Hydropower Engineering

Everest Engineering College Er. Prashant Neupane Date:2082//01/03

What is Hydropower Engineering
• Hydropower engineering is a specialized field of civil engineering focused
on designing, constructing, and maintaining systems that harness energy
from moving water to generate electricity.
• It involves creating infrastructure like dams, reservoirs, turbines, and
powerhouses to capture the kinetic or potential energy of water and
convert it into electrical power.
• Key aspects include site selection, hydrological analysis, structural design,
environmental impact assessment, and integration with electrical grids.
• Engineers ensure efficiency, safety, and sustainability while balancing
ecological concerns, such as fish migration and river ecosystems, and
addressing challenges like sedimentation and climate variability.
Step-by-Step Energy Conversion in a Hydropower Plant:
1.Water Storage (Potential Energy)
Water is stored in a reservoir at a height. This stored water has potential
energy due to elevation.
2.Water Release (Kinetic Energy)
When released, water flows down through penstocks (large pipes), gaining
kinetic energy.
3.Turbine Rotation (Mechanical Energy)
The fast-flowing water hits the turbine blades, causing them to rotate.
This rotation is mechanical energy.
4.Generator Activation (Electrical Energy)
The turbine is connected to a generator.
As the turbine spins, it turns the rotor inside the generator.
The rotating magnetic field inside the generator induces electric current in
the stator.
Assignemnt :

Research one hydropower project in Nepal (e.g., capacity, location).

1.1 Sources of energy and importance of hydropower
Energy sources can be classified into two major groups:

1.1.1 Renewable sources of energy

Energy which is continuously produced by nature and cannot be exhausted is called renewable energy. Some
of the renewable sources of energy are:

a) Solar energy
The energy obtained from the sun is called solar energy. Solar devices/solar panels are needed to use the
solar energy. It can be a good energy source in rural areas for heating water and even for lighting purpose.
However, it has some limitations. Solar energy is not available uniformly at all times and all places. In Nepal,
utilization of solar energy is limited to micro scale users only.

b) Wind energy
The fast moving wind has kinetic energy which can be converted to electric energy by wind mills. Wind energy
is clean, cheap, plentiful and renewable source of energy. A windmill was installed in Kagbeni, Mustang where
plentiful of wind is available but it went out of order in few months of installation due to poor structural
design. The only disadvantages are wildlife mortality (birds, bats) and large sounds of moving blades.
c) Hydro energy
Hydropower is probably the oldest renewable source of energy. Since thousands of year, power of water has been used for
grinding grains to operating mills. Electricity can be produced by using hydro energy. Hydro electricity is thus environment
friendly, nonpolluting source of energy. However, there is disturbance in aquatic ecosystem, fish migration and upstream
submergence of land due to dam construction.

d) Geothermal energy
Enormous heat energy is stored beneath the earth’s surface. The heat in shallow depths at different parts of earth can be
used for power production, which is called geothermal energy . Holes are drilled down to hot region and water is sent
through them, which is converted to steam. The captured steam is used to rotate turbines which power the generators. It
is clean, sustainable and environment friendly energy source. The only disadvantage is that it can only be produced at
selected sites throughout the world. The largest group of geothermal plants is in California, US.

e) Nuclear energy
The energy produced through nuclear fission is called nuclear energy. It is most powerful kind of energy every known. The
production of electrical energy is continuous in a nuclear plant and thus used as base load plant in foreign countries. One
of the main disadvantages of nuclear energy is the difficulty in the management of nuclear waste. It takes many years
(10000 of years) to eliminate its radioactivity and risks. Also there is always risk of unexpected event or nuclear accident.

f) Tidal energy (tai·dl)

Tidal energy uses rise and fall of tides to convert kinetic energy of incoming and outgoing tides into electrical energy. The
generation of energy through tidal power is mostly prevalent in coastal areas. Huge investment and limited availability of
sites are few of the drawbacks of tidal energy.
1.1.2 Non-renewable sources of energy
Energy which have been stored in nature for millions of years and cannot be replaced quickly if exhausted, are called non-
renewable sources of energy. They are also called conventional sources of energy. Some of them are discussed below:

a) Firewood
It is an important source of heat energy for both domestic and industrial purpose. In a developing country like Nepal, wood
is the principal fuel, especially in rural area. During burning of woods, lots of smoke is produced which can cause harm to
human health.

b) Fossil fuels
Fossil fuel is combustible deposits of organic materials, formed from decayed plants and animals buried deep inside the
earth millions of year ago. Natural gas, coal and oil (petroleum products) are all one source of energy from fossil fuels. Fossil
fuels provide the power for most of the world (about 50%), primarily using coal and oil. But there has to be heavy
destruction and pollution of the environment to get to the fossil fuel and convert it to use. Also, the fossil fuel reserves are
limited.

c) Animal waste
Animal waste is major source of energy in rural part of Nepal. Cattle dung is used as fuel for cooking and heating. Handmade
and sun dried dung cakes mixed with straw is very common method.

d) Agricultural residue
Agricultural residue can also be used for cooking and heating purpose. In region where firewood is scarce, the agricultural
residue like rice husk, maize stalks, are used.
Energy can also be classified as conventional and non-conventional sources of
energy
• Conventional sources are traditionally used, widely established, and often older
technologies, like fossil fuels, hydropower, and nuclear fission, depending on the
region.
• Non-conventional sources are newer, less common, or emerging technologies, such
as solar, wind, geothermal, or tidal energy.
Advantages of Hydropower:

• Renewable source of energy.

• Low operation and maintenance cost
• Environmental friendly and non
polluting.
• Very efficient for peaking load
(Operational flexibility i.e. opening and
closing can be done as desired)
• Can be use as multi-purpose project
(flood control, water supply, irrigation)
• Long span of life
Disdvantages of Hydropower:

• Long time for construction

• Large initial investment cost
• Submergence leading to the ecological
imbalance, resettlement etc
• Necessity of costly transmission and
distribution network
• Sedimentation and landslide problem
 Challenges for hydropower development
Hydropower plays a very important role in improving the economic condition of country by
intense industrialization, employment opportunities and so on. Hydropower can replace
petroleum products, and hence reduce trade deficits. It reduces dependency on non-renewable
energy sources and thus saves the environment.
However, there are some challenges in hydropower development in Nepal which are listed
below.
i. Political instability, poor governance and government interference
ii. Lack of fund, skilled manpower and technology
iii. Too much dependency on foreign grants and assistance
iv. High cost of hydropower development and transmission
v. Private sector not adequately mobilized
vi. Lack of clear and constant hydropower development policies
vii. Difficult terrains and isolated load centers
viii. Fragile geological condition and lack of hydro-meteorological data
ix. Export market beyond the control of Nepal
x. Leakage , theft and poor maintenance
 Opportunities for hydropower development

Opportunities of hydropower development in Nepal are listed below.

i. Abundant water resources and huge hydropower potential available

ii. Topographical aspect: high head available within short river length
iii. Geographical aspects: perennial rivers originating from Himalayas
iv. Interest of foreign investors
v. High demand in local market: 7-9% of peak demand increases annually
vi. High demand in regional market: highly populated area of India and Bangladesh in the
neighborhood where the surplus energy could be exported
vii. Environment risk free after construction
 Power Potential of Nepal
Potential Energy = m.g.h
where, m, g, h has their common notations

So, Power Potential = Rate of change of potential energy

= m.g.h/t
= V. ρ . g. h/t
= Q. γ . h
Hence, Power Potential of a River is calculated by the given equation,
P = nγ Q H (W)
Q.1: In a hydroelectric power plant, 65 m³/s of water flows from an elevation of 90 m to a turbine, where
electric power is generated. The overall efficiency of the turbine-generator is 84 percent. Disregarding
frictional losses in piping, estimate the electric power output of this plant.
 Power Potential of Nepal
1. Theoretical potential (Gross potential):
It is the power potential of all sources of flow of water i.e. theoretical power possible to generate.
Power = P = nγ Q H
where n γ Q H have their usual notations
Gross potential of Nepal: 83000 MW [By Dr. Hari Man Shrestha in 1966 AD during his research while in Moscow
Plant Institute]

2. Technically feasible potential:

• It is that part of theoretical/gross potential which can be utilized with the help of construction of hydropower
station i.e. power which is technically feasible.
• It depends on unfavorable geology, topography, climate, and accessibility.
• Technically feasible potential of Nepal: 44000 MW

3. Economically feasible potential:

• Technically feasible projects can’t be implemented if they donot give a good return once the investment is made.
• IRR/BCR/MAAR (prevailing interest rate) is tools for hydropower for economic analysis.
• If IRR higher than prevailing interest rate or B/C ratio greater than 1, projects are usually consider economically
feasible.
• Economically feasible potential of Nepal: 42000 MW
 Hydropower potential of Nepal

• Huge potential of water resources compared to country size.

• More than 6000 rivers and streams
• Topography changes from elevation 8848m to less than 60m within short distance of from
North to South
• Average annual precipitation is about 1500mm
• Annual runoff (surface) of Nepal = 0.5% of total world's surface runoff.
• Total surface runoff of Nepal including from Tibet is about = 200 B. m3 (Billion m3)
• Total annual surface run off inside Nepalese territory = 174 B. m3
Major river basins are Koshi, Gandaki, Karnali and Mahakali
• Karnali and Mahakali river basins have a catchment area of 48,811 km2 and 16,097 km2, with
approximate hydropower potential of 36,180 MW (the watershed area of the Mahakali River
lies in India and Nepal)
• Gandaki river basin has a catchment area of 36,607 km2 and approximate hydro potential of
20,650 MW (the watershed area lies in Tibet/China and Nepal) potential of 4,110 MW
• Koshi river basin has a catchment area of 57,700 km2 and hydro potential of 22,350 MW
• Other river basins (i.e., southern rivers) have a catchment area of 3,070 km2
 The Installed global hydropower capacity reached
1,397 GW in 2022, as per 2023 Hydropower
status reports by International Hydropower
Associations (IHA)
The world leader in total installed hydropower
capacity are:
1. China (414.8 GW),
2. Brazil (109.7 GW),
3. U.S.A (102.0 GW),
4. Canada (83.3 GW) and
5. Russia (55.8 GW
The updated global installed hydropower capacity in
2023 reached 1,412 GW, per the 2024 World
Hydropower Outlook by the International Hydropower
Association (IHA).
The world leaders in total installed hydropower capacity
are:
•China: 421.54 GW
•Brazil: 109.8 GW
•USA: 102.12 GW
•Canada: 83.0 GW
•Russia: 55.8 GW
Power Plant Status in Nepal (Source- DoED until 9th April 2025)

• Hydropower < 1MW = 14.222 MW (18 projects)

• Hydropower > 1MW = 3324.584 MW (169 projects)
• Thermal = 53.41 MW
• Solar = 106.74 MW
Visit website- doed.gov.np

•Diesel-Based Thermal Power Plants: The primary thermal source in Nepal is diesel fuel used in thermal power
plants. The largest facility is the Multi-Fuel Power Plant in Bansbari Morang, Biratnagar, with a capacity of 39 MW.
It was initially installed with 4 units of 6.5 MW each in 1990/91, later expanded by two more units in 1997/98,
funded by the Finnish government. This plant uses diesel generators to produce electricity.
Historical Development of Hydropower in Nepal:

•1996 A.D.: Chatara Hydropower, 3.2 MW, (Sunsari District)

•1996 A.D.: Tinau River Butwal, 1.02 MW (1st tunneling project), (Rupandehi District)
•1999 A.D.: Ilam Hydro Project, 6.2 MW, (Ilam District)
•2000 A.D.: Modi Khola Hydroproject, 14.8 MW, (Parbat District)
•2000 A.D.: Khimti I, 60 MW, (Dolakha District)
•2002 A.D.: Kaligandaki A Hydropower, 144 MW, (Syangja District)
•2008 A.D.: Mid. Marsyangdi Hydropower, 70 MW, (Lamjung District)
•2019 A.D.: Kulekhani III, 14 MW, (Makwanpur District)
•2019 A.D.: Upper Trishuli 3A, 60 MW, (Rasuwa District)
•2021 A.D.: Upper Tamakoshi Hydropower, 456 MW (biggest hpp in Nepal), (Dolakha Dis
•2022 A.D.: Rasuwagadhi Hydropower, 111 MW, (Rasuwa District)
•2023 A.D.: Solukhola Dudhkoshi Hydropower Project, 86 MW, (Solukhumbu District)
•2023 A.D.: Upper Kalangad Hydropower Project, 38.46 MW
•2023 A.D.: Super Madi Hydropower Project, 44 MW
•2023 A.D.: Upper Chameliya Hydropower Project, 40 MW
•2024 A.D.: Sanjen Hydropower Project, 78 MW, (Rasuwa District)
• First Hydropower – Pharping Hydropower ( 1911 AD) 500 KW
• First Hydropower from private sector – Khimti 60 MW (2000 AD)
• Largest hydropower – Upper Tamakoshi 456 MW [5th July 2021 AD, inaugurated by PM KP Oli ]
• Largest hydropower before Upper Tamakoshi– Kaligandaki A 144 MW (2002)
• Storage type hydropower – Kulekhani 1st 60 MW (1982); 2nd 32 MW and 3rd 14 MW
• Largest proposed hydropower – Karnali Chisapani Multipurpose Project (10800 MW)
Four Largest Hydropower Plants of Nepal
Hydropower plants under construction
There are some hydropower projects of big capacity which are under construction. Though some are
preparing to start generation, transmission lines are not being developed in the same pace. Only NEA is
responsible for the installing transmission lines in Nepal.

Hydropower Plants Under Construction:

Tanahu (140 MW): Approximately 70-75% complete, expected completion by late 2025 or early 2026.
Rahughanga (40 MW): Likely 90-95% complete or operational.
Madhya Bhotekoshi (102 MW): Approximately 85-90% complete, expected completion by late 2025.
Arun III (900 MW): Approximately 75-80% complete, expected completion by mid-2026.

Projects with Huge Hydropower Potential (Not Yet Under Construction):

West Seti (750 MW): Pre-construction, construction may start in late 2025 or 2026.
Mahakali Pancheshwor (6480 MW): Pre-construction, still in planning and negotiation phase.
Karnali Chisapani (10800 MW): Pre-construction, still in feasibility study phase.
Kali Gandaki II (660 MW): Pre-construction, still in planning phase.
Budhi Gandaki (1200 MW): Pre-construction, construction may start in 2026.
 Classification of Hydropower Projects 3: Based on Operation
1: Based on Head •Isolated (Not Connected to Grid): Remote areas
•High Head (>300 m): Pelton turbines • Ex: Pico/micro plants in Dolpa
• Ex: Upper Tamakoshi (822 m, 456 MW) •Grid-Connected (Connected to National Grid): Major projects
•Medium Head (50 m – 300 m): Francis turbines • Ex: Upper Tamakoshi, Kali Gandaki A
• Ex: Middle Marsyangdi (70 m, 76 MW) •Base Load Plant: Meets minimum demand
•Low Head (<50 m): Kaplan/Francis turbines • Ex: Marsyangdi (69 MW)
• Ex: Kali Gandaki A (40 m, 144 MW) •Peak Load Plant: Meets peak demand
• Ex: Upper Tamakoshi (4-hour peaking)
2: Based on Installed Capacity
•Pico Hydropower (<10 kW): For households 4: Based on Storage Capacity
•Micro Hydropower (10 kW – 100 kW): For small villages •Run-of-River (ROR): Minimal/no storage, natural flow
•Mini Hydropower (100 kW – 1 MW): For local grids • Ex: Marsyangdi, Kali Gandaki A
• Ex:Tinau River Hydropower (1.02 MW, 1996) •Peaking Run-of-River (PROR): Pondage for peak demand
•Small Hydropower (1 MW – 25 MW): Regional grids • Ex: Upper Tamakoshi
• Ex: Kulekhani III (14 MW) •Storage Plants: Regulate hydrograph with reservoirs
•Medium Hydropower (25 MW – 100 MW): National • Ex: Kulekhani I (60 MW)
grids •Pumped Storage Plants: U/S and D/S reservoirs for energy
• Ex: Solukhola Dudhkoshi (86 MW) storage
•Large Hydropower (>100 MW): Major suppliers • Ex: Sunkoshi III (1110 MW, planned), Rupatal-Begnas
• Ex: Upper Tamakoshi (456 MW) (100–300 MW, planned)

Note: The Indra Sarovar Reservoir supporting kulekhani plants has a total storage capacity of 85.3 million cubic meters,
with a live capacity of 73.3 million cubic meters, enabling year-round power generation and peaking support.
 Major institutions related to hydropower production

a) Ministry of Energy, Water Resources and Irrigation (MoEWRI) (ऊर्जा, र्लस्रोत तथज स िँचजइ मन्त्रजलय):
•Primary authority for hydropower policy, development, and water resource management.
•Oversees multipurpose projects, private investment, and regional energy trade (targets 28,000 MW by 2035).

b) Department of Electricity Development (DoED) (सिद् युत् सिकज सिभजग) :

•Established in 1993 under MoEWRI, promotes and regulates hydropower, focusing on private investment.
•Issues licenses, conducts feasibility studies, and oversees environmental assessments.
•Supports MoEWRI’s roadmap for 10,000 MW by 2026 and 28,000 MW by 2035.

c) Nepal Electricity Authority (NEA) (नेपजल सिद् युत् प्रजसिकरण):

•State-owned entity for electricity generation, transmission, and distribution (3,421 MW total capacity, 3,255 MW
from hydropower).
•Purchases power from Independent Power Producers (IPPs) and manages the national grid (6,507 km of
lines).
•Aims to make Nepal a net power exporter by 2026 (e.g., 632.6 MW exported to India in 2023).
Major institutions related to hydropower production

d) Electricity Regulatory Commission (ERC) सिद् युत् सनयमन आयोग :

•Replaced the Electricity Tariff Fixation Commission (ETFC) in 2019 under the Electricity Regulatory
Commission Act, 2017.
•Sets consumer tariffs, regulates power purchase rates, and promotes competitive markets.

•Other Key Institutions:

•Department of Water Resources and Irrigation (र्लस्रोत तथज स िँचजइ सिभजग):
Manages water for hydropower and irrigation.

•Department of Hydrology and Meteorology (र्ल तथज मौ म सिज्ञजन सिभजग):

Provides hydrological data for project planning.

•Water and Energy Commission Secretariat (WECS) (र्ल तथज ऊर्जा आयोग सचिजलय):
Advises on policy and multipurpose projects (estimates 72.5 GW hydropower potential).

•Alternative Energy Promotion Centre (AEPC) (िैकल्पिक ऊर्जा प्रिर्द्ा न केन्द्र):

Promotes micro-hydropower and renewables in rural areas.

•Independent Power Producers (IPPs):

Contribute 36.5% of electricity (2020–21), e.g., 216 MW Upper Trishuli-1.
Seasonal Electricity Tariffs in Nepal
1. Power Purchase Rates (NEA to Producers)
The Nepal Electricity Authority (NEA) purchases electricity from producers at different rates depending on the season:
Wet Season (Jestha 16 – Mangsir 15): NRs. 4.80 per kWh
•Dry Season (Mangsir 16 – Jestha 15): NRs. 8.40 per kWh​
These rates apply to run-of-the-river (ROR) hydropower projects up to 100 MW, with a 3% annual escalation for eight years.
2. Consumer Tariffs
While NEA's purchase rates vary seasonally, consumer tariffs have traditionally been uniform throughout the year. However, there
have been proposals to implement seasonal and time-of-day (ToD) tariffs, especially for industrial consumers:
Industrial Consumers (66 kV lines):
• Dry Season:
Single Phase (1-phase)
• Peak Hours (5 PM – 11 PM): NRs. 10.50 per unit
•Commonly used in homes for lighting, fans, TVs, fridges, etc.
• Other Times: NRs. 8.55 per unit
•Uses two wires: one live (phase) and one neutral.
• Wet Season:
•Voltage in Nepal: 230V
• Peak Hours (5 PM – 11 PM): NRs. 10.50 per unit
•Suitable for low power appliances.
• Off-Peak Hours (11 PM – 5 AM): NRs. 5.40 per unit
•Example: Your house probably uses single-phase electricity.
• Other Times: NRs. 8.55 per unit
•Domestic Consumers:
Three Phase (3-phase)
• Single-Phase Users:
•Used in industries, big buildings, and heavy equipment.
• General Rate: NRs. 9.50 per unit
•Uses four wires: three live wires (phases) and one neutral.
• Above 400 Units: NRs. 11.00 per unit
•Voltage in Nepal: 400V (between phases)
• Three-Phase Users:
•Can carry more power efficiently.
• Dry Season: NRs. 11.50 per unit
•Example: Factories, lifts, motors, water pumps.
• Wet Season: NRs. 10.50 per unit
Additionally, the NEA has reduced tariffs for specific consumer categories to promote electricity usage: urjakhabar.com
•Irrigation Consumers: Tariffs reduced by an average of 40.69%.
•Consumers Using Induction Cookers: Tariffs reduced to encourage the use of electric cooking appliances.
Nepal’s electricity demand

Nepal’s electricity demand is rising fast:

•2024 Consumption: 12,165 GWh, peak demand ~1,748 MW.
•Growth: 396.65% since 2000; per capita use up from 131 to 400 units
(2015-2024).
•Key Drivers: Urbanization, households (4.31 billion units), industry (3.69
billion units), electric appliances, EVs.
•Challenges: Dry season shortages, 14.68% import reliance, transmission
issues. The Nepal Electricity Authority (NEA) reported that total energy
imports were around 1.79 billion units out of the 12,165 GWh consumed in
2023/24.
•Outlook: Targeting 15,000 MW by 2030, with focus on hydropower and
renewables.
Hydropower Development Policy

The Hydropower Development Policy of 2001 (HDP 2001) has been a foundational framework
for Nepal's hydropower sector, encouraging both local and foreign investment, particularly in
small hydropower plants.

Overview of Hydropower Development Policy

The HDP 2001 aimed to promote hydropower development by addressing key issues:
•Encouraging private sector participation.
•Ensuring reasonable electricity pricing.
•Expanding rural electrification.
•Boosting employment opportunities.
•Promoting hydropower exports.
•Creating investor-friendly practices.
Objectives:
• To generate electricity at low cost utilizing water available in the country.
• To extend reliable and quantitative electric service throughout the country at reasonable
price.
• To tie up electrification with economic activities.
• To render the support to the development of rural economy by extending rural
electrification.
• To develop hydropower as an exportable commodity.

Commitments of Government of Nepal:

▪ Survey license: term of 5 years
▪ Generation license term: 35 years for domestic supply and 30 years for export oriented
projects
▪ Additional maximum five years for hydrological risks
▪ Projects turned over free of cost on good operating condition at the end
▪ Water rights guaranteed :Guaranteed access to water resources for the license duration,
subject to environmental regulations.
Procedure:

• Projects to be developed by way of competitive bidding

• BOOT (build-own-operate-transfer) model for private investment
• Respect for high standards for environment protection
• GoN to assist in land acquisition
• Royalty structure fix rate up to 1000 MW, export projects negotiable rate above 1000 MW i.e
-Fixed rates for projects up to 1,000 MW: NPR 100/kWh capacity charge and 2% energy
royalty for the first 15 years, increasing to NPR 500/kWh and 10% thereafter.
-For projects above 1,000 MW or export-oriented, rates are negotiable on a case-by-case
basis (e.g., Upper Karnali and Arun III projects).
• Separate agreement for developers and GoN
 Deadline: 21st ,Bhaishak,2082

Tutorial 1:
Introduction to Hydropower Development
1. Why hydropower is considered the best source of energy for Nepal? Explain with suitable reasons.
2. Describe the history, status and potential of hydropower development in the context of our country.
3. Describe the hydropower status of Nepal. Also, define the terms gross, technical and economic
potential of Nepal.
4. Despite having a century long history of hydropower development and huge hydropower potential,
Nepal has so far developed only around 3400 MW of hydropower. What do you think are the factors
behind slow pace of hydropower development and what approaches can be adopted to make the best
use of available water resources in Nepal?
5. Explain briefly the major institutions involved in hydropower development in Nepal.
6. What are the objectives of hydropower development policy 2058? Explain five main features
provisioned in Hydropower Development Policy 2058 for the development of hydropower in Nepal.
7. Write Short Notes on:
a) Scope & challenges of Hydropower in Nepal
b) Advantage of Private sector in Hydropower development