ISIJ International, Vol. 61 (2021), No. 7, pp.

2143–2149
ISIJ International, Vol. 61 (2021), No. 7
https://doi.org/10.2355/isijinternational.ISIJINT-2020-706

Parameter Optimization of Thermal Shrinkage Technique for

Simple Numerical Simulation of Welding Angular Distortion

Hiroki MURAKAMI,1,2)* Katsumasa MIYAZAKI,1) Kenji HONNAMI,2) Shigetaka OKANO2) and

Masahito MOCHIZUKI2)

1) Research & Development Group, Hitachi, Ltd., 7-1-1 Omika-cho, Hitachi, Ibaraki, 319-1292 Japan.
2) Graduate School of Engineering, Osaka University, 2-1 Yamada-oka, Suita, Osaka, 565-0871 Japan.
(Received on November 17, 2020; accepted on April 12, 2021)

The thermal shrinkage technique, which uses shrinkage strain to determine weld distortion, shows
promise as a simple simulation for predicting the weld distortion of large welded structures. To date, there
has not been adequate research on how to set input data based on welding conditions. In this work, we
perform a parametric study using thermal shrinkage technique in which we vary the input data to investi-
gate the optimum setting method. To compare angular distortion obtained by the thermal shrinkage tech-
nique, Metal active gas welding was conducted under five welding conditions and thermal elastic-plastic
analysis was conducted under the same welding condition. Under all five conditions, the angular distortion
obtained by the thermal shrinkage technique accurately reproduced that obtained by experiments and by
thermal elastic-plastic analysis. We found that the optimum input data settings were the shrinkage strain
of − 0.012 and a shrinkage zone in which the maximum temperature reached 500°C or more. From the
results, the similarity and the difference between the characteristics of angular distortion in the thermal
shrinkage technique and that in the thermal elastic-plastic analysis was discussed based on the inherent
strain and the moment. Moreover, the way in which inherent strain based on the both-ends-fixed-bar anal-
ogy occurred can explain the agreement in angular distortion in the case of the optimum input data set-
tings. Our results demonstrate that a suitable setting method of input data has been established.

KEY WORDS: thermal shrinkage technique; inherent strain method; thermal elastic-plastic analysis; weld
distortion; numerical simulation; finite element method; welding conditions.

calculation of welding distortion, the understanding of the

1. Introduction
welding mechanics, and the reduction of calculation time.
Since electrical welding was invented in the 19th cen- A simulation modelling that combined welding process
tury, welding has been applied to various structures such and welding mechanics enabled to predict weld distor-
as ships, automobiles, power plants, and construction tion accurately;9–11) moreover, the dynamic substructure
machinery. However, welding often generates geometric method,12) the composite mesh method,13) and idealized
imperfections due to shrinkage and distortion. The geomet- explicit FEM14,15) enabled to reduce computation time and
ric imperfections have negative influence on appearance of the memory consumption for calculating welding distortion.
manufactured products and have the potential to decrease However, the application of thermal elastic-plastic analysis
in structural strength due to the stress concentration. Weld to production sites and design departments is not always
distortion is usually controlled by correction using mechani- realistic due to the long calculation time especially for large
cal and thermal techniques, however, it takes a lot of time to structures such as ships and construction machinery.
correct it. Therefore, weld distortion should be appropriately On the other hand, the inherent strain method and the
and highly accurately controlled for improving productivity thermal shrinkage technique,16,17) which is a kind of the
in manufacturing process.1–6) inherent strain method, have been applied to large welded
In the 1970s, thermal elastic-plastic analysis using finite structures because the calculation time is extremely short
element methods (FEM) was first applied to welding prob- compared to thermal elastic-plastic analysis.18–22) In addi-
lems.7,8) Since then, various research on thermal elastic- tion, for reinforcement of the versatility of these methods,
plastic analysis has been conducted for the more accurate the research on the relationship between welding condition
and the inherent strain, which is the input data in the inher-
* Corresponding author: E-mail: [email protected] ent strain method.23,24) Since the inherent strain method and

© 2021 The Iron and Steel Institute of Japan. This is an open access article under the terms of the Creative Commons
Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivs license (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/).
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 ISIJ International, Vol. 61 (2021), No. 7

the thermal shrinkage technique are easy to set the input

data and the calculation time is extremely short compared to
thermal elastic-plastic analysis, these methods are expected
to be engineering useful tools for production sites and
design departments.
In the thermal shrinkage technique, elastic-plastic analy-
sis is performed using shrinkage strain and shrinkage zone,
where the shrinkage strain whose value is isotropic and
constant is given within the shrinkage zone. These methods
require a shrinkage strain for each welding condition and Fig. 1. Schematic illustration of thermal shrinkage technique.
each weld joint, and the way of setting input data is arbi- (Online version in color.)
trary. In one example, Jackson16) previously reported the
usefulness of the thermal shrinkage technique for the fillet
welding of T-joints. In our own research,17) we have applied Shrinkage strain is always a negative value as shown in Eq.
the thermal shrinkage technique to a cylindrical structure (1) and isotropic in the three-dimensional direction. The
and confirmed its usefulness. However, the two studies we value of shrinkage strain is constant within the shrinkage
mentioned set the input data in different ways. If a com- zone. Strictly speaking, the more accurate angular distortion
mon setting method for input data based on welding condi- could be obtained by applying shrinkage strain considering
tions is established, the versatility of the thermal shrinkage anisotropy in the three-dimensional direction. However,
technique will be improved, and it will be easier to use. In shrinkage strain is isotropic to prioritize the ease of setting
addition, the thermal shrinkage technique is expected to the input data. Thermal expansion coefficient α in Eq. (1)
be a useful engineering tool in production sites and design is set to the value of those at room temperature of the mate-
departments. rial. Since the temperature change ΔT is set to an arbitrary
The aim of this study is to establish a method for set- value, the setting method needs to be decided. The shrink-
ting input data in the thermal shrinkage technique based on age zone has an arbitrary three-dimensional shape centered
the welding condition. We performed a parametric study on the welding line. In this study, the shrinkage zone is
in which we varied the input data of shrinkage strain and defined as the area where the maximum temperature of the
shrinkage zone to determine which value can accurately welded plate reaches Ta or more. This is because the range
reproduce angular distortion obtained by experiments. of inherent strain is determined according to the maximum
From the obtained results, the similarity and the difference temperature.24) Since the method of setting the shrinkage
between the characteristics of angular distortion in thermal zone is arbitrary, the setting method needs to be decided.
elastic-plastic analysis and that in the thermal shrinkage Since the thermal shrinkage technique calculates angular
technique was discussed based on the inherent strain and distortion by performing elastic-plastic analysis, the material
the moment. In addition, the generation characteristics of properties required for the analysis are Young’s modulus E,
inherent strain in the thermal shrinkage technique using a Poisson’s ratio ν, yield stress σY, and strain hardening coef-
both-ends-fixed bar analogy was clarified. ficient H, whose values are those at room temperature of the
material. From the above, among the parameters required
to set the input data, the setting method of the temperature
2. Numerical Model of Thermal Shrinkage Technique
change ΔT and the maximum temperature Ta is arbitrary. In
The cause of welding shrinkage and distortion is that the this study, we conducted a parameter study on these two
thermal strain generated in the welding thermal cycle finally values to establish the common setting method.
remains as compressive plastic strain. The thermal shrinkage
technique is a simple simulation method that models this
3. Methods
compressive plastic strain by only introducing the thermal
shrinkage in the cooling process after welding, not the ther- 3.1. Experimental Conditions
mal expansion during welding. Compared with the inherent We used a rolled steel for welded structure SM490YB
strain method based on elastic analysis, by considering the (JIS G 3106) in the experiments. Figure 2 shows the config-
elastic-plastic behaviour in the cooling process, the thermal uration of the plate along its dimensions (200 mm in length,
shrinkage technique becomes easy to set the input data. The 500 mm in width, and 12 mm in thickness). The weld length
input data are shrinkage strain (compressive strain) and the was 150 mm, which left 25-mm un-welded sections at both
shrinkage zone which is the area where the shrinkage strain ends of the plate. The chemical composition of the steel
occurs, as shown in Fig. 1. Since the thermal shrinkage plate is shown in Table 1. Bead-on-plate welded joints were
strain in the cooling process after welding is based on the produced by metal active gas (MAG) welding under the
thermal strain during welding, it is physically appropriate to five welding conditions listed in Table 2. Welding current
set the input data in relation to the thermal expansion coef- and welding speed were varied to obtain various values of
ficient and temperature change that determine the thermal angular distortion. The shield gas was 80% Ar and 20%
strain. Then, the value of shrinkage strain ε is calculated by CO2. Angular distortion was measured using a contact-type
the following equation using the thermal expansion coef- displacement gauge after welding. Other detailed conditions
ficient α and the temperature change ΔT. in the experiments are shown in previous study.25)

  T .................................. (1)

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Table 3. Material properties used for thermal shrinkage tech-

nique.

Young’s modulus, E (GPa) 210

Poisson’s ratio, v 0.3
Yield stress, σy (MPa) 417
Strain hardening coefficient, H (MPa) 970

Table 4. Numerical conditions of thermal shrinkage technique.

Fig. 2. Configuration of specimen to be welded.
Thermal
Shrinkage Temperature Shrinkage
No. expansion
strain, ε change, ΔT zone, Ta
coefficient, α
Table 1. Chemical composition of SM490YB.
1 −3.60 × 10 − 3 1.2 × 10 − 5 300 500
Chemical composition (mass%) −3 −5
2 −6.00 × 10 1.2 × 10 500 500
C Si Mn P S Fe −3 −5
3 −9.60 × 10 1.2 × 10 800 500
0.16 0.28 1.45 0.015 0.003 Bal. −2 −5
4 −1.20 × 10 1.2 × 10 1 000 500
5 −1.44 × 10 − 2 1.2 × 10 − 5 1 200 500

Table 2. Welding conditions. 6 −1.80 × 10 − 2 1.2 × 10 − 5 1 500 500

−3 −5
7 −3.60 × 10 1.2 × 10 300 800
No. 1 2 3 4 5
−3 −5
8 −6.00 × 10 1.2 × 10 500 800
Welding current, I (A) 100 160 200 200 200
−3 −5
9 −9.60 × 10 1.2 × 10 800 800
Welding speed, v (mm/s) 3.33 3.33 3.33 4.67 6.67
10 −1.20 × 10 − 2 1.2 × 10 − 5 1 000 800
11 −1.44 × 10 − 2 1.2 × 10 − 5 1 200 800
3.2. Integrated Simulation Based on Thermal Elastic- 12 −1.80 × 10 −2
1.2 × 10 −5
1 500 800
plastic Analysis
We carried out an integrated simulation of MAG weld-
ing to investigate the performance of the thermal shrinkage temperature change ΔT, shown in Eq. (1). Thermal expan-
technique. A previous report has demonstrated that this sion coefficient α was set to 1.2 × 10 − 5, which is the value
integrated simulation model can accurately simulate weld of the thermal expansion coefficient of SM490YB in room
distortion.9–11) It consists of an arc plasma model,26,27) a temperature. The temperature change ΔT was set to 300°C,
bead formation model,28) and a stress and distortion model. 500°C, 800°C, 1 000°C, 1 200°C, and 1 500°C. There-
In the arc plasma model, numerical simulation based on fore, six values of shrinkage strain ε were used: − 3.60 ×
mathematical modelling of the heat transfer from arc plasma 10 − 3, − 6.00 × 10 − 3, − 9.60 × 10 − 3, − 1.20 × 10 − 2, − 1.44 ×
to a plate is performed to determine the heat source from the 10 − 2, and − 1.80 × 10 − 2. We defined the shrinkage zone as
welding conditions. In the bead formation model, numerical the area where the maximum temperature of the welded
simulation based on coupling analysis between thermal con- plate reaches Ta or more and set it to two values (Ta = 500,
duction and weld bead formation is performed to determine 800). The temperature Ta was determined by the maximum
the temperature distribution and the weld bead configuration temperature obtained by the integrated simulation model
during welding from the properties of the heat source. In the discussed in the previous section.
stress and distortion model, numerical simulation based on
thermal elastic-plastic analysis is performed to determine
4. Results
the weld distortion from the temperature distribution and
the weld bead configuration. All the input data used in our 4.1. Comparison of Angular Distortion
analysis were estimated from the experimental conditions, First, we evaluated the angular distortion at the center
which means no preliminary experiment was required. We of the plate in the welding direction. A comparison of
carried out the integrated simulation under the welding con- the angular distortion obtained by the thermal shrinkage
ditions shown in Table 2. More detailed information regard- technique, the experiment, and the thermal elastic-plastic
ing input data used in the integrated simulation is shown in analysis is shown in Fig. 3. We found that the angular dis-
the previous study.29) tortion in the thermal shrinkage technique increased with
an increase in temperature change ΔT and decrease in the
3.3. Thermal Shrinkage Technique temperature Ta; in other words, angular distortion increased
The configuration of the analytical model was the same with an increase in the shrinkage strain and the shrinkage
as that of the experiment shown in Fig. 2. The material zone. In the case of temperature Ta = 500 and temperature
properties used are shown in Table 3. Parametric study of change ΔT = 1 000, the angular distortion obtained by the
the thermal shrinkage technique was performed under the 12 thermal shrinkage technique was in good agreement with
conditions listed in Table 4. Shrinkage strain ε is calculated that obtained by experiments and the thermal elastic-plastic
by the product of thermal expansion coefficient α and the analysis under all five welding conditions. Based on the

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tendency mentioned above, a combination other than tem-

perature change ΔT = 1 000 and maximum temperature
Ta = 500 may reproduce the experimental results, however,
we discuss the mechanism behind angular distortion in case
temperature change ΔT = 1 000 and maximum temperature
Ta = 500 in the following section.

5. Discussion
5.1. Mechanism Behind Angular Distortion
Next, in order to clarify the cause that the angular distor-
(a) I = 100 A, v = 3.33 mm/s tion obtained by the thermal shrinkage technique was in
good agreement with that obtained by experiments and the
thermal elastic-plastic analysis, we discuss here the inher-
ent strain distribution and the moment, which are dominant
factors of angular distortion.24) Here, the inherent strain,
which is derived by subtracting the elastic strain from the
apparent strain, is equal to the plastic strain perpendicular
to the welding direction. Figure 4 shows the inherent strain
(plastic strain) distributions under the welding condition
I = 200 A, v = 3.33 mm/s (the results under the other
four conditions showed the same tendency). As shown in
(b) I = 160 A, v = 3.33 mm/s
Figs. 4(a) and 4(b), there were significant differences in the
inherent strain distribution between the thermal shrinkage
technique and the thermal elastic-plastic analysis. In Fig.
4(a), tensile strain occurred at y = 10 mm in the thermal
shrinkage technique, whereas compressive strain occurred
from y = 0 to 10 mm in the thermal elastic-plastic analysis.
In Fig. 4(b), at about z = 3 mm, the inherent strain obtained
by the thermal elastic-plastic analysis was about twice as big

(c) I = 200 A, v = 3.33 mm/s

(a) Transverse direction (y-direction)

(d) I = 200 A, v = 4.67 mm/s

(e) I = 200 A, v = 6.67 mm/s (b) Thickness direction (z-direction)

Fig. 3. Comparison of angular distortion among thermal shrink- Fig. 4. Comparison of inherent strain between thermal shrinkage
age technique, thermal elastic-plastic analysis, and experi- technique and thermal elastic-plastic analysis. (Online
ment. (Online version in color.) version in color.)

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as that obtained by the thermal shrinkage technique. These 5.2. Theoretical Verification of Shrinkage Strain Set-
results demonstrate that the agreement in angular distortion ting
among the thermal shrinkage technique, the experiment, and To theoretically explain the agreement in angular distor-
thermal elastic-plastic analysis was not due to the inherent tion, here we discuss the generation characteristics of inher-
strain distribution. ent strain in the thermal shrinkage technique by means of
We next considered the moment as a possible cause of the a both-ends-fixed bar analogy.30) Specifically, we compare
agreement in angular distortion because the moment gener- the inherent strain based on the both-ends-fixed bar analogy
ated by the difference in shrinkage is known to be the driv- (hereinafter referred to as theoretical inherent strain) and
ing force of angular distortion. The schematic illustration of the inherent strain derived from the temperature distribu-
the moment is shown in Fig. 5. After welding, y-direction tion based on the thermal shrinkage technique (hereinafter
compressive plastic strain (inherent strain) remains near referred to as mean inherent strain).
the welded zone. This causes the plate to shrink in the First, we derived the theoretical inherent strain gy_s. In the
y-direction. When the shrinkage is unevenly distributed in both-ends-fixed bar analogy, the apparent strain ε is repre-
the plate thickness direction (z-direction), out-of-plane dis- sented by the following equation using the elastic strain εe
tortion, which is called angular distortion, is generated due and the plastic strain εp and the thermal strain εt.
to the moment based on the center of the plate thickness.
Generally, the moment M is represented by the following    e   p   t ............................... (5)
equation using the load F and the distance from the center In the case where the shrinkage strain (εt = )αΔTs was given
of the plate thickness L.

M = FL .................................... (2)
The load F was calculated by the following equation using
the area A, Young’s modulus E, and strain in element (ε =
Δl/l).
F  ( AE )  (l / l ) ............................. (3)
Here, since the element size (area A, element length l) and
Young’s modulus E are the same in both methods, the
shrinkage S( = Δl) is expressed by the following equation.
S ( l )  gi li ............................... (4)
(a) Evaluation line: plate surface
where li is a length of the element perpendicular to the weld-
ing direction and gi is the inherent strain in the element. We
compared shrinkage S in the thermal shrinkage technique
with that in the thermal elastic-plastic analysis (Fig. 6) and
found that it was about 10% to 20% larger in the former.
This explains why the angular distortion obtained by the
thermal shrinkage technique was about 10% to 20% larger
than that obtained by the thermal elastic-plastic analysis
(Fig. 3). This means that, even if we do not strictly repro-
duce an actual inherent strain distribution, the angular
distortion could be accurately predicted by reproducing a
moment. This indicates that the thermal shrinkage technique (b) Evaluation line: 3mm depth from plate surface
has potential as a useful tool in the simple numerical simula- Fig. 6. Comparison of shrinkage between thermal shrinkage
tion model of weld distortion. technique and thermal elastic-plastic analysis.

Fig. 5. Schematic illustration of the moment. (Online version in color.)

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to the both-ends-fixed bar, the apparent strain ε is repre-

sented by the following equation using the elastic strain εe
and the plastic strain εp.
   e   p  Ts ............................ (6)
In Eq. (6), the apparent strain ε is zero in the welding direc-
tion (x direction) because the restraint is strong. In the case
where the both-ends-fixed bar was yielded due to the given
shrinkage strain, the plastic strain in the welding direction
εpx is represented by the following equation using yield
strain εY ( = σY/E).
 px  Ts   Y .............................. (7)
The plastic strain in welding direction εpx, perpendicular to Fig. 7. Schematic illustration of temperature distribution. (Online
welding direction εpy, and in thickness direction εpz can be version in color.)
represented by the following approximate equation under
constant volume.
 px   py   pz  0 ............................ (8)
Assuming that the degree of restraint perpendicular to the
welding direction and that in the thickness direction is equal,
the plastic strain perpendicular to the welding direction εpy
is represented by the following equation.
 py  0.5 px ................................ (9)
Since, the inherent strain g was derived by subtracting the
elastic strain εe from the apparent strain ε, the inherent strain
gy_s perpendicular to the welding direction (y direction) is
represented by the following equation. Fig. 8. Comparison of theoretical strain and mean strain.

g y _ s   py  Ts ........................... (10)

The inherent strain gy_s was thus derived by Eqs. (7), (9). strain. Strictly speaking, the strain caused by the heating
process was not equal to the inherent strain. In addition, the
g y _ s  0.5 Y  1.5Ts ....................... (11) influence of the elastic strain needed to be considered in
Under the condition used in this study (E = 200 000, σY = determining the inherent strain in Eq. (12). The mean strain,
417, α = 1.2 × 10 − 5, ΔTs = 1 000), the inherent strain gy_s however, was in good agreement with the theoretical strain
was − 0.017. under all five conditions.
Second, we derived the mean strain gy_t from the tempera- As shown above, the way in which inherent strain based
ture distribution. Temperature distribution was generated in on the both-ends-fixed-bar analogy occurred can explain the
the plate during welding (shown in the red line in Fig. 7). agreement in angular distortion in the case of temperature
Angular distortion can be obtained by the strain correspond- Ta = 500 and temperature change ΔT = 1 000. It could be
ing to the temperature rise. Since the thermal shrinkage considered that the thermal shrinkage technique with the
technique gives the constant thermal strain as a shrinkage proposed setting method is thus applied to other welding
strain as shown in Eq. (1), it could be equivalent to applying conditions. In the case of single welding, the usefulness
a constant temperature rise ΔTt given in a certain area w, as of the thermal shrinkage technique with the proposed set-
shown in the blue line in Fig. 7. We assume here that all the ting method was shown in this paper, but additional study
expansion in the heating process contributed to the inher- could be required for the application of the proposed setting
ent strain (angular distortion). In other words, the inherent method to multi-layer welding. The proposed setting method
strain perpendicular to the welding direction (y direction) is could also be applied to other material (e.g. carbon steel)
represented by the following equation. in case the thermal expansion coefficient used to calculate
the inherent strain (Eq. (12)) and the thermal conductivity,
gi  Ti ................................ (12) density, and specific heat used to calculate the maximum
Using the results of the thermal elastic-plastic analysis, we temperature (the shrinkage zone) are almost the same as
calculated the mean strain gy_t by SM490YB. Overall, our findings demonstrate that the
thermal shrinkage technique could be highly effective for
g y _ t    Ti / w ......................... (13) predicting weld distortion.
where the width w is where the temperature reaches 500°C
( = Ta). Figure 8 shows a comparison of the theoretical
6. Conclusion
inherent strain gy_s and the mean inherent strain gy_t under
the five welding conditions. The absolute value of the mean In this work, we performed a parametric study to inves-
strain was about 10% larger than that of the theoretical tigate input data that can reproduce angular distortion in

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