02-12-2024

Module - IV

Applications of Biological Sciences in

Engineering

R. K. Gothwal, PhD
Department of Bioengineering and Biotechnology
BIT Mesra, Ranchi
Jaipur-Campus

Applications of Biological Sciences in Engineering

• Biomaterials, Bioinformatics, Biosensors
and Bioelectronics (Biological Sensors – Ear
& Eye)
• Synthetic Biology
• Nanotechnology

1
 02-12-2024

Biological signal
• Biological Signal or Biosignal is the signal produced by the living organisms
which can be measured and analyzed by biomedical devices. For example, heart
sound can be listened by stethoscope.
• Biosignals can be biomedically defined as “any space-time record of biological
event which can be measured and analyzed”.
• These signals are mostly electrical or electrochemical in nature.
• Any biological event (including electrical, chemical or mechanical activity)
generates signals of the respective events which can be measured and analyzed.
• These Biosignals, therefore, contain useful information that can be used to
understand the underlying physiological mechanisms of a specific biological
event or system and that may be useful for medical diagnosis.
• Biosignals are observations of physiological activities of organisms, ranging
from gene and protein sequences, to neural and cardiac rhythms, to tissue
and organ images.

Brain: The human microcontroller

• Brain in human body controls various
physiological and mechanical activities
through nervous system.
• Humans have five basic senses: sight,
hearing, smell, taste and touch.
• Living organisms make use of their
senses to acquire information from
outside environment and
communicate this information to the
brain to take action.
• The sensory organs transform these
signals into electro-chemical message
and convey these messages to brain in
the form of nerve impulse (action
potential).
– Sensory Nerve cell (neuron) sends
impulse to the brain.
– Motor neuron brings back the
triggered action from the brain (what
to do).

2
02-12-2024

3
 02-12-2024

Biosignals: electrical / non-electrical

• The term biosignal is often used to refer to
bioelectrical signals, but it may refer to both
electrical and non-electrical signals.
• Non-electrical biosignals are capable of being
monitored from biological beings, such as
– mechanical signals (e.g. the mechanomyogram or
MMG),
– acoustic signals (e.g. phonetic and non-phonetic
utterances, breathing),
– chemical signals (e.g. pH, oxygenation, metabolites)
– optical signals (e.g. movements).

Electrical biosignals
• Electrical biosignals, or bioelectrical time signals, usually refers to
the change in electric current produced by the sum of an electrical
potential difference across a specialized tissue, organ or cell
system like the nervous system.
• Among the best-known bioelectrical signals are:
– Electroencephalogram (EEG) – Signals in Brain
– Electrocardiogram (ECG) – Signals in Heart
– Electromyogram (EMG) – Signals in Muscles
– Electrooculography (EOG) - Signals in Eyes
– Galvanic skin response (GSR) - electrical signals in skin,
– Mechanomyogram (MMG) - mechanical signal of muscles
– Magnetoencephalogram (MEG) – magnetic fields produced by electrical currents in
brain
• EEG, ECG, EOG and EMG are measured with a differential amplifier
which registers the difference between two electrodes attached to
the skin.
• However, the galvanic skin response measures electrical resistance
and the MEG measures the magnetic field induced by electrical
currents (electroencephalogram) of the brain.

4
 02-12-2024

Nervous System
• The nervous system is an
extraordinarily complex
communication system that can send
and receive voluminous amounts of
information simultaneously.
• It is a complex collection of nerves and
specialized cells known as neurons
that transmit signals between different
parts of the body.
• It is essentially the body's electrical
wiring.

Nervous System
• Structurally, the nervous system has
two components:
– Central nervous system (CNS) and
• It is made up of the brain, spinal cord and
nerves.
– Peripheral nervous system (PNS)
• It consists of sensory neurons, ganglia
(clusters of neurons) and nerves that connect
to one another and to the central nervous
system.
• PNS includes all the nerves outside the brain
and spinal cord such as arms, hands, legs,
feet etc.
• Autonomous Nervous System – It
connects CNS to Heart, Lung, Stomach,
Bladder and Sex Organs.

5
 02-12-2024

Cells of Nervous System

• Neuron (Nerve cell)
– Structural and functional unit of nervous system. Communicate with
other cells via synapses, that allows rapid transmission of signals,
either electrical or chemical.
• Glia (Glial cells)
– Known as “supporting cells” of nervous system as it provide support
and protection for neurons

Neurons Glial cells

Glia (Glial cells)

• Glia (Glial cells)
– derived from the Greek word for "glue".
– Glial cells are non-conducting cells
whose function is to support the
nervous system and to protect or
nourish neurons.
– the number of glial cells in the brain
actually outnumbers the number of
neurons by a factor of ten.
– Neurons would be unable to function
without the vital roles that are fulfilled
by these glial cells.
– Glia guide developing neurons to their
destinations, buffer ions and chemicals
that would otherwise harm neurons,
and provide myelin sheaths around
axons.

6
 02-12-2024

Glia (Glial cells)

• The four main
functions of glial cells
are:
• to surround neurons and
hold them in place,
• to supply nutrients and
oxygen to neurons,
• to insulate one neuron
from another, and
• to destroy and remove
the carcasses of dead
neurons (clean up).

Neurons
• They are the structural and functional unit of
the nervous system.
• They receive the sensory input from the
external world and convey it to the brain and
brings back the command information from
brain back to effector to take action or
response.
• Neurons are the longest cell in our body.
• Once fully developed, they never divide and
remain in interface throughout life.
• They possess the unique property of excitability
and conductibility together.
– Excitability is the ability to initiate a nerve impulse
in response to stimuli.
– Conductivity is the ability to transmit a nerve
impulse.
• It is roughly estimated that around 86 billion
neurons are present in our body, which
comprises roughly 10% of all brain cells.

7
 02-12-2024

Neurons
• Neuron is a microscopic structure
composed of Cell body, Dendrites
and Axons.
• Neurons are a specialized type of cells
that integrates electrochemical
activity of the other neurons that are
connected to it and that propagates
that integrated activity to other
neurons.
• Most neurons share the same cellular
components.
• But neurons are also highly
specialized: different types of neurons
have different sizes and shapes that
relate to their functional roles.

Microscopic image of a neuron

Structure of Neurons
(Nerve Cell)
• Cell body (Soma)
• Dendrites
• Axon
• Axon Terminal

8
 02-12-2024

Structure of Neurons

Dendrites (single dendron)

• The Dendrites (Greek, dendro: tree) of a neuron are its
many short, branching fibers extending from the cell body
or soma. They contains both neurofibrils and Nissl’s
granules. The branches are studded with spiny projections.
They form afferent component of impulse means carry
impulse towards cell body.
• The function of a dendrite is to receive signals from other
neurons, to process these signals, and to transfer the
information to the soma of the neuron.

Structure of Neurons
Axon
• An axon (from Greek, axis) is a long, slender projection
of a neuron which conducts electrical impulses (action
potentials) away from the nerve cell body to another
neurons or muscles or glands. It forms efferent
component of impulse means carry impulse away from
cell body. They contains neurofibrils and no Nissl’s
granules.
• Some types of neurons have no axon and transmit
signals from their dendrites. The swollen end of a axon
is known as the axon terminal which joins the dendron
or cell body of another neuron forming a synaptic
connection.
• An Axon Terminal is the end of a branch of a nerve's
axon, conducts electrical signals to a nerve synapse.
• Axons make contact with other cells—usually other
neurons but sometimes muscle or gland cells—at
junctions called synapses.

9
 02-12-2024

Structure of Neurons
Synapse
• A synapse is the site of junction between an axon and the dendrite of
an another neuron.
• However they do not touch each other and remain separate by a
microscopic gap of about 200 Angstrom.
• Each neuron receives an impulse through its dendrites and passes it
to the next neuron through synapse. The impulse transmit through
chemicals called neurothransmitters.
• Acetylcholine is the first neurotransmitter to be discovered.

Types of Neurons
• On the basis of structure, neurons may be classified into :
– Nonpolar Neurons
• There is no functional difference between axon and dendrons. Each processes can bring impulse to
the cyton or can take away from cyton. These neurons are common in hydra but rare in vertebrates.
– Unipolar Neurons
• Unipolar neurons have only one structure that extends away from the cyton. These neurons are not
found in vertebrates, but are found in insects where they stimulate muscles or glands.
– Pseudounipolar Neurons
• Pseudounipolar cells share characteristics with both unipolar and bipolar cells. A pseudounipolar cell
has a single structure that extends from the soma (like a unipolar cell), which later branches into two
distinct structures (like a bipolar cell).
• Most sensory neurons are pseudounipolar and have an axon that branches into two extensions: one
connected to dendrites that receives sensory information and another that transmits this information
to the spinal cord.
– Bipolar Neurons
• A bipolar neuron has one axon and one dendrite extending from the soma. An example of a bipolar
neuron is a retinal bipolar cell, which receives signals from photoreceptor cells that are sensitive to
light and transmits these signals to ganglion cells that carry the signal to the brain.
– Multipolar Neurons
• Multipolar neurons are the most common type of neuron. Each multipolar neuron contains one axon
and multiple dendrites. Multipolar neurons can be found in the central nervous system (brain and
spinal cord).

10
02-12-2024

11
 02-12-2024

Types of Neurons
• On the basis of function, neurons may be classified into :
– Sensory Neurons
– Motor Neurons
– Interneurons
• Sensory neurons
– These are receptor neurons which connects sense organs with the
CNS. It brings information from our sensory organs (senses) to Brain.
– It also includes, all of the cognitive information through which we are
able to reason, to think, to dream, to plan, to remember, and to do
everything else that we do with our minds.
• Motor neurons
– It carry information from Brain through which we are able to move
and respond.
• Interneurons
– These are connector neurons which are present in the CNS and occur
between sensory and motor neurons for distance transmission of
impulse.

Types of Neurons
On the basis of pathway of impulse, neurons may be classified into :
• Afferent Neurons (Sensory)
• These are sensory neurons that carry impulses from sense organ to CNS
• Efferent Neurons(Motor)
• These are motor neurons which carry impulses from CNS to effector organ

12
 02-12-2024

Propagation of Nerve Impulse

How Brain Move a Muscle

Example of Signal Propagation
• Moving a muscle usually involves communication between
the muscle and the brain through nerves. The impetus to
move a muscle may originate with the senses.
• For example, special nerve endings in the skin (sensory
receptors) enable people to sense pain, when they step on
a sharp rock, or to sense temperature, when they pick up a
very hot cup of coffee. This information is sent to the brain,
and the brain send a message to the muscle about how to
respond.
• This type of exchange involves two complex nerve
pathways:
– The sensory nerve pathway to the brain
– The motor nerve pathway to the muscle

13
 02-12-2024

How Brain Move a Muscle

1. If sensory receptors in the skin detect
pain or a change in temperature, they
transmit an impulse (signal), which
ultimately reaches the brain.
2. The impulse travels along a sensory
nerve to the spinal cord.
3. The impulse crosses a synapse (the
junction between two nerve cells)
between the sensory nerve and a nerve
cell in the spinal cord.
4. The impulse crosses from the nerve cell
in the spinal cord to the opposite side of
the spinal cord.
5. The impulse is sent up the spinal cord
and through the brain stem to the
thalamus, which is a processing center
for sensory information, located deep in
the brain.

How Brain Move a Muscle

6. The impulse crosses a synapse in the thalamus
to nerve fibers that carry the impulse to the
sensory cortex of the cerebrum (the area that
receives and interprets information from
sensory receptors).
7. The sensory cortex perceives the impulse. A
person may then decide to initiate movement,
which triggers the motor cortex (the area that
plans, controls, and executes voluntary
movements) to generate an impulse.
8. The nerve carrying the impulse crosses to the
opposite side at the base of the brain.
9. The impulse is sent down the spinal cord.
10. The impulse crosses a synapse between the
nerve fibers in the spinal cord and a motor
nerve, which is located in the spinal cord.
11. The impulse travels out of the spinal cord along
the length of the motor nerve.
12. At the neuromuscular junction (where nerves
connect to muscles), the impulse crosses from
the motor nerve to receptors on the motor end
plate of the muscle, where the impulse
stimulates the muscle to move.

14
 02-12-2024

Mechanism of nerve impulse Propagation

• Resting potential. The resting potential describes
the unstimulated, polarized state of a neuron (at
about –70 millivolts).

Mechanism of nerve impulse Propagation

• Graded potential. It is a change in the resting
potential of the plasma membrane in the
response to a stimulus.

15
 02-12-2024

Graded potential
• A graded potential is a change in the
resting potential of the plasma
membrane in the response to a stimulus.
– A graded potential occurs when the
stimulus causes Na + or K + gated
channels to open. If Na + channels open,
positive sodium ions enter, and the
membrane depolarizes (becomes more
positive).
– If the stimulus opens K + channels, then
positive potassium ions exit across the
membrane and the membrane
hyperpolarizes (becomes more negative).
– A graded potential is a local event that
does not travel far from its origin.
– Graded potentials occur in cell bodies
and dendrites.
– Light, heat, mechanical pressure, and
chemicals, such as neurotransmitters, are
examples of stimuli that may generate a
graded potential (depending upon the
neuron).

Mechanism of Nerve Impulse Propagation

16
 02-12-2024

Transmission of a nervous impulse

across a synapse
1. Firstly, an action potential (change in electrical potential)
arrives at the pre-synaptic neurone.
2. This changes the voltage in the neurone causing the
voltage-gated calcium channels on the pre-synaptic
neurone to open.
3. Calcium ions then diffuse into the pre-synaptic neurone.
4. The increased concentration of Calcium in the neurone
then causes synaptic vesicles, containing the
neurotransmitter acetylcholine, to move towards the
membrane on the pre-synaptic neurone.
5. The vesicles fuse to the membrane and the
neurotransmitter is released into the gap between the
two neurones (known as the synaptic cleft).

Transmission of a nervous impulse

across a synapse
6. The acetylcholine neurotransmitter then diffuses across the
synaptic cleft towards the post-synaptic neurones membrane.
7. Here, the acetylcholine neurotransmitter then binds to the
complimentary receptors on the post-synaptic neurone’s
membrane.
8. The increase in concentration of the neurotransmitter causes
ligand (chemical) gated sodium channels in the post-synaptic
neurone membrane to open, allowing sodium to diffuse into the
post-synaptic neurone.
9. The increased concentration of sodium ions now in the post-
synaptic neurone depolarise the neurone’s membrane causing
EPSPs (excitatory post-synaptic potentials).
10. If these EPSPs reach a certain threshold, then an action potential
is initiated in the post-synaptic neurone and the impulse has been
successfully transmitted from one neurone to the next.

17
 02-12-2024

Signal termination
• Termination of the signal lets the postsynaptic
cell return to its normal resting potential, ready
for new signals to arrive.
• For the signal to end, the synaptic cleft must be
cleared of neurotransmitter.
• There are a few different ways to get this done.
– The neurotransmitter may be broken down by an
enzyme, it may be sucked back up into the presynaptic
neuron, or it may simply diffuse away.
– In some cases, neurotransmitter can also be "mopped
up" by nearby glial cells.

Thanks

18