describe the mechanism of genetic inheritance;
• List and explain the effect of chromosomal abnormalities;
• List and explain the effects of some environmental factors on growth and
development.

UNIT 6 STAGES OF HUMAN DEVELOPMENT I: CONCEPTION TO ADULTHOOD

The process of conception and its significances to child development;
• Describe the stages of pre-natal development;

TM DEV PSY DE
1
 • Discuss the development of the human organism from unit to unit;
• State the stages of childhood development;
• Describe the physical and motion development at each of the stages and give their
educational implications; and
• Give the implications of the childhood development for educators
• Neonatal Development/Infancy
• Adolescence Stage
• Adulthood Development

UNIT 1 DEVELOPMENT PSYCHOLOGY AS A BRANCH OF PSYCHOLOGY

• Definition and description of developmental psychology
• Objectives of developmental psychology
• The nature of development

• Differences between “growth and development”

• Why is the study of the human growth and development of important to teacher-interns
or teacher trainees?
• The roles of maturation and learning in development

TM DEV PSY DE
2
UNIT 1 DEVELOPMENT PSYCHOLOGY AS A BRANCH OF PSYCHOLOGY
• Definition and description of developmental psychology
• Objectives of developmental psychology
• The nature of development
• Differences between “growth and development”
• Why is the study of the human growth and development of important to teacher-
interns or teacher trainees?
• The roles of maturation and learning in development

Definition and Description of Developmental Psychology

Definition of Developmental Psychology

Developmental psychology is a scientific branch of psychology that studies how individuals

grow, change, and adapt across their lifespan. It examines the physical, cognitive, emotional,
and social changes that occur from conception to old age.

Description of Developmental Psychology

• Focuses on biological, psychological, and environmental factors influencing human

development.
• Explores stages of development (infancy, childhood, adolescence, adulthood, aging).
• Investigates both normal and abnormal development.
• Utilizes longitudinal, cross-sectional, and experimental methods to study
developmental patterns.

Objectives of Developmental Psychology

1. Understand Human Growth and Changes

• Examines how individuals physically, emotionally, and cognitively develop over time.
2. Identify Developmental Milestones
• Tracks age-related physical (motor skills), cognitive (problem-solving), and social
(interaction) changes.
3. Explain the Influence of Heredity and Environment
• Studies how genetics (nature) and experience (nurture) shape individuals.
4. Improve Parenting and Education

TM DEV PSY DE
3
 • Helps in designing educational strategies and parenting techniques to optimize child
development.
5. Address Developmental Challenges
• Identifies learning disabilities, behavioral disorders, and psychological conditions
affecting individuals.
6. Support Mental and Emotional Well-being
• Studies emotional development to improve counseling, therapy, and mental health
interventions.

The Nature of Development

Development refers to systematic and progressive changes in an individual throughout their

life. It follows specific patterns and principles:

Characteristics of Development

i. Continuous Process – Development occurs from conception until death.

ii. Orderly and Predictable – Follows sequential stages (e.g., crawling before walking).
iii. Multidimensional – Includes physical, cognitive, emotional, and social changes.
iv. Unique to Individuals – People develop at different rates, even in the same
environment.
v. Influenced by Multiple Factors – Both biological (genetics) and environmental
(education, culture) factors shape development.

Differences Between Growth and Development

Aspect Growth Development

Increase in size and Qualitative changes in skills, abilities, and

Definition
structure behavior

Nature Physical (height, weight) Cognitive, emotional, social changes

Measurement Measurable in numbers Not always measurable

Includes intellectual, emotional, and social

Scope Limited to biological aspects
aspects

TM DEV PSY DE
4
Aspect Growth Development

A child growing from 3ft to

Example A child learning to speak in sentences
5ft

Key Point:

• Growth stops at maturity, while development continues throughout life.

Importance of Studying Human Growth and Development for Teacher-Interns or

Teacher Trainees

Understanding growth and development is crucial for teachers because:

1. Helps Understand Learning Differences

• Teachers can identify students' cognitive abilities and adjust teaching methods
accordingly.
2. Aids in Classroom Management
• Knowing social and emotional development helps in handling student behavior
effectively.
3. Supports Special Needs Education
• Helps in recognizing learning disabilities (dyslexia, ADHD, autism) and applying
appropriate interventions.
4. Improves Lesson Planning
• Teachers can design age-appropriate lessons based on developmental capabilities.
5. Enhances Motivation and Encouragement
• Understanding adolescent identity struggles helps teachers support students
emotionally.
6. Builds Positive Teacher-Student Relationships
• Teachers can foster trust, respect, and emotional support by understanding students'
psychological needs.

TM DEV PSY DE
5
The Roles of Maturation and Learning in Development

Maturation (Biological Growth)

• Refers to natural physical and biological changes that occur without external
influence.
• Includes brain development, puberty, and aging.
• Example: A baby learning to walk naturally as the nervous system matures.

Learning (Environmental Influence)

• Involves acquiring knowledge, behaviors, and skills through experience.

• Depends on education, social interaction, and environment.
• Example: A child learning to read through teaching and practice.

Interaction Between Maturation and Learning

Factor Maturation (Nature) Learning (Nurture)

Knowledge acquired through

Definition Growth occurring naturally
experience

Example Learning to walk, puberty Learning a language, reading

Influenced by environment and

Dependency Influenced by genes and hormones
education

Educational Teachers must recognize students' Teaching strategies must enhance

Impact readiness learning

Educational Implications

• Teachers should respect students’ natural pace of learning while providing structured
guidance.
• Understanding maturation helps teachers identify learning readiness.
• Providing rich learning environments enhances students' abilities beyond biological
growth.

TM DEV PSY DE
6
Conclusion

Developmental psychology is essential for understanding how individuals change over time.
For teachers, knowing growth, maturation, and learning processes helps them design effective
teaching methods that support students' cognitive, emotional, and social development.

TM DEV PSY DE
7
UNIT 2 BIOLOGICAL BASIS OF HUMAN DEVELOPMENT
• Definition of the concepts of heredity and environment
• Terms associated with heredity factors such as genes, chromosomes, sex cells etc.

• Description of the biological determinants of human development

• Description of the nature – nurture basis of human development

• Chromosomal abnormalities.

Definition of the Concepts of Heredity and Environment

Heredity

• Heredity refers to the transmission of genetic traits from parents to offspring.

• It determines physical attributes (height, eye color, body structure) and influences
intelligence, personality, and health.
• Heredity follows principles of genetic inheritance governed by DNA, genes, and
chromosomes.

Environment

• Environment refers to all external influences that affect an individual's development,

including nutrition, education, culture, and social interactions.
• It shapes behavior, learning abilities, and emotional well-being.

Heredity vs. Environment

Aspect Heredity Environment

Definition Genetic inheritance from parents External factors influencing growth

Influences Physical traits, genetic disorders Education, nutrition, family upbringing

Examples Eye color, height, intelligence Language, personality, social skills

Nature of Effect Predetermined and fixed Modifiable and adaptable

TM DEV PSY DE
8
Terms Associated with Heredity Factors

A. Genes

• Basic units of heredity located on chromosomes.

• Carry instructions for physical and biological traits.
• Exist in dominant and recessive forms (e.g., brown eye gene is dominant, blue eye gene
is recessive).

B. Chromosomes

• Thread-like structures carrying genes inside the nucleus of a cell.

• Humans have 46 chromosomes (23 pairs) inherited from both parents.

C. DNA (Deoxyribonucleic Acid)

• A molecular blueprint that stores genetic information.

• Composed of sequences that determine hereditary traits.

D. Sex Cells (Gametes)

• Sperm (male) and egg (female) are reproductive cells carrying 23 chromosomes each.
• During fertilization, they combine to form a zygote (fertilized egg) with 46
chromosomes.

E. Genotype and Phenotype

• Genotype: The genetic makeup of an individual.

• Phenotype: The observable traits influenced by both heredity and environment.
• Example: A child inherits a tallness gene (genotype) but may not grow tall due to poor
nutrition (phenotype).

Description of the Biological Determinants of Human Development

A. Genetic Makeup

• Determines inherited physical, intellectual, and behavioral traits.

• Disorders like sickle cell anemia and hemophilia are genetically inherited.

TM DEV PSY DE
9
B. Hormonal Regulation

• Hormones (growth hormone, estrogen, testosterone) regulate physical development

and puberty.
• Example: A deficiency in thyroid hormones can lead to growth retardation.

C. Prenatal Environment

• A fetus's development is influenced by maternal health, nutrition, and exposure to

toxins.
• Example: Alcohol use during pregnancy can cause Fetal Alcohol Syndrome (FAS).

D. Neurological Development

• Brain growth influences cognitive abilities, emotions, and motor skills.

• Proper stimulation and education enhance neurological connections.

Nature-Nurture Basis of Human Development

The debate between nature (heredity) and nurture (environment) explores which factor plays
a greater role in human development.

A. Nature (Heredity) Perspective

• Argues that genes and biological inheritance determine intelligence, personality, and
abilities.
• Example: A child with gifted parents may naturally excel in academics.

B. Nurture (Environment) Perspective

• Suggests that life experiences, education, and upbringing shape an individual's

growth.
• Example: A child raised in a stimulating environment may develop high intelligence
regardless of genetics.

C. Interaction of Nature and Nurture

• Development results from the combined influence of heredity and environment.

TM DEV PSY DE
10
 • Example: A child may inherit musical talent (nature) but requires training and practice
(nurture) to become a skilled musician.

Chromosomal Abnormalities

Chromosomal abnormalities occur due to errors in cell division, leading to missing, extra, or
altered chromosomes.

Abnormality Cause Effects

Down Syndrome Intellectual disability, delayed

Extra copy of chromosome 21
(Trisomy 21) development, heart defects

Missing one X chromosome in Short stature, infertility, learning

Turner Syndrome (XO)
females difficulties

Klinefelter Syndrome Reduced testosterone, infertility,

Extra X chromosome in males
(XXY) learning problems

Edward’s Syndrome Severe developmental delays,

Extra copy of chromosome 18
(Trisomy 18) organ defects

Patau Syndrome Brain and heart abnormalities,

Extra copy of chromosome 13
(Trisomy 13) cleft palate

Causes of Chromosomal Abnormalities

• Errors during meiosis (cell division in sex cells).

• Advanced maternal age increases the risk of chromosomal disorders.
• Environmental factors (radiation, drugs, infections) can contribute to genetic
mutations.

Conclusion

Understanding the biological basis of human development helps in early detection of genetic
disorders, improved educational strategies, and healthcare interventions. Both heredity and
environment play crucial roles, and their interaction determines the overall growth,
intelligence, and personality of an individual.

TM DEV PSY DE
11
UNIT 3 SCIENTIFIC METHODS IN DEVELOPMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY.
• Identify and discuss the major scientific methods of studying developmental psychology
with appropriate examples
• Discuss some practical applications of these methods in developmental psychology

Introduction

Developmental psychology is a branch of psychology that focuses on human growth and

changes across the lifespan, including cognitive, emotional, social, and biological
development. Researchers in this field utilize scientific methods to study developmental
changes systematically and objectively.

The major scientific methods of studying developmental psychology include:

1. Longitudinal Method
2. Cross-Sectional Method
3. Sequential Method
4. Experimental Method
5. Naturalistic Observation
6. Case Study Method
7. Correlational Research

Each of these methods has unique advantages and is chosen based on the research question,
ethical considerations, and practical feasibility.

1. Longitudinal Method

Definition

The longitudinal method involves studying the same group of individuals over a long period,
tracking changes and development over time.

Example

A researcher may study a group of children from infancy to adulthood to assess how early
childhood experiences affect academic achievement.

TM DEV PSY DE
12
Advantages

• Provides detailed information about individual development.

• Helps identify patterns of continuity and change.

Disadvantages

• Time-consuming and expensive.

• High dropout rates (attrition) among participants.

Practical Applications in Developmental Psychology

• Used to study cognitive decline in aging individuals.

• Helps understand the long-term effects of childhood trauma.

2. Cross-Sectional Method

Definition

This method involves studying different age groups at a single point in time to compare
developmental differences.

Example

A study comparing memory performance in 10-year-olds, 20-year-olds, and 40-year-olds to

assess cognitive development.

Advantages

• Quick and cost-effective.

• Allows for comparisons between different age groups.

Disadvantages

• Does not provide information about individual changes over time.

• Cohort effects (differences due to generational factors rather than age).

Practical Applications in Developmental Psychology

TM DEV PSY DE
13
 • Helps understand age-related changes in intelligence and learning.
• Used in educational psychology to assess academic skills at different ages.

3. Sequential Method

Definition

A combination of longitudinal and cross-sectional methods, the sequential method follows

multiple cohorts over time to compare developmental changes.

Example

A researcher might track three different age groups (e.g., 5, 10, and 15 years old) over five
years to assess language development.

Advantages

• Reduces cohort effects.

• Provides both short-term and long-term developmental insights.

Disadvantages

• More complex and resource-intensive.

• Requires careful planning and long-term commitment.

Practical Applications in Developmental Psychology

• Used in lifespan studies to examine trends in cognitive and emotional development.

• Helps determine whether developmental changes are due to aging or generational
differences.

4. Experimental Method

Definition

The experimental method involves manipulating one or more independent variables to observe
their effect on a dependent variable, often in controlled settings.

TM DEV PSY DE
14
Example

A study where researchers expose children to different learning environments to assess the
impact on cognitive development.

Advantages

• Allows for cause-and-effect conclusions.

• Controlled environment reduces extraneous variables.

Disadvantages

• Ethical concerns (especially in child development studies).

• Artificial setting may not reflect real-life situations.

Practical Applications in Developmental Psychology

• Used to study the effects of parenting styles on child behavior.

• Helps understand how early intervention programs affect childhood development.

5. Naturalistic Observation

Definition

Observing individuals in their natural environments without intervention.

Example

A researcher studying peer interactions by watching children play in a school playground.

Advantages

• Provides real-world insights into behavior.

• Non-intrusive and ethical.

Disadvantages

• Cannot control external variables.

• Observer bias may influence interpretations.

TM DEV PSY DE
15
Practical Applications in Developmental Psychology

• Used to assess social behaviors in early childhood education.

• Helps understand parent-child interactions in home settings.

6. Case Study Method

Definition

An in-depth study of an individual or a small group to explore unique developmental patterns.

Example

A psychologist studying the language development of a child with autism over several years.

Advantages

• Provides detailed and rich data.

• Useful for studying rare or unique cases.

Disadvantages

• Findings may not be generalizable.

• Researcher bias can influence results.

Practical Applications in Developmental Psychology

• Used to study children with exceptional abilities (e.g., prodigies).

• Helps understand developmental disorders like dyslexia.

7. Correlational Research

Definition

Examines relationships between variables without manipulating them.

Example

A study investigating the link between screen time and attention span in adolescents.

TM DEV PSY DE
16
Advantages

• Can identify potential associations between factors.

• Useful when experimental manipulation is not possible.

Disadvantages

• Cannot determine causation.

• Confounding variables may distort results.

Practical Applications in Developmental Psychology

• Used to explore the relationship between parental involvement and academic success.
• Helps identify risk factors for mental health issues in adolescence.

Conclusion

Each scientific method has its strengths and limitations, and researchers often use a
combination of these methods to study human development comprehensively. Understanding
these methods helps psychologists design effective interventions and improve developmental
outcomes in various settings, from education to clinical practice.

TM DEV PSY DE
17
UNIT 4 BASIC PROCESSES OF GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT
• Define correctly, the basic concepts of growth and development;
• Describe the factors that affect growth and development;
• Explain the principles of growth and development;
• Describe the theories of development;
• Describe the stages of human development;
• Explain the educational implications of the various stages of human development

Definition of Growth and Development

Growth

• Growth refers to the quantitative increase in size, mass, or structure of an individual.

• It is measurable in terms of height, weight, and organ size.
• Growth is mainly biological and occurs from conception to maturity.
• Example: An infant growing from 50 cm at birth to 80 cm at two years old.

Development

• Development refers to the qualitative changes in an individual’s abilities, functions,

and behavior over time.
• It includes cognitive, emotional, social, and moral changes.
• Unlike growth, development is continuous and lifelong.
• Example: A child learning to speak, solve problems, or develop emotional intelligence.

Difference Between Growth and Development

Aspect Growth Development

Nature Quantitative Qualitative

Measurability Measurable (height, weight) Not easily measured (skills, emotions)

Scope Physical changes only Cognitive, emotional, and social changes

Duration Stops at maturity Continues throughout life

TM DEV PSY DE
18
2. Factors Affecting Growth and Development

Several factors influence how an individual grows and develops. These factors can be classified
into internal (biological) and external (environmental) factors.

A. Internal (Biological) Factors

1. Genetics (Heredity)
• Determines traits like height, body structure, and intelligence.
• Example: Tall parents are more likely to have tall children.
2. Hormonal Influence
• Hormones regulate physical growth (e.g., Growth Hormone, Thyroid
Hormones).
• Example: A deficiency in growth hormones can lead to dwarfism.
3. Nervous System
• Brain and neural development influence learning and emotional stability.
• Example: A well-developed brain enables better problem-solving skills.

B. External (Environmental) Factors

1. Nutrition
• Essential for brain and body development.
• Example: Malnutrition in childhood can lead to stunted growth.
2. Socioeconomic Status
• Affects access to healthcare, education, and proper nutrition.
• Example: Children from wealthy families may receive better educational
opportunities.
3. Family and Parental Care
• Supportive parenting promotes healthy emotional and social development.
• Example: Children raised in nurturing environments develop better emotional
regulation.
4. Culture and Social Environment
• Influences language, values, and social skills.
• Example: A child raised in a bilingual family may develop stronger cognitive
skills.

TM DEV PSY DE
19
 5. Education and Stimulation
• Affects intellectual and language development.
• Example: Reading to a child improves vocabulary and comprehension skills.

Principles of Growth and Development

Development follows predictable patterns known as principles of development:

1. Principle of Continuity
• Growth and development occur gradually from conception to adulthood.
• Example: A child does not start running before crawling.
2. Principle of Sequential Development
• Development occurs in a fixed sequence or order.
• Example: A baby first sits, then crawls, stands, and finally walks.
3. Cephalocaudal Principle (Head to Toe)
• Growth starts from the head and progresses to the lower parts of the body.
• Example: Infants first gain control of their head before their legs.
4. Proximodistal Principle (Center to Outward)
• Growth starts from the center of the body and moves outward.
• Example: A child gains control of the arms before developing fine finger
movements.
5. Principle of Individual Differences
• Every child grows and develops at their own pace.
• Example: Some children start speaking at 12 months, while others at 18 months.

Theories of Development

Several theories explain how individuals develop over time:

A. Cognitive Development (Jean Piaget)

• Children actively construct knowledge through experience.

• Four stages:
i. Sensorimotor Stage (0-2 years): Learning through senses and movement.
ii. Preoperational Stage (2-7 years): Development of language and imagination.
iii. Concrete Operational Stage (7-11 years): Logical thinking begins.

TM DEV PSY DE
20
 iv. Formal Operational Stage (12+ years): Abstract thinking develops.

B. Psychosocial Development (Erik Erikson)

• Human development occurs through eight stages, each with a crisis to resolve.
• Example: Adolescents face the crisis of identity vs. role confusion.

C. Moral Development (Lawrence Kohlberg)

• People develop moral reasoning through three levels:

i. Preconventional: Avoiding punishment and seeking rewards.
ii. Conventional: Following societal rules and norms.
iii. Postconventional: Understanding universal ethical principles.

D. Psychosexual Development (Sigmund Freud)

• Personality develops through five psychosexual stages:

i. Oral Stage (0-1 year)
ii. Anal Stage (1-3 years)
iii. Phallic Stage (3-6 years)
iv. Latency Stage (6-12 years)
v. Genital Stage (12+ years)

Stages of Human Development

Human development is divided into distinct stages:

1. Prenatal Stage (Conception - Birth)

• Rapid physical growth and organ formation.
2. Infancy (0-2 years)
• Sensory and motor skills develop.
• Attachment to caregivers forms.
3. Early Childhood (2-6 years)
• Language and social skills develop.
• Increased independence.
4. Middle Childhood (6-12 years)

TM DEV PSY DE
21
 • Cognitive skills and peer relationships grow.
• Development of self-esteem.
5. Adolescence (12-18 years)
• Physical puberty changes occur.
• Identity formation and peer influence increase.
6. Adulthood (18+ years)
• Career and family development.
• Cognitive and emotional stability.
7. Old Age (60+ years)
• Physical decline and retirement.
• Reflection on life achievements.

Educational Implications of Human Development Stages

Understanding human development helps educators tailor learning experiences:

1. Infancy and Early Childhood

• Provide stimulating learning materials (toys, books).
• Encourage language development through conversation.
2. Middle Childhood
• Promote collaborative learning and social interaction.
• Use concrete examples to enhance understanding.
3. Adolescence
• Support identity development through discussions.
• Encourage critical thinking and problem-solving.
4. Adulthood and Lifelong Learning
• Provide career guidance and skill development.
• Encourage continuous education and self-improvement.

Conclusion

Growth and development are fundamental aspects of human life, influenced by biological and
environmental factors. Understanding the principles, theories, and stages of development helps
educators and psychologists create strategies to support individuals in reaching their full
potential.

TM DEV PSY DE
22
UNIT 5 FACTORS THAT AFFECT GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT
• Distinguish between environmental and genetic factors in growth and development;
• Explain the role of each in growth and development;
• Describe the mechanism of genetic inheritance;
• List and explain the effect of chromosomal abnormalities;
• List and explain the effects of some environmental factors on growth and development.

Distinction Between Environmental and Genetic Factors in Growth and Development

Growth and development are influenced by genetic (hereditary) and environmental factors.
These two interact to shape an individual's physical, cognitive, emotional, and social
development.

Factor Definition Examples

Inherited traits passed from parents to Height, intelligence, eye color,

Genetic Factors
offspring through DNA risk of genetic disorders

Environmental External conditions that influence Nutrition, education, family,

Factors development after conception exposure to toxins

Key Differences

• Genetic factors determine potential growth, while environmental factors influence

whether that potential is fully achieved.
• Some traits, like eye color, are purely genetic, while traits like height depend on both
genetics and nutrition.

Role of Genetic and Environmental Factors in Growth and Development

A. Role of Genetic Factors

1. Determines inherited traits (e.g., eye color, blood type, height).

2. Regulates physical growth through genes controlling metabolism and hormonal
function.
3. Affects disease susceptibility, such as diabetes or sickle cell anemia.
4. Influences intelligence and personality, though modified by environment.

TM DEV PSY DE
23
B. Role of Environmental Factors

1. Nutrition – Essential for brain and body development. Malnutrition stunts growth.
2. Family and Social Interaction – Affects emotional and social skills.
3. Education and Stimulation – Encourages cognitive development.
4. Healthcare and Hygiene – Reduces childhood mortality and supports physical
development.
5. Exposure to Toxins – Pollutants, drugs, or alcohol during pregnancy can lead to birth
defects.

Mechanism of Genetic Inheritance

Genetic inheritance follows principles discovered by Gregor Mendel and is controlled by

genes located on chromosomes.

A. Basic Concepts of Inheritance

• DNA (Deoxyribonucleic Acid): Contains genetic instructions.

• Genes: Units of heredity passed from parents to offspring.
• Chromosomes: Structures in cells that carry genes (46 chromosomes in humans: 23
from each parent).

B. Types of Genetic Inheritance

1. Dominant and Recessive Traits

• Dominant Gene: Expressed if inherited from one parent (e.g., brown eyes).
• Recessive Gene: Expressed only if inherited from both parents (e.g., blue eyes).
2. Polygenic Inheritance
• Traits controlled by multiple genes (e.g., skin color, intelligence).
3. Sex-Linked Traits
• Genes located on sex chromosomes (e.g., hemophilia, color blindness in males).

C. Genetic Mutations

• Changes in DNA sequence can cause disorders like sickle cell anemia.
• Mutations may be inherited or occur due to environmental exposure (e.g., radiation).

TM DEV PSY DE
24
Effects of Chromosomal Abnormalities

Chromosomal abnormalities occur when there are missing, extra, or altered chromosomes,
leading to developmental disorders.

Chromosomal
Description Effects
Abnormality

Down Syndrome Intellectual disability, heart defects,

Extra chromosome 21
(Trisomy 21) facial abnormalities

Missing X chromosome
Turner Syndrome (XO) Short stature, infertility, delayed puberty
in females

Klinefelter Syndrome Extra X chromosome in Reduced testosterone, infertility, learning

(XXY) males difficulties

Edward’s Syndrome Severe developmental delays, organ

Extra chromosome 18
(Trisomy 18) defects

Patau Syndrome Brain and heart abnormalities, severe

Extra chromosome 13
(Trisomy 13) intellectual disability

Effects of Environmental Factors on Growth and Development

A. Prenatal Environmental Factors

1. Maternal Nutrition – Malnutrition can lead to low birth weight and cognitive delays.
2. Teratogens (Harmful Substances)
• Alcohol: Causes Fetal Alcohol Syndrome (FAS).
• Smoking: Leads to low birth weight and respiratory issues.
• Drugs: Can cause birth defects or developmental delays.
3. Infections (e.g., Rubella, HIV) – Can cause congenital disabilities.

B. Postnatal Environmental Factors

1. Nutrition
• Lack of essential nutrients can lead to stunted growth and cognitive delays.
• Example: Iodine deficiency can cause mental retardation.
2. Healthcare and Hygiene

TM DEV PSY DE
25
 • Lack of vaccinations increases the risk of diseases like polio.
• Poor sanitation can lead to infectious diseases affecting growth.
3. Psychosocial Environment
• Emotional neglect can lead to social and emotional difficulties.
• Parental involvement boosts academic and social skills.
4. Physical Environment
• Exposure to pollution and toxic chemicals can impair cognitive and physical growth.
• Unsafe housing can lead to accidents and injuries affecting development.

Conclusion

Both genetic and environmental factors play crucial roles in growth and development. Genetic
inheritance determines potential, while environmental influences shape how this potential is
realized. Understanding these factors helps in early interventions, healthcare planning, and
educational strategies to ensure optimal growth and development.

TM DEV PSY DE
26
UNIT 6 STAGES OF HUMAN DEVELOPMENT I: CONCEPTION TO ADULTHOOD
The process of conception and its significances to child development;
• Describe the stages of pre-natal development;
• Discuss the development of the human organism from unit to unit;
• State the stages of childhood development;
• Describe the physical and motion development at each of the stages and give their
educational implications; and
• Give the implications of the childhood development for educators
• Neonatal Development/Infancy
• Adolescence Stage
• Adulthood Development

The Process of Conception and Its Significance to Child Development

Definition of Conception

• Conception is the process by which a sperm cell fertilizes an egg cell, leading to the
formation of a zygote, the first stage of human life.
• This marks the beginning of prenatal development, where a single cell grows into a
fully developed infant.

Steps in the Process of Conception

i. Ovulation: A mature egg is released from the ovary.

ii. Fertilization: A sperm cell penetrates the egg, forming a zygote.
iii. Cell Division: The zygote undergoes rapid mitotic division.
iv. Implantation: The zygote implants into the uterus for further development.

Significance of Conception to Child Development

• Determines genetic traits such as eye color, height, and intelligence.

• The quality of conception (e.g., genetic mutations) affects developmental health.
• Ensures continuation of human life through reproduction.

TM DEV PSY DE
27
Stages of Prenatal Development

Prenatal development occurs in three stages:

Stage Duration Key Developments

Germinal Stage 0-2 weeks Zygote forms and implants in the uterus

Embryonic Stage 3-8 weeks Formation of major organs, brain, and spinal cord

Fetal Stage 9 weeks-birth Growth, movement, and sensory development

Development of the Human Organism from Unit to Unit

Key Stages in Human Development

i. Cellular Level (Zygote) – Single-cell stage with genetic blueprint.

ii. Tissue Level (Embryo) – Specialization into different body tissues.
iii. Organ Level (Fetus) – Formation of body organs like the heart, brain, and lungs.
iv. System Level (Newborn) – Functional body systems preparing for life outside the womb.

Stages of Childhood Development

Stage Age Range Key Developmental Features

Neonatal (0-2 weeks) Birth to 2 weeks Reflexes, sensory perception, bonding

Infancy (0-2 years) 0-2 years Rapid brain development, motor skills

Early Childhood (2-6 years) 2-6 years Language, social skills, fine motor skills

Middle Childhood (6-12 years) 6-12 years Logical thinking, academic growth

Adolescence (12-18 years) 12-18 years Identity formation, emotional growth

TM DEV PSY DE
28
Physical and Motor Development at Each Stage and Its Educational Implications

Physical Educational
Stage Motor Development
Development Implications

Neonatal (0-2 Reflexes, sensory Grasping, sucking

Care and close bonding
weeks) perception reflex

Rapid growth, Crawling, walking, Stimulation through

Infancy (0-2 years)
teething grasping touch and sound

Muscle
Early Childhood Running, drawing, Play-based learning, fine
coordination
(2-6 years) eating independently motor skills training
improves

Middle Childhood Growth slows, Structured education,

Writing, biking, sports
(6-12 years) stronger muscles sports, and teamwork

Adolescence (12-18 Puberty, hormonal Strength increase, Emotional support,

years) changes complex motor tasks career guidance

Implications of Childhood Development for Educators

• Neonatal and Infancy: Provide nurturing environments and sensory stimulation.

• Early Childhood: Encourage play-based learning and social interaction.
• Middle Childhood: Develop structured learning activities and group collaboration.
• Adolescence: Support self-esteem, career exploration, and emotional guidance.

Neonatal Development/Infancy

• Newborns rely on reflexes (sucking, grasping) for survival.

• Sensory abilities develop rapidly (vision, hearing).
• Strong attachment to caregivers is crucial for emotional security.
• Educational Implication: Responsive caregiving promotes cognitive and social
growth.

TM DEV PSY DE
29
Adolescence Stage

• Physical changes: Puberty, sexual maturity, and height increase.

• Cognitive development: Abstract thinking, reasoning, and identity formation.
• Social development: Peer influence increases, risk-taking behavior appears.
• Educational Implication: Supportive mentorship, emotional guidance, and career
counseling.

Adulthood Development

• Early adulthood (18-40 years) – Independence, career development, family life.

• Middle adulthood (40-65 years) – Physical aging begins, cognitive stability.
• Late adulthood (65+ years) – Decline in physical strength, wisdom increases.
• Educational Implication: Lifelong learning, career adaptation, and mental health
support.

Conclusion

Understanding conception, prenatal, childhood, and adult development is essential for

educators, caregivers, and psychologists to optimize learning, support emotional well-being,
and promote lifelong development.

TM DEV PSY DE
30