How Do Organisms Reproduce?

❖ The production of new organisms from the existing parent organism of

the same species is known as reproduction.
Q. Why do organism produce?
Ans. Reproduction is an energy requiring process which is not at all essential
to maintain the life of an individual organism. Even then, the organism
reproduce because-
1. It is essential for the survival of a species on this earth.(means of self-
perpetuation)
2. The process of reproduction ensures existence and continuity of a
species on earth.
3. Reproduction gives rise to more organisms with the same basic
characteristic as their parents.
4. It involves transmission of genetic material from the parental
generation to the next generation.
5. It also plays an important role in evolution by transmitting favourable
variations from one generation to the next.

Fundamentals of Reproduction:
❖ The reproducing organisms create new individuals which are similar to
each other. To produce similar body designs, they produce similar blue
prints.
❖ DNA present in the nucleus of a cell is the blueprint of body design. It
is the source of information for making proteins. Any change in the
information leads to production of different proteins, which ultimately
lead to altered body designs.
❖ Basic event in reproduction is production of DNA copies in a
reproducing cell, the process is called DNA replication.
❖ When the cell divides into two, each cell gets a copy of each DNA of the
chromosome along with the whole cellular apparatus.

Do Organisms Create Exact Copies of Themselves?

❖ Complete accuracy in DNA copying leads to exactly identical cells but
any error in duplication can lead to dissimilar cells or variations.
❖ The inbuilt tendency for variations during reproduction form the basis
for evolution.
Variation -
Variation is the change in the characters of an individuals which has not
existed in their parents.

The importance of variation -

❖ Organisms occupy well-defined places, or niches, in the ecosystem,

using their ability to reproduce.
❖ The consistency of DNA copying during reproduction is important
for the maintenance of body design features. It allows the organism
to live in that particular niche.
❖ Variations are useful for the survival of species overtime.

Modes of Reproduction:
There are two main methods of reproduction in living organisms:
1. Asexual reproduction
2. Sexual reproduction

Asexual Reproduction:
● It can be defined as the production of offsprings by a single parent
without the involvement of gametes(sex cells)
Basic characteristics
• Only one organism is involved and hence no fertilization
• All the cell divisions are usually mitotic
• Very fast mode of reproduction
• Offsprings are genetically identical to their parents.
• Mostly occurs in unicellular organisms(like protozoans, bacteria etc),
some plants and certain multicellular animals(like sponges and hydra).

1. Fission - It may be defined as the splitting of unicellular organisms into

two or more new individuals.
It can be of two type -
a. Binary fission – Parent cell splits into two new individuals
Nucleus first divides into two nuclei and then cytoplasm divides.
E.g., many bacteria and protozoa like Amoeba, Paramecium, Euglena,
Leishmania(causes Kala-azar disease), yeast etc.
b. Multiple fission - One cell divides into many daughter cells
simultaneously. E.g., Plasmodium (malarial parasite), Amoeba in
unfavorable conditions.
 Q. Differentiate between binary fission in amoeba and binary fission in
leishmania.
Ans. In amoeba, splitting of the cell into two during cell division can take
place in any plane.
Leishmania has a whip like structure at one end of the cell. Hence,
binary fission occurs in a definite orientation in relation to its structure.

Multiple Fission:
• Parent organism splits to form many(more than two) new individuals at
the same time.
• Occurs in unfavourable conditions
• The parent cell forms a cyst during unfavorable conditions. The nucleus
of the parent cell divides several times inside the cyst.
• It produces a large number of nuclei known as daughter nuclei. Each
daughter nucleus accumulates a small amount of cytoplasm. Each of
them is surrounded by a thin membrane.
• As a result, numerous daughter cells are from within the cyst. When
favorable conditions come the cyst ruptures. The daughter cells are
released.
 • The daughter cells are all identical. Each daughter cell creates a new
organism. As a result, multiple fission produces a large number of
offspring.
• Eg. In some protozoans such as malarial parasite Plasmodium.

2. Budding -Process in which an outgrowth (bud) is formed on the body of

the parent organism which then detaches and becomes a new organism.
e.g. Yeast(unicellular) and Hydra(Multicellular).

3. Spore formation –
  In this method the parent body produces hundreds of microscopic
reproductive units called spores.
 Spores are the microscopic asexual reproductive bodies with a thick
wall. Spores are formed in sporangia (sing. Sporangium).
 These spores are liberated by rupturing of sporangial walls and
dispersed to grow on new substratum.
 Each spore on germination gives rise to the new individual.
 e.g. Rhizopus(commonly known as bread mould), Mucor, Aspergillus
Penicillium, ferns and mosses(non-flowering plants).

4. Fragmentation -
➔ In this process an organism breaks up into two or more fragments and
each fragment develops into an adult organism.
➔ E.g. Spirogyra(green algae), sea anemone
NOTE- Fission occurs in unicellular organisms while fragmentation occurs in
lower multicellular organisms.
5. Regeneration -
➔ It can be defined as the ability of an organism to replace its lost body
part(s) by regrowth.
→ Regeneration is carried out by specialized cells.
➔ E.g. Hydra, Planaria, Lizards, Starfish
6. Vegetative Propagation –
 This is an asexual method of reproduction in plants where vegetative
parts namely root, stem and leaves(without the help of any
reproductive organs) give rise to new plants.
 The parts other than seed which is used for the formation of new plant
is known as propagules.

 Natural vegetative propogation:

1. By leaves: Leaves of some plants produce adventitious buds on
their margin. These buds develop into new plants.
E.g. Bryophyllum, Kalanchoe.

2. By stem: In many plant, modified underground stems produce

aerial shoots annually under favorable conditions.
Each stem tuber has a number of “buds” called eyes which can
grow into a new plant
E.g. Tuber of Potato, Rhizome of Ginger, Bulb of Onion, Grass.
 3. By roots: Root produces adventitious buds which develop into
new plants. e.g sweet potato, carrot, turnip and Radish
Artificial vegetative propagation :
M a n - m a d e m e t h o d s t o prepare plants with desirable characters.

1. Cutting –
 Stem cutting, root cutting and leaf cutting
 A small part of the plant is cut with the help of a knife
 Cut part should have a bud on it

➔ E.g. Rose, Sugarcane, Potato, Grapes,banana

2. Grafting :
 It is a method in which the cut stems of two different plants(one with
roots and other without roots) are joined together in such a way that
they grow as a single plant.
 The rooted part in which grafting is performed is called stock while the
portion of the other plant that is grafted on the stock is called scion
 It is generally done between two closely related plants.
 It is used to breed fruit trees and flowering bushes.

➔ E.g. Lemon, orange, Lime, Grapes, Apple, Pear, Peach, Apricot etc.

3. Layering –
  In this method development roots are induced on stem while it is still
attached to the parent plant.

➔ E.g. Jasmine(Chameli), Hibiscus(China rose), Strawberry, Raspberry

4. Tissue culture or Micropropagation –

 It is the process of production of new plants from a small amount of
plant tissue(or cells) taken from the growing tips of a plant in a suitable
growth medium.
 A small part of the plant tissue is cut from a plant and grown in a
container containing artificial nutrients.
 These tissue divides and form callus.
 Callus- A shapeless or unorganized mass of cells formed by rapid
division in existing cells.
 Small portions of this callus is separated and transferred to
another medium containing hormones.
 These hormones induce differentiation and plantlets are
produced which are then transplanted into the soil.
 E.g. Orchids, Chrysanthemum, Carnations etc
Advantages of Tissue culture or micropropogation:

 Very fast technique. Thousand of plantlets can be produced in a few

weeks time from a small amount of plant tissues.
 Disease free plants can be produced
 Tissue culture can grow plants round the year, irrespective of
weather or season.
 Very little space is needed for development of new plants by tissue
culture.

Advantages of Vegetative Propagation:

 It is a rapid, cheap and easy method of reproduction for the

multiplication of plants.
 Disease free plants can be produced.
 Superior quality fruits or flowers can be produced by grafting.
 Genetically identical plants are produced so desired characters can
be preserved.
 Plants raised by vegetative propagation can bear flowers and fruits
more in number than those produced from seeds.
 Virus free plants are produced by micropropagation.

Disadvantages of vegetative propogation:

• When repeatedly grown using this method, causes inbreeding

depression.
• New varieties are not produced.
• If parent plant has any disease then it is transmitted to its subsequent
generations.

Sexual Reproduction:
❖ It is a type of reproduction in which two different sexes (male and
female) are involved.
❖ It involves the fusion of gametes from two different parents and
results in the formation of a new organism, which is genetically
different from the parent.
Sexual Reproduction in Flowering Plant:

❖ Sexual reproduction takes place through flowers in angiosperms

(flowering plants).
❖ Flower is a specialized condensed reproductive shoot of flowering
plants on which the essential reproductive parts are inserted.

 Receptacle

 Base of the flower to which all the parts are attached

❖ Calyx -

 It is the outermost whorl consisting of sepals.

➢ Sepals are green and leaf like structure.

 ➢ All the sepals together known as Calyx.
➢ Calyx protects the flower bud before it opens.
❖ Corolla –
❖ Collection of petals.
❖ Generally large, showy & brightly colored to attract the insects for
the purpose of pollination.

❖ Stamens -
➢ It is the third whorl, inner to corolla, consisting of male
reproductive parts called stamens.
➢ Stamen is the male reproductive part of the plant.
➢ Each stamen has two parts - Filament and anther.
➢ Anther is lobed structure present at the tip of filament.
➢ Each anther has pollen sacs (microsporangia) which
contain pollen grains (microspores).
➢ Each pollen grain produces two male gametes/male germ cells.
➢ Pollen grains appear to be yellow, powder-like substance to us

❖ Pistil(Carpel) -
➢ It is the fourth and innermost whorl consisting of carpels.
➢ Carpel is present in the centre of the flower.
➢ Each carpel has three parts - Ovary, Style and Stigma.
➢ Ovary is a swollen basal part of the carpel.
➢ Ovary contains ovule. It is the structure which contains the egg
(female gamete).
➢ Style is the middle elongated part of the carpel. It has stigma
above it and ovary below it.
➢ Stigma is the apical part of the carpel. It receives pollen grains.

Unisexual flower - The flowers which contain only one sex organ either
stamens or carpels are called unisexual flowers.
Examples – papaya, watermelon
Bisexual flower – The flowers which contains both the sex organs, stamens as
well as carpel, are called bisexual flowers.
Examples – Mustard, Hibiscus(China rose)

Pollination:
Process of transfer of pollen grains from the ripe anther to the stigma.
It is of two types -
● Self pollination - It is the transfer of pollen grains from an anther to the
stigma of the same plant.
● If it is in the same flower it is called autogamy (e.g. Pea, China rose,
Wheat etc.)
● Cross pollination - It is the transfer of pollen grains from anther to the
stigma of different plants of the same species(Allogamy)
● (e.g. Pumpkin, Rose, Mustard etc).

Fertilization:
● Fertilization is the process of fusion of the male and female gametes,
which takes place in the embryo sac present in the ovule.
● After pollination, pollen grains germinate on the stigma by producing
pollen tubes.
● The nucleus in the pollen tube divides into two and forms vegetative
and generative nucleus
● Pollen tube penetrates the stigma and passes through the style and
enters the ovule through micropyle.
● It releases vegetative and generative nucleus in embryo sac.
● Generative nucleus(n) of male gamete fuses with an egg cell(n) and the
vegetative nucleus(n) fuses with the two polar nuclei(n+n)
 Post Fertilization Events:
❖ This includes the endosperm and embryo development, maturation of
ovules into seeds and ovary into fruit.
❖ Endosperm - It is a triploid tissue filled with the food material provide
nutrition to developing embryo.
❖ Embryo - It is the diploid zygote develops within the ovule.
❖ Ovule – Ovule develops a tough coat and is gradually converted into a
seed. The embryo lies dormant in the seed.
❖ Ovary – The whole ovary ripens and develops into a fruit Fruit is the
result of fertilisation.
GERMINATION OF SEEDS

 Seeds generally remains dry so that they can remain alive but
inactive during longer period of time(Dormant state).
 When it gets water, air, optimum temperature etc. it begins to grow
and this is known as germination of seeds.
 Cotyledons – have stored food for the growth of embryo
 Radicle - forms future root
 Plumule - forms future shoot
Reproduction in Human Beings:
❖ Reproduction resulting from the fusion of male gamete and female
gamete is called sexual reproduction.
❖ The human being are unisexual with 1 sex in one body- male or female.
❖ The individual of the two sexes show distinctive features called the
secondary sexual characteristics.
❖ Such distinguishing features are present in all the animals.
❖ All these characters will arrive after puberty.
❖ Puberty - The age at which the gametes and sex hormones to be
produced and the boy and girl become sexually mature is called
puberty.
❖ At puberty
❖ Female gonads – ovaries – starts producing oestrogen & progesterone
❖ Male gonads – Testes starts producing Testosterone
❖ Generally female pubertal age is 10-12 years, male pubertal age is 13-
14 years.
❖ Gametes – The cells involved in the sexual reproduction and gametes
are always haploid.

❖ Pubertal Changes (Secondary Sexual Characters) in Male:

❖ Widening of shoulders & body becomes muscular
❖ Deepening of voice.
❖ Growth of hairs under chest, armpits and around pubic area.
❖ Appearance of beard and moustache
❖ Growth of sex organs
❖ Increased Activity of sweat and sebaceous glands.
❖ Oily skin and appearance of pimples.
❖ Darkening in skin colour of the genital area
❖ Pubertal Changes (Secondary Sexual Characters) in Female:
➢ Widening of pelvis and hips.
➢ Fat deposition in body parts like hips and thighs
➢ High pitch voice
➢ Growth of hairs under armpits and around pubic area.
 ➢ Initiation of menstrual cycle(Menstruation)
➢ Growth of mammary glands (breasts).
➢ Darkening the skin colour of genital area.
➢ Maturation of secondary sex organs like fallopian tubes, uterus

Male reproductive system

The reproductive system comprises of two different parts -
I. Primary reproductive organ - Testes
II. Accessory reproductive organs
• Epididymis
• Vas deferens(Sperm duct)
• Seminal vesicle
• Prostate gland
• Penis
❖ Scrotum(thermoregulator) -
➢ Small pouch of skin that
contains testis.
➢ Present outside the abdominal cavity. As sperms are formed
here, this requires a lower temperature than the normal body
temperature.
❖ Testis –
 Primary reproductive organ
➢ Paired, oval-shaped male sex organs.
➢ Consist of seminiferous tubules, where the sperms are
produced.
➢ Produce a male sex hormone called testosterone. This hormone
produced by the leydig cells Which bring about changes in
appearance of boys at puberty.
 Epididymis -
 Highly coiled tubular part
 It temporarily stores the sperm till they become mature and
motile.
❖ Vas deferens -
 ➢ The sperm from the epididymis passes into the tube called as
vas deferens, it is also called as sperm duct. It joins the duct of
seminal vesicle to form ejaculatory duct.
➢ The ejaculatory duct opens into urethra.
 Urethra-
 arises from urinary bladder to carry urine.
 runs through the penis and opens to the outside through the male
genital pore.
 The urethra carries urine from the bladder as well as sperm from the
vasa deferentia.
 Penis –
➢ It is the copulatory organs in males.
➢ Penis is a muscular organ containing erectile tissue.
➢ The tissue is richly supplied with blood vessels.
➢ Common passage for both the sperms and urine. It never carries
both of them at the same time.
➢ At the time of copulation, it is inserted into the vagina.
 Glands associated with male reproductive system are-
1. Seminal vesicle- secrete mucus and watery alkaline fluid that contains
fructose that make sperms active.
2. Prostate gland- secretes mucus and a slightly alkaline food which
provides nourishment and protection to the sperms.
3. Cowper’s gland(bulbourethral gland) - secretes mucus and an alkaline
fluid which act as lubricant.
NOTE – The secretions of various accessory glands along with the sperm form
the semen.
 ❖ Sperm -
➢ Tiny and motile bodies that use their long tail to move through
the female reproductive tract.

Female Reproductive System:

❖ The female reproductive system consists of a pair of ovaries(Primary
sex organ) a pair of oviducts, uterus and vagina.
❖ The main function of the female reproductive system are to produce
egg, receive the sperms, provide the site for fertilization, implantation
of the growing embryo and development of the foetus.
❖ The complexity of sexual structures in females is due to the fact that it
accepts sperms from male, supports their movement up to egg,
fertilisation and post fertilisation changes.
❖ Ovaries -
❖ Paired, oval-shaped organs located in the abdominal cavity near
the kidney.
❖ make thousands of mature ova or egg cells.
❖ The ovary matures one egg at a time in every alternate month.
❖ Secrete female sex hormones like oestrogen and progesterone.
❖ NOTE – At the birth, ovaries already contain thousands of
immature eggs. These eggs mature only during puberty.

❖ Oviduct (Fallopian tube) -

➢ Oviduct are a pair of tube like structures which are 10-12cm long
➢ It has a funnel-shaped opening near the ovary called as fimbriae
➢ Carries ova or egg from ovary to the uterus.
➢ It is the site of fertilisation.
❖ Uterus (Womb) -
➢ Uterus is inverted pear-shaped, muscular structure, broad on the
upper end and narrower on the lower end.
➢ At the upper end, it receives the oviducts of either side whereas
the lower end the cervix opens into the vaginal canal that opens
to the outside.
 ➢ If the fertilization takes place, the embryo gets attached to its
wall and grows till birth.
❖ Cervix -
➢ It is the lower and the narrower portion of uterus which opens
into the vagina.
➢ Muscles of cervix control the opening and closing of uterus.
❖ Vagina -
➢ Receives the sperms from the male partner during copulation or
sexual intercourse
➢ Environment of vagina is acidic.
➢ Serves as a birth canal.
NOTE – In females urethral and vaginal openings are separate.

Fertilization and Post Fertilization Changes:

The fusion of nucleus of the sperm (male gamete) and ovum (female gamete)
is known as fertilization. In humans internal fertilization takes place.
I. Copulation
II. Sperm movement
III. Penetration
IV. Fertilisation
V. Cell division
VI. Implantation

 Millions of sperms are introduced in vagina through penis during

copulation(mating).
 Sperms are highly active and mobile
 One of the sperm penetrates the wall of ova and head of the sperm
enters inside the ova.
 Now fusion of gametes or fertilisation takes place in oviduct
 When ovum gets fertilized, it forms zygote which further divides
multiple times.
 It is now known as Embryo which sinks into the soft and thick lining of
uterus and embedded in it.
 The embedding of embryo in thick lining of uterus is called
implantation. OR The close attachment of the developing embryo to
the uterine wall is called implantation.
 After implantation, a disc-like special tissue develops between the
uterine wall and the embryo or foetus which is called placenta.
(Umbilical cord connects a foetus to the placenta).
 Placenta forms finger-like projections called villi towards embryo. This
creates large surface area for the exchange of glucose and oxygen
between the mother and the embryo.
 The developing embryo also generates waste substances, which are
removed by transferring them into the mother's blood through the
placenta.
 The placenta serves as the nutritive, respiratory and excretory organ of
the foetus.
 The development of the child inside the mother's body takes
approximately nine months in human. This period from conception till
the birth is known as gestation period.
What happenes when Egg is not Fertilized/Menstrual Cycle/Menstruation:
❖ The breakdown and removal of inner thick and soft lining of uterus
along with its blood vessels and unfertilized egg in the form of vaginal
bleeding is known as menstruation.
❖ In females, ovaries release ovum or egg once every 28 days from the
age of puberty.This is known as ovulation(occurs on 14th day of
menstrual cycle).
❖ The uterus prepares itself every month to receive a fertilised egg. Thus,
its inner lining becomes thick and spongy with very rich blood supply. If
sperm is not available at the time of ovulation then fertilisation will not
occur.
❖ Afterwards this lining of uterus is no longer required and menstruation
occurs.
❖ NOTE- Menstruation stops temporarily when the ovum gets fertilised
and the woman gets pregnant. It restarts after the birth of the baby.
❖ It occurs through the vagina as blood and mucus. Menstruation lasts
for about 2-8 days.
❖ Start of the menstruation cycle at the age of 11 to 13 called menarche.
❖ Menstruation will stop at the age of around 45-50 called as
menopause.

Significance of Sexual Reproduction:

1. Sexual mode of reproduction involves the process of combining DNA
from two different individuals.
2. It results in the re-establishment of the number of chromosomes and
the DNA content in the new generation.
3. It leads to new combination of genes in gametes. Due to this
reshuffling, genetic variation occurs.
4. It promotes diversity of traits/characters in the new generation.

Sexually Transmitted Diseases (STDs):

❖ The diseases which are spread by sexual contact with an infected
person are called Sexually Transmitted Diseases (STDs).
E.g. AIDS, Syphilis, Gonorrhoea etc.
❖ STDs occur mostly in the individuals who are involved in sexual
activities with many partners.
 Methods of prevention of STDs:
I. The people should be educated about various STDs.
II. Extra marital relations should be avoided.
III. No sex without proper precaution.
IV. High standard of moral education should be given to the people.
V. Raising the age of marriage can help in reducing population growth.
VI. By family planning.

Methods Adopted for Population Control:

❖ Sexual act always has the potential to result in the pregnancy, but if she
is not ready for it, her health will adversely affected.
❖ So, there are many ways to avoid pregnancy.
❖ The prevention of pregnancy in women is called contraception.
❖ OR
 ❖ The regulation of conception by preventive measures or devices to
control the number of offsprings is called birth control.
1. Natural method -
❖ Intercourse is safe for a week before and week after menstruation.
❖ Withdrawal of penis from vagina just before ejaculation(Coitus
interrupt)
2. Barrier methods -
I. Condoms which are thin, strong,rubber or plastic sheets used by male
to cover the penis before coital activity.(also prevents from STDs).
II. Diaphragms or cervical caps fitted in vagina of the female to check the
entry of sperms into the uterus and also help in avoiding conception.
NOTE- Condoms also provides protection against STDs
III. Intrauterine conrtaceptive devices (IUCD)
These devices are made up of copper, plastic or stainless steel. It
prevents the implantation of embryo in the uterine wall.
Eg. Copper T

3. Chemical methods -
I. Some chemicals used as tablets, gels, creams are spermicidal.
II. Oral contraceptive (OC) pills which inhibit the secretion of FSH and LH
from the anterior lobe of pituitary gland and thus inhibiting ovulation
from the ovary.(eg- Saheli, I-pill etc.)
III. Vaginal pills are preparations which conation spermicides and placed in
vagina before copulation.
 4. Surgical methods -
I. Tubectomy involves removal of small portion of fallopian tubes in
females and cut ends are then tied with threads. and Vasectomy
involves cutting of small portion of vas deferens of each side in males
and then tied with threads.

MTP i.e. Medical Termination of Pregnancy or abortion

• This method is misused by people for prenatal sex determination which
has been prohibited by the law. This method is usually used by the
people who do not want a female child(Female foeticide).