REPRODUCTION SYSTEM

SET 2
• Humans are terrestrial organisms – thus internal fertilisation
is necessary to deposit the sperm as close to the egg as
possible
• Copulation = the transfer of sperm into the vagina
▪ Sperm present in the semen need to swim into the
uterus and get to the fallopian tube (site of fertilisation)
▪ Most sperm do not reach the fallopian tube – the acidic pH
of the uterus destroys many of the sperm cells
• Fertilisation = fusion of sperm nucleus with ovum nucleus
to form a diploid zygote
❖ Time between conception (fertilization) and birth
❖ Embryo and then foetus develops in uterus
❖ About 40 weeks

PRE-NATAL DEVELOPMENT:
1. Early development (0 – end of 2 months):
• Fertilization
• Blastocyst and implantation
• Embryo formation
2. Later development (3 months – birth)
• Foetal stage
Fertilization
▪ Occurs in the fallopian tubes when nucleus of sperm
and ovum fuse – diploid zygote is formed
▪ Sperm lives about 48 hours
▪ Egg lives about 24 hours
▪ If no fertilization occurs the gametes will degenerate
▪ After semen is deposited in the vagina, sperm move
through the cervix, uterus and into the fallopian
tubes until they reach the egg.
▪ The egg, surrounded by follicle cells, is sucked into
fallopian tube by the action of the fimbriae.
▪ Fertilisation usually occurs in the top part (ampulla) of
the fallopian tube.
Fertilization …
▪ Thousands of sperm surround ovum
▪ Hydrolytic enzymes from acrosome, breaks down
follicle cells
▪ One sperm penetrates ovum membrane, tail is
discarded
▪ Haploid nuclei of sperm and egg fuse forming a
diploid zygote
▪ Fertilization membrane forms immediately – no
other sperm can enter egg
Blastocyst formation and implantation
▪ Diploid zygote divides immediately by mitosis
▪ Each cell divides repeatedly until a solid mass of cells
(morula) is formed
▪ Morula develops into hollow fluid-filled ball of cells
(blastocyst)
▪ Outer cells form wall – trophoblast
▪ Inner cell mass develops from trophoblast
▪ These changes occur as embryo move along
fallopian tube – peristalsis and cilia
▪ Blastocyst reaches the uterus (3 – 5 days after
fertilization)
▪ Blastocyst sinks into endometrium – implantation (±
6 – 10 days after fertilization)
• Pregnancy tests work by detecting hCG levels in females urine.
• When a females urine comes in contact with the specially treated strip
on a pregnancy test stick, results appear within minutes, indicating
whether or not hCG, the pregnancy hormone, has been detected.
Formation of Embryo (from 3rd to 8th week after
fertilization)
• After implantation the:
➢ Inner cell mass forms the:
➢ Embryo
➢ Amnion – fluid filled membrane
➢ Yolk sac – part of umbilical cord
➢ Trophoblast (chorion) grow villi into endometrium
to form the placenta
Embryo develops 3 layers:
➢ Ectoderm – outer
➢ Endoderm – inner
➢ Mesoderm – between endo- and ectoderm
➢ All the different tissues and organs form from these
layers by cell division and differentiation
➢ During this time (between 6 to 8 weeks after
fertilization) the major organs appear
➢ Heart can be seen
➢ Eyes, ears and nose seen on large head
➢ Arms, legs, fingers and toes develop
➢ Embryo grows from 1.5mm to 30mm
❖ Differentiation period is most critical period
❖ Embryological malformations that can lead to birth
defects can be caused by:
o Drugs
o Viruses
o Environmental factors (pesticides)
❖ Mother must be very careful as to what she eats or
drinks, medication used during this time (especially first
2 to 3 months of pregnancy)

❖ Embryonic phase – 3rd week to 8th week after

fertilisation
• From end of week 8, start of week 9 until the end of
the pregnancy
• The major change in this stage is rapid growth

• As foetus approaches birth:

▪ Bones ossify
▪ Adipose tissue forms
▪ Antibodies enter the foetus via the placenta from the
mother
▪ Foetus turns so that its head points downwards
towards the cervix
High-pitched sound waves bounce off solid structures in
foetus

Ultrasound gives information on:

➢ Foetal age, size and growth
➢ Early diagnosis of complications
❖ Embryo – developing
zygote until 8 weeks
• Organs formed by
differentiation
❖ From 9 weeks until birth
– foetus
• Growth and organ
specialization
 4 weeks 5 – 6 weeks 8 weeks

16 weeks 24 weeks 36 weeks

 PLEASE READ THROUGH THE
TABLE ON PAGES 110 AND 111 IN
TEXTBOOK
o Disc-shaped temporary organ that is richly supplied
with blood vessels (maternal and foetal)
o Connects foetus to the mother via umbilical cord
o Develops from chorion and its villi that penetrate
endometrium
o Villi = increase surface area
o Mother and foetal blood do not mix – substances
move by diffusion
Functions:
1. Oxygen and dissolved food substances pass from
mother to foetal blood (glucose, amino acids, fatty
acids, vitamins and ions)
2. Foetal waste products of metabolism – urea and
carbon dioxide – pass from foetus to mother
3. Some maternal antibodies – temporary passive
immunity – pass into foetus
4. Barrier preventing pathogenic micro-organism from
passing from mother to foetus
5. Endocrine function – secretes oestrogen and
progesterone after the first trimester
6. Endocrine function – secretes relaxin
Amnion = membrane surrounding embryo/foetus
• Secretes amniotic fluid in the amniotic cavity
Amniotic fluid = 99% water, contains foetal cells and foetal
waste products
Functions:
➢ Allows foetus to move freely and prevent
malformations due to gravity/pressure
➢ Cushions and protects foetus from external injury
➢ Provides a medium for practicing breathing and
swallowing
➢ Holds urine as it is released from the foetus
➢ Protects foetus from change in temperature and
dehydration
▪ Flexible cord extending from abdomen to placenta
▪ Joins foetus to mother
▪ Consists of 2 umbilical arteries and 1 umbilical vein
surrounded by connective tissue

Functions:
➢ Umbilical arteries = leaves foetus and carries waste
products (deoxygenated blood) from the foetus to the
placenta (to the mother) to be excreted
➢ Umbilical vein = enters foetus carrying oxygenated
blood and nutrients from mother to the foetus
Stages of Pregnancy
• Lasts 9 -10 months (about 40 weeks)
• Divided into 3 stages
❑ First trimester
❑ Second trimester
❑ Third trimester
First Trimester
• First 12 weeks of pregnancy
• Risk for miscarriage and birth defects are highest

Changes in the first trimester:

➢ Hormonal changes affect almost every system
➢ Menstrual period stops
➢ Tiredness, cravings or distaste for certain foods
➢ Mood swings
➢ Nausea or “morning sickness” – can happen at any time
of the day
➢ Tender and swollen breasts with darkening of
nipples/areolas
Second Trimester
• 13-28 weeks

Changes:
➢ Most women have more energy
➢ Morning sickness lessen/disappear
➢ Uterus starts expanding (during pregnancy up to 20 its
normal size)
➢ Movement of fetus can be felt ( at roughly 4 months)
➢ Patches of darker skin can appear on the face
Third Trimester
• 29-40 weeks

Changes:
➢ Final weight gain takes place – most throughout
pregnancy – foetus can gain up to 28g per day
➢ More frequent and stronger movements from foetus
➢ Difficulty breathing as foetus presses against diaphragm
and lungs
➢ Abdomen drops low
➢ Fetal head descends into pelvic cavity
• Less pressure on upper abdomen
• Reduce bladder capacity
• Backache
➢ Breasts become tender and often leak colostrum
➢ Braxton-Hicks contractions
 Birth
❖ Expulsion of fetus, surrounding membranes and
placenta from uterus
❖ Approximately 9 months after fertilization – baby ready to
be born
❖ Start of process – unclear
❖ End of gestation – placenta less effective
Birth
What is distinctive about birth in humans?

✓ Baby is relatively immature and very helpless

✓ If the foetus grows any larger – can’t leave the body
✓ Narrow pelvis causes narrow birth canal
(bipedalism)
✓ Large brain – if it enlarges even more the head won’t fit
through birth canal
✓ Head first – head has largest diameter of body
How Does Birth Occur?
o 2-3 weeks before – baby moves and its head is pointing
downwards towards cervix
o Just before birth, oestrogen causes pituitary gland to
release oxytocin
o Promotes contraction of uterine wall
o Can take from a few hours to over a day

3 stages:
1. Dilation of the cervix
2. Delivery of the baby
3. Expulsion of the placenta
1. Dilation of Cervix
• Myometrium starts contracting
• Start slow and rhythmic but becomes intense and
frequent

Contractions:
➢ Force the amnion and foetus towards cervix
➢ Make the cervix dilate
➢ When cervix is fully dilated (about 10cm) – pressure will
increase – this causes the amnion to break – release
amniotic fluid
2. Delivery of Baby
▪ After dilation of cervix, the baby pushed out through
vagina
▪ Powerful contractions by uterus and abdominal
muscles
▪ After birth, umbilical cord tied and cut
▪ Part left shrivels up and forms the belly button
2. Delivery of Baby
• Baby’s skull is not fused, head can change shape to
allow for passage through the birth canal
• Misshapen head of new-born quickly returns to
normal
3. Expulsion of Placenta
➢ 10-20 minutes after delivery
➢ Placenta and remaining umbilical cord comes away from
uterine wall
➢ Uterine contractions force it out as afterbirth
➢ Short – less than 15 minutes

Different birthing options:

1. Vaginal childbirth
- Natural of with pain medication

2. Caesarean section U
- Usually because of complications
- Cutting open abdomen and uterus and removing baby
Mammary Glands
❖ Organs in female mammals that produce milk
❖ Situated in breasts and made up of milk-secreting cells

❖ Lactation:
❑ Milk production
❑ Oestrogen and progesterone stimulate growth and
development of milk- glands and ducts
❑ Prolactin – production of milk
❑ Oxytocin – flow of milk from glands

Favored above bottle feeding because:

▪ Contains antibodies
▪ Nutrients in perfect proportions
▪ Cheap and easy
Birth Control (contraception)
Prevention of fertilization

3 main groups:
1. Prevents egg being released (ovulation)
2. Prevents sperm reaching egg
3. Prevent embryo implantation or development

* Other methods
1. Prevent Ovulation
The pill:
• Minute amounts of oestrogen and progesterone
• Prevent ovulation
• Taken everyday except last 5 days in 28-day
cycle
• Very reliable if taken at the same time every day
• No protection against STI’s
2. Prevents Sperm Reaching Egg
Sterilization:
✓ Permanent
✓ Don’t affect reproductive physiological processes
✓ Not harmful and cheaper in long term
✓ Vasectomy – sperm duct is cut so sperm can’t be
expelled
✓ Tubal ligation – fallopian tubes are tied off – prevents
sperm and eggs from reaching each other
2. Prevents Sperm Reaching Egg
Condoms:
• Barrier device used during intercourse
• Reduces probability of pregnancy/STD
• Male and female condoms

• Male condom:
• Non-porous, strong rubber sheath
• Placed over penis before intercourse
• Traps sperm and prevents them from entering the
vagina
• Very effective if used correctly (especially if
combined with spermicide)
• Prevents spread of STI’s
2. Prevents Sperm Reaching Egg
• Female condoms:
• Fits inside the female, lining the vagina
• Traps sperm and prevents them entering the
cervix
• Also offers some protection against STI’s

Spermicide:
• Chemicals that kill sperm
• Not effective when used on their own
2. Prevents Sperm Reaching Egg
Diaphragm/Cervical cap:
• Small, flexible rubber structure inserted into the
vagina before intercourse
• Fits over the cervix to prevent the entry of sperm
• No protection against STI’s
3. Prevents Embryo Implantation
Morning-after-pill:
• Started within 72 hours after unprotected sex
• Oestrogen-progesterone combination confuses
the normal hormonal signals
• Fertilization prevented or fertilized egg can’t
implant

RU 486:
▪ Pill using mifepristone
▪ Must be taken in the first 7 weeks of pregnancy
▪ Blocks action of progesterone – endometrium
will not be maintained - causing a miscarriage
3. Prevents Embryo Implantation
Intrauterine device (IUD):
• Small plastic or metal device in the shape of a spiral, loop or
T
• Inserted into uterus by a medical professional
• Prevents implantation of blastocyst
• Some IUDs secrete hormones that affect the endometrium
and prevent implantation.
• It is a very reliable form of contraception, but it is
recommended for woman who have already had children.
• IUDs do not provide protection against STDs.
• The IUD only needs replacing every two to five years,
depending on the type of device.
• The fact that fertilisation has already occurred and that the IUD
prevents implantation, presents an ethical issue in many
religions and cultures. The prevention of implantation is seen
as termination of life (fertilised egg cell/embryo)
4. Other Methods
Injectables:
➢ E.g. Depo-Provera
➢ Lasts for 3 months
➢ Recommended for teenagers
➢ Contains synthetic progesterone – released slowly into
the muscle
➢ Thickens cervical mucus – prevents sperm from
entering uterus
➢ High levels of progesterone inhibit FSH release thus
preventing ovulation
➢ No protection against STI’s
➢ Can take a long time for normal cycle to return once
injectables are stopped
4. Other Methods
Rhythm method:
• Sexual intercourse is restricted to “safe days” in the
female’s menstrual cycle when fertilisation is unlikely
to occur.
• “Safe days” are about 5 days before menstruation and 3
days after menstruation.
• “Unsafe days” include 3-4 days before ovulation,
ovulation and 3-4 days after ovulation.
• A female can determine approximately when ovulation
occurs by adding 14 days to the 1st day of menstruation.
• Another indication of ovulation is a secretion of mucus
from the vagina and a rise in body temperature of up to
0.5 degrees Celsius.
Sexually Transmitted Infections
Weaken the body’s defenses

Examples:
➢ HIV/AIDS, genital warts and genital herpes (viruses)
➢ Gonorrhea and syphilis (bacteria)
➢ Thrush (fungi)
 HIV
❑ Human immuno-deficiency virus
❑ Passed on through transfer of body fluids
❑ Attacks bodies immune system
❑ As immune system gets weaker, develops Acquired
Immune Deficiency Virus (AIDS)
❑ Symptoms:
o Loss of appetite
o Rapid weight loss
o Diarrhea lasting longer than a month
o Tiredness and headaches
o Memory loss
o Persistent cough
o Sores and rash on the body

Cause of death – often TB or pneumonia

HIV - Treatment
▪ HIV-positive people treated with anti-retroviral (ARV)
drugs
▪ Helps prevent onset of AIDS
▪ Even on ARV’s – people are still infectious
HIV – Social Consequences
➢ SA – highest % of HIV infected people in the
world
➢ Infected people often treated badly by
community members
➢ People have to spend time caring for the sick
➢ Families suffer loss of their loved ones
➢ People who normally support families (middle
aged adults) dying – communities and families
suffer due to lack of income
HIV – Economic Consequences
✓ Young people are caring for their family members
thus do not get a decent education and
development
✓ Financial hardships – person earning income is ill
or dies – no money available
✓ Healthcare system under pressure – not enough
money for treatment of sick
✓ Not enough skilled workers – local economy
suffers
Syphilis
Bacterium enters body through tears in mucus
membranes in genital areas

Spread:
❖ Direct sexual contact with person who has an active
infection
❖ Passed to fetus during pregnancy
Diagnosis:
❖ Blood tests
❖ In primary stages of syphilis, symptoms are easily
missed
Syphilis - Symptoms
After infection:
• Small bump appears on penis, vagina or cervix
• Gradually turns into a painless sore or ulcer
• This may go completely unnoticed thus resulting in the
spread of the disease

Second stage:
• Similar sores, skin rash on other parts of the body
• Mild fever

Third stage:
• Can occur10 or more years after infection
• Bacteria have invaded most parts of the body
• Damages organs – liver, bones, blood vessels and nervous
system
Syphilis - Treatment
❑Antibiotics
❑Fatal if not treated
Gonorrhea
▪ Most common STI – caused by a bacterium and very
infectious
▪ Bacterium lives and breeds in moist, warm linings of
reproductive and urinary tubes and cavities
▪ Spread through direct sexual contact with a person who
has an active infection

▪ Symptoms (first appear in genital areas but other body

parts can also be affected)
▪ Females:
➢ I infection in cervix
➢ 50-60% of women have no symptoms
➢ Painful urination and/or pain during intercourse
➢ Cloudy/yellowish vaginal discharge
Symptoms:
Males:
➢ 85% men have symptoms within 2-10 days
➢ Yellow urethral discharge and painful urination
➢ Painful testicles

Treatment:
▪ Antibiotics
▪ If not treated – serious complications could occur

❖ NB:
o Re-test after antibiotics
o Treat all sexual partners
o Abstain until gonorrhea is cleared up
Gonorrhea - Complications
❑ Spread through female reproductive tract resulting in
pelvic inflammatory disease
• This can cause damage to the reproductive organs
and infertility
❑ In pregnancy can increase risk of ectopic pregnancy,
miscarriage and premature birth
❑ Passed from mother to baby and can lead to pneumonia
and serious eye infections in baby that could result in
blindness
❑ Re-infection is common
 Male Infertility
Diagnosis involves: checking what medication is being taken,
physical examination and testing sperm samples

Causes:
• Most cases are due to a problem in the testes
• Damage to the testes can be due to illness (e.g. mumps),
radiation, chemotherapy, trauma, surgery
o This can lead to:
▪ Low sperm count
▪ Poor semen quality – don’t move well or misshaped
• Blocked sperm ducts

Treatment:
• Low sperm count due to hormone imbalance – hormone
injections (expensive and can take a year to be effective)
• Surgical intervention for blocked sperm ducts
Female Infertility
▪ Problems with ovulation when viable eggs are not made
▪ Blocked oviducts prevent egg and sperm meeting
▪ Problems with uterus – fibroids

Treatment:
• Fertility drugs:
▪ Primary treatment for women with ovulation
disorders
▪ Orally or injected
▪ Cause the release of hormones that trigger or
regulate ovulation

• Surgical treatments:
▪ Unblocking fallopian tubes, removing fibroids and
clearing endometriosis
Female Infertility
Treatment:
• Assisted conception:
▪ Artificial insemination
o Semen is inserted into the woman’s vagina when she is
ovulating
o This semen may be from the partner or a donor
▪ In vitro fertilization (IVF):
o Can use the woman's own eggs or those of an egg donor
o Eggs are removed and fertilized by sperm is a petri dish in
a laboratory
o Fertilised eggs are then placed into the woman's uterus and
left to implant into the endometrium
▪ Gamete intra-fallopian transfer (GIFT) and intra-
cytoplasmic sperm injection (ICSI) are other alternatives
▪ All these treatments are very expensive and the success rate is
relatively low
 Surrogacy
➢ Women carries a baby on behalf of the future parents who are
medically unable to do so
➢ Either done by artificial insemination from the man or implantation
of an embryo from the women
➢ Embryo not genetically related to surrogate
Foetal Alcohol Syndrome
❑ Pattern of birth defects, learning and behavioral
problems affecting children whose mothers
consumed alcohol during pregnancy
❑ SA has highest reported incidence in the world of babies
being born with FAS every year
❑ Alcohol passes through placenta and causes damage to
developing foetus

❑ Features:
• New born babies:
➢ Short stature
➢ Low birth weight
➢ Poor weight gain
➢ Microcephaly
Foetal Alcohol Syndrome:
Features:

Older child:
➢ Poor attention span
➢ Poor motor skills
➢ Slow language development
➢ Hyperactivity disorder
➢ Learning disabilities
➢ Poor social skills

There is NO treatment for FAS