Introduction

Transmission system planning, Complex power in balanced three phase transmission lines. Power flow in transmission lines.
Performance Analysis of Transmission system
Transmission line constants, Bundled conductors, Parallel lines, , Steady state power limit and voltage regulation in Short transmission lines.
Medium transmission line, A, B, C & D constants. Nominal and nominal T circuits. Analysis of Long transmission lines, Line and load
compensation, series and shunt compensation. Environmental effects of overhead lines.
Undergorund Cables
Types of underground cables, Cable installation techniques, Electric stress, dielectric constant, charging current, insulation resistance, skin effect
and proximity effect, current carrying capcity of cables.
Distribution System Planning
Importance of distribution system planning, load forecasting. Factors affecting distribution system planning, planning methods, computer
applications, distribution automation and control, Distribution system in Pakistan, Planning constraints in Pakistan

Distribution Substation
Distribution substation, Substation bus schemes. Rating of Distribution substation, limitation of service area. Square and hexagonal service area.
Distribution transformer, distribution transformer efficiency, parallel operation of transformers, vector groups
Design Considerations for Primary and Secondary Distribution Systems
Primary distribution feeders, Primary feeder voltage level and loading, Design considerations for Radial feeders, Economic design of secondary
lines, voltage fluctuation. Voltage regulation, Distribution system voltage control, line drop compensator.

2
 Distribution Substation

• Distribution substation,
• Substation bus schemes
• Rating of Distribution substation
• Limitation of service area
• Square and hexagonal service area
• Distribution transformer
• Distribution transformer efficiency
• Parallel operation of transformers & vector groups
3
 SUBSTATION / GRID STATION
❖ Substation is an integral part of a power system and form
important links between the generating station, transmission
systems, distribution systems and the load points.”

The substation consist on:

❖ switchgear,

❖ bus bars,

❖ power transformers, auxiliaries etc.

❖ A substation receives electrical power from generating station via

incoming transmission lines and delivers elect. power via the
outgoing transmission lines.
4
5
 SWITCHGEAR
➢ The apparatus used for switching, controlling and
protecting the electrical circuits and equipments is called
switchgear.

➢ The generators, transmission lines, distributors and other

equipment are switched on and off under both normal and
abnormal conditions in order to protect the power system
from harm during fault conditions and also to ensure
maximum continuity of supply. This is achieved by an
apparatus called switchgear.

➢ The switchgear equipment is essentially concerned with

switching and interrupting currents either under normal
and abnormal conditions.

6
 Function of Switchgear
➢ One of the basic functions of switchgear is protection,
which is interruption of short-circuit and overload fault
currents while maintaining service to unaffected circuits.

➢ Switchgear also provides isolation of circuits from power

supplies.

➢ Switchgear is also used to enhance system availability by

allowing more than one source to feed a load.

7
 Bus bar

Current CT
Disconnect Circuit Disconnect
breaker

8
9
Essential Features of Switchgear

10
 Switching Equipment
➢ Switches
➢ Fuses
➢ Circuit breakers
➢ Relays
➢ Bus-bars
➢ Instruments and instrument transformers
➢ Lightning / Surge arrestors
➢ Control Panels
➢ And many more
11
12
13
 Fuses

These are an over-current protective devices

It is always inserted in series with the circuit to be protected.

The fuse element is generally made of materials

having:
➢Low melting point
➢High conductivity
➢Least deterioration due to oxidation (e.g., silver,
copper etc.)

14
 Circuit Breakers
A circuit breaker can make or break a circuit either manually or
automatically under all conditions viz, no-load, full load and
short circuit conditions.

This characteristics of the circuit breaker has made it a very

useful equipment for switching and protection of various parts of
power system.

15
Purpose of circuit breakers (switchgear)
The main purpose of a circuit breaker is to:

• Switch load currents

• Make onto a fault

• Break normal and fault currents

• Carry fault current without blowing itself open (or up!) i.e. no distortion
due to magnetic forces under fault conditions.

16
 Relays
Relays are electrical switches that open or close another circuit
under certain conditions.

Relay Purpose

 Isolate controlling circuit from controlled circuit.

 Control high voltage system with low voltage.
 Control high current system with low current.
 Logic Functions
17
The IEEE defines a protective
relay as ‘‘a relay whose function
is to detect defective lines or
apparatus or other power system
conditions of an abnormal or
dangerous nature and to initiate
appropriate control circuit
action”.
18
Lightening arrestor
Lightening arrestor or surge diverters are protective
devices which conduct the high voltage surges on the
power system to the ground.

19
 Bus-bars
➢ Bus-bars are copper rods or thin walled
tubes and operate at constant voltage.

Types of Bus-bars
⚫ Single Bus-bar System
⚫ Single Bus-bar System with sectionalisation
⚫ Duplicate Bus-bar System

20
 Reclosers
➢ Reclosers are self-contained, mechanical switching
devices used throughout overhead distribution systems
to detect and automatically isolate overcurrent
conditions.

➢ The name recloser is based on its ability to automatically

reclose and thereby test the downstream circuit for
sustained faults in a predetermined reclosing sequence.

➢ Reclosers may be threephase or single-phase units.

➢ Each overhead distribution line usually includes several

reclosers.

➢ Depending on system design, reclosers may also be

used at the terminals of distribution lines in lieu of circuit
breakers.

21
Busbars:
❖ Various incoming and outgoing circuits are connected to bus
bars. Bus bars receive power from incoming circuits and
deliver power to outgoing circuits.

2
2
2
3
Isolators or Disconnecting Switches:
❖ Isolators are provided for isolation from live parts for the purpose of
maintenance. Isolators are located at either side of the circuit
breaker. Isolators are operated under no load. Isolator does not have
any rating for current breaking or current making. Isolators are
interlocked with circuit breakers

Types of Isolators are

1. Central rotating, horizontal swing

2. Centre-Break
3. Vertical swing
4. Pantograph type

24
Earthing Switch
❖ Earthing Switch is used to discharge the voltage on the circuit to the
earth for safety. Earthing switch is mounted on the frame of the
isolators. It is located for each incoming transmission line and each
side of the bus bar section
❖ Earthing Switch is necessary
to earth the conducting parts
before maintenance and also
to provide deliberate short-
current while testing. This
enables various tests to be
performed on the Switchgear
or item of equipment, such as
testing the current
Transformer of measuring the
operating time of breakers,
without having to open the
enclosure.

During normal operation the

insulation is bypassed by a
short-circuit-proof link.

25
❖ The use of earth switches is to send any trapped
charge in the line into ground after the line is switched
off.

❖ Mainly what happens, when the line is switched off,

some charges remain trapped in line due to their own
capacity and also due to influence of side by X-line.

❖ This trapped charge is dangerous if someone goes for

maintenance of that very line. So it is very much
required to neutralize that much charge and here
comes the use of earth switches.

❖ When isolator OPEN condition earth switch is CLOSED. Here any induction
that passes thro' earth switch to ground. When isolator in CLOSED condition
earth switch should be open

26
Shunt Reactors
❖ Shunt Reactors are used for long EHV transmission lines to
control voltage during low – load period. Shunt reactors are also
used to compensate shunt capacitance of transmission line during
low load periods. Usually Shunt reactors are un-switched

27
Series Reactors
❖ Series reactors are used to limit short – circuit current and to limit
current surges associated with fluctuating loads. Series reactors
are located at the strategic locations such that the fault levels are
reduced.

28
Shunt Capacitance
❖ Shunt capacitors are used for compensating reactive power of
lagging power factor. Shunt Capacitors are used for improving the
power factor. It is also used for voltage control during heavy lagging
power factor loads. Shunt Capacitors are located at the receiving
stations and distribution substations. Shunt Capacitors are switched
in during heavy loads and switched – off during low loads.

29
 Circuit Breakers
❖ circuit breaker is a switching device which can be operated
manually as well as automatically for controlling and protection of
electrical power system respectively.
❖ As the modern power system deals
with huge currents, the special
attention should be given during
designing of circuit breaker to safe
interruption of arc produced during
the operation of circuit breaker.

30
 Types of Circuit Breaker
❖ According to the type of ARC quenching medium CBs can be divided
as;
1. Air Circuit Breaker
2. Oil Circuit Breaker
3. Vacuum Circuit Breaker
4. SF6 Circuit Breaker
❖ According to their services the circuit breaker can be divided as;
1. Outdoor circuit breaker
2. Indoor breaker
❖ According to the operating mechanism of CBs can be divided as;
1. Spring operated circuit breaker
2. Pneumatic circuit breaker
3. Hydraulic circuit breaker

❖ According to the voltage level of installation types of CBs are referred as;
1. High voltage circuit breaker
2. Medium voltage circuit breaker
3. Low voltage circuit breaker

31
Instrument Transformers
❖ Current or voltage instrument transformers are necessary for
isolating the protection, control and measurement equipment from
the high voltages of a power system, and for supplying the
equipment with the appropriate values of current and voltage -
generally these are 1A or 5Α for the current coils, and 120 V for the
voltage coils.

❖ The behavior of current and voltage transformers during and after the
occurrence of a fault is critical in electrical protection since errors in the signal
from a transformer can cause maloperation of the relays.

❖ In addition, factors such as the transient period and saturation must be taken
into account when selecting the appropriate transformer.

❖ When only voltage or current magnitudes are required to operate a relay then
the relative direction of the current flow in the transformer windings is not
important. However, the polarity must be kept in mind when the relays
compare the sum or difference of the currents

32
Current Transformer

33
Example 1:
A 250 : 5, current transformer is used along with an ammeter. If ammeter
reading is 2.7 A,. estimate the line current.

Solution : I1/I2 = 250/5

But as ammeter is in secondary, I2 = 2.7 A
. .. I1/2.7 = 250/5
. .. I1 = 135 A
So line current is 135 A.

H.W PROBLEM # 01
A 500 : 5, current transformer is used along with an ammeter. If ammeter
reading is 3 A,. estimate the line current.

34
Why Secondary of C.T. Should not be Open ?
Secondary of C.T. should not be kept open.
❖ It should be shorted or must be connected in series with a low resistance
coil such as current coils of wattmeter, coil of ammeter etc.

If secondary of the C.T. is left open:

❖ Current through secondary becomes zero hence the ampere turns produced by
secondary which generally oppose primary ampere turns becomes zero.

❖ As there is no counter m.m.f., Unopposed primary m.m.f. (Ampere turns) produce high
flux in the core. This produces excessive core losses, heating the core beyond limits.

❖ Similarly heavy e.m.fs will be induced on the primary and secondary side. This may
damage the insulation of the winding. This is dangerous from the operator point of view
as well.

❖ It is usual to ground the C.T. on the secondary side to avoid a danger of sh

❖ ock to the operator.

❖ Hence never open the secondary winding circuit of a current transformer while its primary
winding is energized. Thus most of the C.Ts have a short circuit link or a switch at
secondary terminals. When the primary is to be energized, the short circuit link must be
closed so that there is no danger of open circuit secondary.
35
Potential Transformer
These are extremely accurate ratio step down
transformers. The windings are low power rating
windings. Primary winding consists of large number
of turns while secondary has less number of turns
and usually rated for 110 V, irrespective of the
primary voltage rating.

The primary is connected across the high voltage line while secondary is
connected to the low range voltmeter coil. One end of the secondary is always
grounded for safety purpose. The connections are shown in the figure .

Example : A 11000 : 110, potential transformer is used along with a voltmeter

reading 87.5 V. Estimate the value of line voltage.

Solution : For a P.T. V1/V2 = 11000/110

and V2 = 87.5 V
... V1/87.5 = 11000/110
. .. V1 = 8750 V
This is the value of high voltage to be measured.

36
VTs or PTs Design Characteristics
❖ With voltage transformers (VTs) it is essential that the voltage from
the secondary winding should be as near as possible proportional
to the primary voltage.

❖ In order to achieve this, VTs are designed in such a way that the voltage
drops in the windings are small and the flux density in the core is well below
the saturation value so that the magnetization current is small;

❖ Therefore obtained magnetization impedance is practically constant over

the required voltage range.

❖ The secondary voltage of a VT is usually 110 or 120 V with corresponding

line-to-neutral values. The majority of protection relays have nominal
voltages of 110 or 63.5 V, depending on whether their connection is line-to-
line or line-to-neutral.

37
Station Batteries
❖ The heart of a substation is the battery bank. If this were to fail, an
electric utility could expose all feeders associated with the station
to a condition where they could not ever trip in a fault. Not only
that, but any backup devices, such as the main breaker on the
low-voltage side or the high-voltage side protection of the power
transformer, would all be inoperative, leaving the transmission grid
protection as the only possible backup.

38
❖ There are two major types of battery banks used for substation
applications; lead acid and nickel cadmium. The nickel cadmium
battery banks are about twice the cost of lead acid for the same size
bank.

❖ Type: Lead Calcium

❖ Voltage Rating: 125 volt nominal, (129 volt, fully charged)
❖ Bank Size: 60 cell
❖ Cell Size: 2.15 volt (fully charged), 1.75 volt (discharged)
❖ Typical Bank Sizes: 150Ah and 200Ah
39
Line Traps
❖ Line traps are used in transmission and distribution networks. They
are a key component in PLC (Power Line Carrier) systems used for
remote control signals, voice communication, remote metering and
control between substations in the electrical T&D network.

❖ A line trap (high-frequency stopper)

is a maintenance-free parallel
resonant circuit, mounted inline on
high voltage AC transmission power
lines to prevent undue loss of carrier
signal of high frequency (40 kHz to
1000 kHz) under all power system
conditions.

❖ The inductive reactance of the line

trap presents a high reactance to
high-frequency signals but a low to
mains frequency.

40
The two round cylinders half-way up on
right are line-traps for power-line carrier.

41
Substation Grounding / Earthing

The sole purpose of substation grounding/earthing is:

1. To protect the equipment from surges and lightning strikes and

2. To protect the operating persons in the substation.
❖ The substation earthing system is necessary for connecting neutral points of
transformers and generators to ground and also for connecting the non current
carrying metal parts such as structures, overhead shielding wires, tanks,
frames, etc to earth. Earthing of surge arresters is through the earthing
system. The function of substation earthing system is to provide a grounding
mat below the earth surface in and around the substation which will have
uniformly zero potential with respect to ground and lower earth resistance to
ensure that;
❖ To provide discharge path for lightning over voltages coming via rod-gaps,
surge arresters, and shielding wires etc. .
❖ To ensure safety of the operating staff by limiting voltage gradient at ground
level in the substation
❖ To provide low resistance path to the earthing switch earthed terminals, so as
to discharge the trapped charge (Due to charging currents even the line is
dead still charge remains which causes dangerous shocks) to earth prior to
maintenance and repairs. 42
Earth Resistance
❖ Earth Resistance is the resistance offered by the earth electrode to
the flow of current in to the ground. To provide a sufficiently low
resistance path to the earth to minimize the rise in earth potential
with respect to a remote earth fault.
❖ Persons touching any of the non current carrying grounded parts shall not
receive a dangerous shock during an earth fault. Each structure, transformer
tank, body of equipment, etc, should be connected to earthing mat by their own
earth connection.
❖ Generally lower earth resistance is preferable but for certain applications
following earth resistance are satisfactory
➢ Large Power Station s– 0.5 Ohm
➢ Major Power Stations - 1.0 Ohm
➢ Small Substation – 2.0 Ohm
➢ In all Other Cases – 8.0 Ohm

43
 Switchgear Accommodation

Switchgear for low voltages may be entirely enclosed within a building. For
transmission levels of voltage (high voltages over 66 kV), often switchgear
will be mounted outdoors

44
Outdoor substation with switchgear equipment

45
Substation Bus Schemes
❖ Electrical and physical arrangements of the switching and
busing at the sub transmission voltage level are determined
by the selected substation scheme. Selection of a particular
substation scheme is based upon safety, reliability,
economy, simplicity, and other considerations.

The most common used substation bus schemes include:

1. Single bus scheme
2. Double bus – double breaker scheme
3. Main and transfer bus scheme
4. Double bus - single breaker scheme
5. Ring bus scheme
6. Breaker and a half scheme

46
1. Single Bus Scheme

Advantages:
1. Lowest cost
Disadvantages:
1. Failure of bus or any circuit breaker
results in shutdown of entire
substation.
2. Difficult to do any maintenance.
3. Bus can not be extended without
completely deenergizing the
substation.
4. Can be used only where loads can
be interrupted or have other supply
arrangements.

47
2. Double Bus – Double Breaker Scheme

Advantages:
1. Each circuit has two dedicated
breakers.
2. Has flexibility in permitting feeder
circuits to be connected to either
bus.
3. Any breaker can be taken out of
service for maintenance.
4. High reliability.
Disadvantages:
1. Most expensive.
2. Would lose half the circuit for
breaker failure if circuits are not
connected to both buses.
48
3. Main and transfer bus scheme

Advantages:
• Low initial and ultimate cost.
• Any breaker can be taken out of
service for maintenance.
• Potential devices may be used on
the main bus for relaying.
Disadvantages:
• Requires one extra breaker for the
bus tie.
• Switching is somewhat complicated
when maintaining a breaker.
• Failure of bus or any circuit breaker
results in shutdown of entire substation.

49
4. Double bus - single breaker scheme

Advantages:
• Permits some flexibility with two operating
buses.
• Either main bus may be isolated for
maintenance.
• Circuit can be transferred readily from one
bus to the other by use of bus – tie breaker
and bus selector disconnect switches.
Disadvantages:
• One extra breaker is required for the bus tie.
• 4 switches are required per circuit.
• Bus protection scheme may cause loss of substation when it
operates if all circuits are connected to that bus.
• High exposure to bus faults.
• Bus – tie breaker failure takes entire substation out of service.

50
5. Ring bus scheme

Advantages:
• Low initial and ultimate cost.
• Flexible operation for breaker
maintenance.
• Any breaker can be removed
for maintenance without
interrupting load.
• Requires only one breaker per
circuit.
• Does not use main bus.
• Each circuit is fed by 2
breakers.
• All switching is done with
breakers.

Disadvantages:
• Automatic reclosing and protective relaying circuitry rather complex.
51
6. Breaker and a half scheme
Advantages:
• Most flexible operation.
• High reliability.
• Breaker failure of bus side removes only
one circuit from service.
• All switching is done with breakers,
• Simple operation.
• Either main bus can be taken out of
service at any time for maintenance.
• Bus failure done not removes any feeder
from service.

1. Disadvantages:
2. One and half breakers per circuit.
3. Relaying and automatic reclosing are somewhat involved singe
the middle breaker must be responsive to either of its associated
circuits.
52
. Table of configurations
Configuration Reliability Cost Available area

Least reliable — single Least cost — fewer Least area — fewer

Single Bus failure can cause
complete outage components components

Highly reliable —
Double Bus duplicated components; High cost — duplicated Greater area — twice as
single failure normally components many components
isolates single
component

Least reliable — same as

Main Bus And Single bus, but flexibility Moderate cost — fewer Low area requirement —
Transfer in operating and
maintenance with components fewer components
transfer bus

.Double Bus, Moderately reliable — Moderate cost — more Moderate area — more
Single Breaker depends on arrangement components components
of components and bus

High reliability — single Moderate cost — more Moderate area —

Ring Bus failure isolates single increases with number of
component components circuits

Highly reliable — single

Breaker And a circuit failure isolates Moderate cost — breaker- Greater area — more
Half single circuit, bus failures and-a-half for each circuit components per circuit
do not affect circuits
53
Location of Distribution substation
Location of substation is dictated by the voltage levels, voltage
regulation considerations, sub-transmission costs, substation
costs and the costs of primary feeders, main and distribution
transformers.
While selecting a location of distribution substation, following rules
should be observed
❖ Locate the substation as much as feasible, close to load
centre of its service area so that the addition of load time
distance from substation is minimum.
❖ Locate the substation such that proper voltage regulation is
obtained without taking extensive measures
❖ Locate the substation such that it provides proper excess to
incoming sub-transmission line outgoing primary feeders.
❖ Selected substation location should provide enough space for
future expansion
❖ Selected substation location should help to minimize the
number of customers affected by one service discontinuity
❖ Other considerations such as adaptability and emergency
54
➢ A symmetrical fault is a fault where all phases are affected so that the system remains
balanced. A three-phase fault is a symmetrical fault. The other three fault types (line
to ground, line to line, and double line to ground) are called unsymmetrical or
asymmetrical faults.

➢ A fault in a circuit means any failure which hinders with the normal flow of current.

➢ Most faults on transmission lines of 115kV and higher are caused by lightning, which
results in the flashover of insulators.

➢ The high voltage between a conductor and the grounded supporting tower causes
ionization, which provides a path to ground for the charge induced by the lightning
stroke.

➢ Once the ionized path to ground is established, the resultant low impedance to
ground allows the flow of current from the conductor to ground and through the
ground to the grounded neutral of a transformer or generator, thus completing the
circuit.
➢ A fault on the power system which gives rise to symmetrical fault currents (i.e. equal
fault currents in the lines with 120o displacement) is called symmetrical fault.

➢ A short circuit is a fault in which current bypasses the normal load.

➢ An open-circuit fault occurs if a circuit is interrupted by some failure.

➢ A fault may occur on a power system due to a number of reasons. Some of the
common causes have their origins in natural disturbances like lightning, high speed
winds, earthquakes.

➢ Generators, transformers, and other protective switchgear may fail due to insulation
breakdown.

➢ There may be accidental faults such as falling of a tree along a line, vehicles
colliding with supporting structures, airplane crashing with the line, birds shorting
the electrical transmission/ distribution line.
56
▪ Sometime interruption also results in creating faults. Contamination (puncture) of
insulators may also result in a fault. Sometimes, small animals like rats, lizards enter
switch gear to create faults. Thus, symmetrical faults can also be defined as:

▪ A fault in which all three phase are shorted to one another and to ground is
known as three phase short circuit fault or symmetrical faults.

▪ A three phase short circuit occurs rarely but it is most severe type of fault
involving largest currents. For this reason the balanced short circuit calculations
are performed to determine these large currents to be used to determine the
rating of the circuit breakers.
▪ Faults can cause system to become unstable. Hence, it is necessary that upon the
occurrence of fault , the faulty section should be disconnected as rapidly as possible
so that the normal operation of the rest of the system is not affected. If this is not
done, the equipment may be damaged and the power supply may disrupted.

▪ The relays should immediately detect the existence of the fault and initiate circuit
breaker operation to disconnect the faulty section.
57
➢ The purpose of fault analysis is to determine the values of voltages and currents at
different points of the system during the fault.
➢ Such analysis enables us to select appropriate protective schemes, relays, and circuit
breakers in order to save the system from the abnormal condition within minimum
time.
➢ Note: The assumptions for short circuit calculations are same as for per unit system
reactance diagram.

➢ When a short circuit occurs at any point in a system, the short-circuit current is
limited by the impedance of the system up to the point of fault.

➢ Hence, the knowledge of the impedances of various equipment and circuits in

the line of the system is very important for the determination of short-circuit
currents. 58
• Experience in the operation of transmission lines have shown that ultra-high
speed reclosing breakers successfully reclose after most faults. Of those cases
where reclosure is not successful, many are caused by permanent faults where
reclosure would be impossible regardless of the interval between opening and
reclosing.
▪ Experiences has shown that between 70% and 80% of transmission line faults are
single line to ground faults, which arise from the flashover of only one line to the
tower and ground. Roughly 5% of all faults involve all three phases. These are
the so called symmetrical three phase faults.
▪ Typical relative frequencies of occurrence of different kinds of faults in a power
system (in order of decreasing severity) are:
Type of Fault Percentage
Occurrence
Three phase (3 ɸ) Faults 5%
Double line to ground (LLG) faults 10%
Double Line or Line to Line (LL) faults 15%
Single Line to ground faults 70% 59
❑ Selection of Circuit Breakers:

▪ An electrical circuit breaker is a switching device that can be operated

automatically or manually for protecting and controlling the electrical power
system. In the modern power system, the design of the circuit breaker has
changed depending upon the huge currents and to prevent from the arc
while operating.

▪ The electric utility company such as HESCO/FESCO etc furnishes data to a

customer who must determine the fault current in order to specify circuit breakers
properly for an industrial plant or industrial power distribution system connected to
the utility system at a certain point.

60
❑ Selection of Circuit Breakers (Cont):
➢ There are a few different criteria to consider when selecting a circuit
breaker including voltage, frequency, interrupting capacity, continuous current
rating, unusual operating conditions and product testing.
Voltage Rating
➢ The overall voltage rating is calculated by the highest voltage that can be applied
across all end ports, the distribution type and how the circuit breaker is directly
integrated into the system. It is important to select a circuit breaker with enough
voltage capacity to meet the end application.
Frequency
➢ Circuit breakers up to 600 amps can be applied to frequencies of 50-120 Hz. Higher
than 120 Hz frequencies will end up with the breaker having to derate. A general rule
of thumb is the higher the ampere rating in a specific frame size the greater the
derating needed.

Maximum Interrupting Capacity

➢ The interrupting rating is generally accepted as the highest amount of f fault current
the breaker can interrupt without causing system failure of itself.

61
❑ Selection of Circuit Breakers (Cont):
Continuous Current Rating
➢ A general rule of thumb for circuit breaker manufactures is to calibrate their
standard breakers at 104° F.

Maintenance and Testing

➢ When selecting a circuit breaker, the user must decide to either buy a unit that is UL
Tested (Underwriters Laboratories) or not. For overall quality assurance it is
recommended that customer purchase circuit breakers that have been UL Tested.
Be aware that non UL Tested products do not guarantee correct calibration of the
breaker. All low voltage molded case circuit breakers which are UL listed are tested
in accordance with UL Standard 489 which is divided up into two categories: factory
testing and field testing.

Note: To calculate the circuit breaker size, simply divide the adjusted wattage by 240
volts to find the rated amperage needed for your subpanel. Often, the result is not a
common circuit breaker size. and you can simply round up to the next
higher size of ​the breaker
62
❑ Reactor Control of Short Circuit Currents:
▪ A reactor is a coil of number of turns designed to have a large inductance as
compared to its ohmic resistance.
▪ With the fast expanding power system, the fault level (i.e. the power available to
flow into a fault) is also rising.
▪ The circuit breakers connected in the power system must be capable of dealing with
maximum possible short-circuit currents that can occur at their points of connection.
▪ Generally, the reactance of the system under fault conditions is low and fault
currents may rise to a dangerously high value.
▪ If no steps are taken to limit the value of these short-circuit currents, not only will
the duty required of circuit breakers be excessively heavy, but also damage to lines
and other equipment will almost certainly occur.
▪ In order to limit the short-circuit currents to a value which the circuit breakers
can handle, additional reactances known as reactors are connected in series
with the system at suitable points.

▪ Reactors limit the flow of short-circuit current and thus protect the equipment from
overheating as well as from failure due to destructive mechanical forces. 63
❑ Reactor Control of Short Circuit Currents:
▪ Troubles are localised or isolated at the point where they originate without
communicating their disturbing effects to other parts of the power system. This
increases the chances of continuity of supply.
▪ They permit the installation of circuit breakers of lower rating.

▪ Short circuit current limiting reactors may be connected in series:

❖With each generator Note: The information about
❖With each feeder and Bus-bar can be found in Power
system Analysis by V. K. Mehta,
❖With Bus-bars.
Chapter 16, Topic 16.4 Bus bar
arrangements Page Number 391.
▪ Depending upon the location of reactors, following are the main types of Reactors
❖Generator Reactors
❖Feeder Reactors
❖Bus-bar Reactors
▪ Each installation has its own particular demands which must be carefully considered
before a choice of reactor location can be made. 64
❑ Generator Reactors:
▪ When the reactors are connected in series with each generator, they are known as
generator reactors.

▪ Modern generators are designed to have sufficiently large reactance to protect them
in even dead short circuits at their terminals. Thus, these reactors may only be
used in old generators having low values of reactance.
65
❑ Disadvantages of Generator Reactors:
▪ There is a constant voltage drop and power loss in the reactors even during normal
operation.

▪ If a bus-bar or feeder fault occurs close to the bus-bar, the voltage at the bus-bar will
be reduced to a low value with the result that generators may lose synchronism and
supply may be interrupted.

▪ If a fault occurs on any feeder, the continuity of supply to other is likely to be

affected.

▪ Due to these disadvantages and also since modern power station generators have
sufficiently large leakage reactance to protect them against short-circuit, it is not a
common practice to use separate reactors for the generators.

66
❑ Feeder Reactors:
▪ When the reactors are connected in series with each feeder, they are known as
feeder reactors.

▪ Since most of the short-circuits occur on feeders, a large number of reactors are used
for such circuits. 67
❑ Advantages of Feeder Reactors:
▪ Two principal advantages are claimed for feeder reactors:
▪ Firstly, if a fault occurs on any feeder, the voltage drop in its reactor will not affect
the bus bars voltage so that there is a little tendency for the generator to lose
synchronism.
▪ Secondly, the fault on a feeder will not affect other feeders.

▪ There is a constant power loss and voltage drop in the reactors even during normal
operation.
▪ If the number of generators is increased, the size of feeder reactors will have to be
increased to keep the short-circuit currents within the ratings of the feeder circuit
breakers.

68
❑ Bus-bar Reactors:
▪ When the reactors are connected in series with each Bus-bar, they are known as
Bus-bar reactors.
▪ The limitations of generator and feeder reactors can be overcome by locating the
reactors in the bus-bars.
▪ There are two methods for this purpose, namely;
✓ Ring system and
✓ Tie-Bar system.

❑ Ring System:
▪ In this system, bus-bar is
divided into sections and
these sections are
connected through
reactors.
▪ This is the most common
method of connection of
reactors. 69
❑ Ring System:
▪ Under normal operation, each generator supplies feeder connected to its own section
and there will be no current through the reactors.

▪ Thus, there is no voltage drop or power loss or very little power loss in the reactor
during normal operation. Generally, one feeder is fed from one generator only.

▪ The principal advantage of the system is that if a fault occurs on any feeder, only
that bus bar section is affected to which it is connected. The other sections continue
to operate normally.
▪ One generator (to which the particular feeder is connected) mainly feeds the fault
current while the current fed from other generators is small due to the presence of
reactors.

▪ Therefore, only that section of bus-bar is affected to which the feeder is connected,
the other sections being able to continue in normal operation

70
Rating of distribution substation

The additional capacity of a system with increasing load density

can be met by

1. Either holding the service area of a given substation

constant and increasing the capacity
2. Or developing a new substation and thereby holding the
rating of existing substation constant

It is assumed that load changes with constant load density for

short term planning and with increasing load density for long
term planning.

It is helpful to employ geometric figures to represent the service

area of a substation. It simplifies greatly the expansion of
alternative plans, which may require different sizes of
distribution substation, different numbers of primary feeders and
voltage level for different primary feeders.
71
Load Distribution
The load distribution on a feeder main affects the effective length
as give below
1.When load is lumped at the end of a feeder, effective length
L = Total length*1
1.When load is uniformly distributed along the length, it is
assumed that load is lumped at half of the total length. Hence
effective length L = total length * ½
2.When load is uniformly increasing, it is assumed that load is
lumped at 2/3 of total length. Hence Effective length = total length
* 2/3
Some formulas for calculating voltage drops
S = Load in kVA D = Load density in
kVA/m2
A = Area of the service (m2) l = effective length (m)
considering type of load
K = Voltage constant
S = D*A
%V.Dn = (2/3) K D ln3 tan(360/2n) where n is number of feeders
%V.D = l * K * S = l*K*D*A
72
Numerical (15) Assume that a three phase, 4.16kV, Y grounded feeder with
the following characteristics supplying a load of 500 kVA at 90% power
factor.
R = 1.503 ohms/mi X=0.7456 ohms/mi K=0.01
%V.D/(kVA.mi )
The voltage drops calculated for three different types of loads are 5.0%,
2.5% and 3.33%. Find the nature of loads in each case.
Solution
%V.D = l K D A but S =D*A so %VD= l KS
where l is effective length constant
Given S =500 kVA, K=0.01 %V.D/(kVA . mi)
So %V.D = l * 0.01 * 500 = 5 l
Or
l = %V.D / 5
Case I %V.D = 5%
l = 5/5 = 1
As effective length is equal to total length therefore load is lumped at the end of
feeder
Case II %V.D = 2.5%
l = 2.5/5 =1/2
As effective length is ½ of total length so load is uniformly distributed along the
length of feeder
Case III %V.D = 3.33%
l = 3.33/5 =2/3
As effective length is 2/3 of total length so load is uniformly increasing along the
73
length of feeder.
Square shaped distribution Area

Consider a square shaped area (2 l4 * 2 l4). Assume that there is a

substation in the centre of area marked as location a. Let l4 is
length of each feeder and area served by each feeder is l42. Also
assume that load density is same for entire area and S4 is the load
supplied by each feeder.
Voltage drop from substation point (a) to the farthest point (c) will
be
%VDac = %VDab + %VDbc 74
Voltage drop calculations can be simplified by introducing a constant (K)
which can be defined as “percent voltage drop per kVA – mile). For
different values of voltage drops and conductor sizes, different
graphs are prepared for value of (K), which is given analytically as
K = (r Cosθ + x Sinθ ) ( 1/3 *1000) *100%
Vb * Vr
Where r + jx is conductor impedance, θ = load power factor angle, Vb=
base voltage and Vr =receiving end voltage
If S4 is kVA covered by one feeder in area A4 (l42 for square shaped) and
D is load density of area. The S4 = A4 * D = l42 * D
So percentage voltage drop will be %VD = l*k*S
Assuming that load is uniformly increasing for main feeder (ab) so l =2/3
*l4
%VDab = (2/3 l4)*K*S4 = (2/3) l4 * K * l4 * D = (2/3) K*D*l43
Now considering the farthest lateral (bc) having length l4 and uniformly
distributed load (l = ½ l4). So percentage voltage drop in lateral will
be
%VDbc = (½ K*D*l43
Normally main and laterals are made of different conductor sizes, thus
have different (K) constants i.e. Km and Kl respectively
So total % VD will be
%VDac = %VDab + %VDbc
%VDac = (2/3) K*D*l43 + ½ K*D*l43 75
Hexagonal Shaped Distribution Area

Consider a hexagonal area as shown in figure. There is a

substation in the centre and load is supplied by six feeders each of
length l6 serving a load S6 in area A6.
Area of hexagon is 6 * l6 2 /√3
So area served by each feeder will be A6 = l6 2 /√3
If D is the load density of area then
S6 = A6 * D = l6 2 D / √3 76
Consider main feeder where load is uniformly increasing (l = 2/3*
l6 ) then voltage drop in the main feeder will be
%VDm = (2/3) l6 * Km*D*A6 = (2/3) l6 * Km *D*L62 /√3
%VDm = 2* Km*D*l63
3√3
Similarly voltage drop in the farthest lateral of length l6 and
having uniform load along the length will be
%VDl = ½ l6 * Kl * D * l62 / √3
%VDl = Kl*D*l63
2√3
So total voltage drop will be
%VD6 = 2* Km*D*l63 + Kl*D*l63
3√3 2√3

77
Comparison of square shaped and hexagonal shaped service
areas For Equal Voltage drops
Consider a square shaped distribution pattern
A4 = area served by feeder l4= feeder length D= load density
Consider a hexagonal shape
A6 = area served by feeder l6= feeder length D= load density
For the same conductor and considering only primary feeder
Voltage drop in square shaped area is given by
%VD4 = 2*K*D*l43 /3
Voltage drop in hexagonal shaped service area is given by
%VD6 = (2*K*D*l63) /3√3
For same voltage drop %VD4 = %VD6
2*K*D*l43 /3 = (2*K*D*l63) /3√3 l43 = l63 /√3
l4 = 0.833 l6
Total area served by square shaped distribution system is
TA4 = 4* l42
Total area served by hexagonal shaped distribution system is
TA6 = 6 * l62/√3
TA6 = 6 * l62/√3 = √3 l62 = √3 l6 2 = 1.25
TA4 4* l42 2 l42 2 * (0.833 l6 )2
TA6 = 1.25 TA4
Therefore Hexagonal shaped service area can supply area equal to 1.25
78
times the square shaped area.
For Same Current limiting capacity
Consider a square shaped distribution pattern
A4 = area served by feeder l4= feeder length D= load density
TA4= Total area covered = 4*l42 I4= current carried by
feeder
I4 = S4 /(√3*VL) = D*A4/ (√3*VL) = D*l42/(√3*VL)
Consider a hexagonal shape
A6 = area served by feeder = l62/√3 l6= feeder length D= load
density
TA6= Total area covered = 6*l62/√3 I6= current carried by
feeder
I6 = S6 /(√3*VL) = D*A6/ (√3*VL) = D*(l62/√3) /(√3*VL)
For equal current carrying capacity I4 = I6
D*l42 = D*l62
√3*VL 3*VL
l42 = l62
l6 = 1.3161 l4
Now comparing total area served
TA6 = 6 * l62/√3 = √3 * l62 = √3 * ( 1.3161 l4 ) 2 = 1.5
TA4 4* l42 2 l42 2 l42
TA6 = 1.5 TA4
So hexagonal shaped distribution pattern can serve 1.5 times area
79
served by square shaped distribution pattern
 Example # ]
A 3 – phase 4.16 kV star – grounded feeder feeder main has # 04 copper
conductors with an equivalent spacing of 37 in. between phase
conductors and a lagging – load power factor of 0.9.
a) Determine the K constant.

GIVEN DATA FOR # 04 COPPER CONDUCTOR

REF. TABLE A-1 FOR 50O C & 60 Hz
r = 1.503  / mi
xL = xa + xd = 0.7456  / mi
xa = 0.609  / mi
xd = 0.1366  / mi

80
SOLUTION
(a)
Vr = Vb = 2400 V line to neutral voltage
From equation for cons tan t K
(r cos  + x sin  ) (1000 / 3)
K = Pu V
Vr . Vb
Therefore the per unit voltage drop per kilovoltam pere mile is
(1.503 × 0.9 + 0.7456 × 0.4359 ) (1000 / 3)
K =
2400 2
= 0.0001 VDPu / (kVA . mi)

81
Example # 2

Feeder shown in figure has the same characteristics as in

example 1 and a lumped – sum load of 500 kVA with a lagging
power factor of 0.9 is connected at the end of a 1 – mi – long
feeder main. Calculate the percent voltage drop in the main.

SOLUTION
The percent voltage drop in the main is

% VD = s × K × S n
= 1.0 mi × 0.01 %VD / (k VA . mi) × 500 k VA
= 5 .0 %

82
Example # 3
The feeder shown in the figure below has the same
characteristics as given in example 2, but the 500 kVA load is
uniformly distributed along the feeder main. Calculate the
percent voltage drop in the main.

SOLUTION

The percent voltage drop in the main is

% VD = s × K × S n
Where the effective feeder length s is It can be seen that the
negative effect of the lumped
1 – sum load on the % VD
s = = 0.5 mi worse than the one for the
2
uniformly distributed load.
Therefore Figure also shows the
% VD = 1 / 2 × K × S n conversion of the uniformly
distributed load to a lumped –
= 0.5 × 0.01 %VD / (k VA . mi) × 500 k VA sum load located at point a
fro the voltage drop
= 2.5 % calculation.

83
 Example # 4.
The feeder shown in the figure below has the same
characteristics as given in exampl.2, but the 500 kVA load has
an increasing load density. Calculate the percent voltage drop in
the main.

SOLUTION
The percent voltage drop in the main is

% VD = s × K × S n
Where the effective feeder length s is
2 The negative effect of the
s = l = 0.6667 mi load with increasing load
3
density is worse than
Therefore uniformly distributed load but
2 better than lumped – sum
% VD = l × K × S n load.
3
= 0.6667 mi × 0.01 %VD / (k VA . mi) × 500 k VA
= 3 .3 3 %
84
Numerical (5) : - The following figure shows a 3 phase, 4wire,
11 kV feeder originating from a substation and supplying
Jamshoro Society, located at a distance of 1 km. The colony
is square shaped (2 km X 2 km) with a uniformly distributed
load density of 1000 kVA/km2. The feeder also supplies Kotri
hostel which is located at a further distance of 2 km and has
a lumped load of 2000 kVA. The K constant of the conductor
is 0.0003% VD/kVA.km. Calculate line to neutral voltages at
a,b,c and d.

Jamshoro Society
Kotri

85
Solution
Consider NED staff colony (2 km * 2 km),
So area of the NED staff colony = 4 km2
Load density of the NED staff colony is D = 1000 kVA / km2
So load of the NED staff colony will be S1 = 4*1000 = 4000 kVA
Given that load of J-3 hostel is 2000 kVA

Section ab
Length of the section is 1 km
Total load is lumped at point (b)
Sab = S1 + S2 = 4000 + 2000 = 6000 kVA
Hence voltage drop in the section for load lumped at the end will
be
%VDab = (lab) * (K)(S) = (1*1) (0.0003)(6000) = 1.8%
So voltage drop in ab is = 1.8*11/100 = 0.198 kV
So voltage at point (b) will be
Vb = 11 – 0.198 = 10.802 kV
Line to neutral voltage at (b) will be
Vb ln = 10.802 / √3 = 6.237 kV
86
Section bc
Length of the section is 2 km
Total load is sum of S1 and S2, where S1 is uniformly distributed and S2 is lumped
at the end
% voltage drop in the section will be
%VDbc = (1/2*2)(0.0003)(4000) + (1*2)(0.0003)(2000) = 2.4%
So voltage drop in bc is = 2.4*10.802/100 = 0.26 kV
So voltage at point (c) will be
Vc = 10.802 – 0.26 = 10.543 kV
Line to neutral voltage at (c) will be
Vcln = 10.543 / √3 = 6.087 kV

Section cd
The length of the section is 2 km
Total Load is S2 = 2000 kVA, lumped at the end of the section
%VDcd = (1*2)(0.0003)(2000) = 1.2%
So voltage drop in cd is = 1.2*10.543/100 = 0.1265 kV
So voltage at point (d) will be
Vd = 10.543 – 0.1265 = 10.42 kV
Line to neutral voltage at (c) will be
Vlnd = 10.543 / √3 = 6.016 kV 87
Results
Line to line and line to neutral voltages are given below

Line to neutral voltage

Point Line to line voltage kV
kV
A 11 6.351

B 10.802 6.237

C 10.543 6.087

D 10.42 6.016

88
Numerical (17): - Assume a square shaped distribution
service area. Four feeders serves an area of (2a*2a). the
load density is D kVA/mi2and it is uniformly distributed.
Each feeder main is three phase four wire grounded wye
with multi grounded common neutral open wire. Length of
each feeder is (a) mi and area served by the last lateral is
(a*d) mi2. The power factor of all the loads is Cosθ lagging.
The impedance of feeder main line is rm + jxm Ω/mi and
impedance of the lateral is rl + j xl Ω/mi. VLL is line to line
voltage , which is also normal operating voltage
Also assume that the laterals are also three
phase four wire grounded wye with multi
ground common neutral open wire. Show
that the percentage voltage drop at the end
of the lateral is

89
Solution
Length of the main feeder is ‘a’ mi, Area served by the main feeder
is (a*a) = a2 mi2 .
Total load served by substation is S = D*A = D(2a) 2 = 4 Da2 =
Load served by each feeder main will be Sm = Da2
Current in each main feeder will be

Im = Sm /(√3 *VLL) = Da2/(√3 *VLL)

Per unit Voltage drop in main feeder will be

VDm = Im (rm Cosθ + xm Sinθ) = Da2 (rm Cosθ + xm Sinθ) /(√3 *VLL)

Length of the main feeder is (a) mi with uniformly increasing load

So percentage voltage drop in main feeder will be
%VDm = Da2 (rm Cosθ + xm Sinθ) * 1 (2/3 a)(100)
√3 *VLL VLL * 1000/√3
%VDm = 2 Da3 (rm Cosθ + xm Sinθ)
30 *VLL2
90
For lateral load is uniformly distributed (l= ½a) and area served by
lateral is (a*d) mi2
Current in the lateral is

Il = Sl /(√3 *VLL) = Da*d /(√3 *VLL)

Per unit Voltage drop in lateral will be

VDl = Il (rl Cosθ + xl Sinθ) = Da*d (rl Cosθ + xl Sinθ) /(√3 *VLL)

Length of the lateral is (a) mi with uniformly distributed load

So percentage voltage drop in lateral will be

91
Numerical (18): - Figure shows a three phase four wire
grounded wye distribution system supplied by an express
feeder and main feeder. Each primary feeder serves an area
of length s and width d, Assuming lagging power factor for
all loads and that D=uniformly distributed load density, VLL =
operating line to line voltage, rm + jxm is per mile impedance
of express and main feeder, rl + jxl is per mile impedance of
the lateral. Determine in terms of given data. The per unit
voltage drop in
(i) Express feeder
(ii) Main feeder
(iii) Primary lateral

Let all the loads have power factor Cosθ

93
94
95
 Numerical (19): - Square shaped distribution is used for two
adjacent substations. The conductor have maximum current
rating of 260 A and the operating voltage is 6.3 kV. The
conductors are loaded to maximum capacity. The load
density is 1000 kVA/km2 and load is uniformly increasing. K
=0.007 %VD/(kVA – km). Find the distance between two
substations. Also calculate the associated voltage drop. If
Let Voltage drop is greater than 6% find the length of each feeder
to limit the voltage drop to 6%, and then find percentage
loading of the conductor at this new voltage drop.

Solution

96
97
98
Numerical (20): - Consider a square shaped distribution area
as shown in figure below. The square area is 4 mi2 and has
number of three phase laterals. Load is uniformly distributed
and load density is 2000 kVA/mi2. Load has a power factor of
0.90 lagging, demand factor of 0.6 and diversity factor of 1.2.
there are two sites available for substations A and B as
shown in fig. K constant for main feeder is 0.0004 and for
lateral is 0.00095. If site A is selected there will be 16 laterals
and if B is selected there will be 32 laterals. Compare the
selection of the substation location by calculating voltage
drops.

99
100
For Substation A
Main feeder will be 2 mi long with uniformly distributed load
So voltage drop in the main feeder will be
%VDm = l * Km *S =( ½ *2)(0.0004)(4000) = 1.6 %
There are 16 laterals each having a length of 2 mi and load of (S/16) kVA,
uniformly distributed along the length.
So voltage drop in the lateral will be
%VDl = l * Kl *S =( ½ *2)(0.00095)(4000/16) = 0.2375 %
So total percentage voltage drop for substation A will be
%VDA = %VDm + %VDl = 1.6 + 0.2375 = 1.8375%

For Substation B
Main feeder will be 3 mi long. 1 mi has load lumped at the end and 2 mi has
load uniformly distributed along the length. So voltage drop in the main feeder
will be
%VDm = ( 1*1)(0.0004)(4000) +( ½ *2)(0.0004)(4000) = 1.6 + 1.6 = 3.2 %
There are 32 laterals each having a length of 1 mi and load of (S/16) kVA,
uniformly distributed along the length. So voltage drop in the lateral will be
%VDl = l * Kl *S =( ½ *1)(0.00095)(4000/16) = 0.11875 %
So total percentage voltage drop for substation A will be
%VDA = %VDm + %VDl = 3.2 + 0.11875 = 3.32% 101
Numerical (6): - For the figure given below find the voltage
drop to the farthest consumer. Given Km=0.01 and Kl=0.015

Main feeder
The load is (2*518)kVA lumped at the end of the feeder
So percentage voltage drop in the main feeder will be
%VDm = (1)*l*Km*S
%VDm = (1)(3200/5280)(0.01)(2*518)
%VDm = 6.475%
Lateral
The load is (518) kVA and is uniformly distributed along the
length of lateral
So percentage voltage drop in the lateral will be
%VDl = (½ )*l*Kl*S
%VDl = (½)(5760/5280)(0.015)(518)
%VDl = 4.238%
Total Voltage drop up to last consumer
%VD = %VDm + %VDl
%VD = 6.475 + 4.238
%VD = 10.71% 102
Design Considerations for Primary
and Secondary Distribution Systems
• Primary distribution feeders,
• Primary feeder voltage level and loading,
• Design considerations for Radial feeders,
• Economic design of secondary lines,
• Voltage fluctuation
• Voltage regulation,
• Distribution system voltage control & line drop
compensator.

103
Design considerations for primary system

❖ Primary system of the electric utility is between distribution

substation and distribution transformer. It is made of circuits
known as primary feeders. Primary feeders can be overhead
or underground. It can be three phase four wire or single
phase or combination of both.

❖ Major considerations for the design of a primary feeder

include reliability, flexibility and economy. It is also affected
by distribution system feeder scheme, rating of primary
feeder, voltage level of primary feeder, loading and routing of
the primary feeder, number of feeders and conductor size.

❖ Desire reliability, flexibility and economy play vital role in

overall design and also the primary scheme. Foe example a
simple radial system is most commonly used system
because of its simplicity and low cost despite having less
reliability. Improved radial system with tie – lines and
sectionalizers is used in the area, where reliability is
preferred over total cost. 104
Factors affecting rating of primary feeder

1. Nature of load connected

2. Load density of the area
3. Growth rate of the load
4. Need for spare capacity
5. Type and cost of circuit construction employed
6. Design and capacity of substation involved
7. Type of regulating equipments
8. Quality of service
9. Continuity of service

105
Loading of Primary feeder

Loading of primary feeder is defined as “the loading of feeder

during peak load conditions as measured at the substation”.
Primary feeder loading in low density areas is restricted by
voltage drop and high load density areas by thermal capacity.

Some of the factors affecting the loading of a primary feeder are

listed below
1. Load forecast (Load density, nature and growth rate)
2. Reserve capacity
3. Service continuity
4. Service reliability
5. Quality of service
6. Primary feeder voltage level
7. Type and cost of construction
8. Location and rating of distribution substation
9. Voltage regulation

106
Primary feeder routing
Primary feeder is run through the area and its routing is affected by
1. Feeder load
2. Future load growth
3. Load density
4. Physical barriers
5. Voltage drop
6. Development practices
7. Total cost

Number of feeders
Factors affecting number of feeders are
1. Load density
2. Feeder length
3. Feeder limitations
4. Voltage drop
5. Conductor size
6. Substation capacity
7. Area to be served 107
Conductor size

1. Conductor size is affected by

2. Power losses
3. Load growth rate
4. Load forecast
5. Voltage drop
6. Transformer rating
7. Conductor rating
8. Total cost

108
 Prove that doubling the feeder voltage of a specified load
causes the voltage drop in the primary circuit to be reduced
to one fourth of its previous value

Let us a consider a primary feeder of length (L mi) serving an

area (A mi 2) with a uniform load density D kVA/mi 2
Assume that
Feeder serves a load of S1 KVA
Power factor of the load is cos Ө
Voltage at the receiving end and base voltage is VL.L KV
Current of the feeder is I1 Amperes = S1 / (√3 * VL.L )
Impedance per unit length of the primary feeder is r+jX
Impedance of the feeder will be = L * (r + j X)

109
110
Types of Radial Distribution system

1. Simple Radial system

111
2. Improved radial system

Improved radial system uses tie-switches and disconnect-

switches. This improves reliability and cost. Tie-switches are
used to connect the isolated system with the other source and
are normally open. Disconnect-switches are used to disconnect
the faulty portion from the rest of the system and or normally
closed.

112
3. Radial type feeder with express feeder

An Express feeder is used to supply power upto the bulk load.

There is no taping taken out of the express feeder. Loops supply
power back to the area from where express feeder passes and are
known as back feed. Normally express feeder is of the high
conductor size and thus has low voltage drop.

113
4. Loop type primary feeder

114
Voltage Square Rule
It is given that for a specified percentage voltage drop, the
feeder loading is purely a function of feeder voltage level. It is
expressed as
Voltage Square factor = (V L.N new / V L.N old)2
For example, if the voltage is doubles for the same percentage
voltage, it can supply the same power four times the distance or
four times the power for same distance

Feeder Distance Coverage Principle

It is given as
Distance ratio * Load ratio = Voltage square rule

For Example f voltage is doubled and feeder loading is kept

constant then feeder distance will be increased by four times.

115
Area Coverage Principle

For a given percentage voltage drop, the area served by a feeder

is given by the following relation

New Area = [ | V L.N new |2 ]2/3

Old Area [ | V L.N old | ]

For example if the voltage is doubled, the area served will be

2.52 of the old area served. Normally load density is assumed to
be constant so area served also means load served.

116
Numerical (23): - A village is supplied by 11 kV radial feeder
of 3 km and has a uniformly distributed load of 1000 kVA. If
the voltage is increased to 33 kV. How much new load and
new area can be served. What will be the new length of the
feeder/

117
Design considerations of Secondary system

118
Design considerations of Secondary system
❖ Secondary system is the part of power system from distribution transformer to
consumer terminals. While designing a distribution system, future load growth
and load pattern must be considered. Most important factor in the design of
secondary system is economics. Most economical system design, which
corresponds to a load growth projection must be selected.

❖ To minimize the length of the secondary system, distribution transformers are

proposed near the load centre, which also reduces the voltage drop to the
consumers.

❖ Since only a small percentage of total faults are due to secondary systems, so
major considerations after cost becomes secondary I2R losses in the
transformer and secondary circuits, voltage drop and voltage flicker. So some
of the factors affecting design of the secondary systems are capacity of
transformer and service lines, investment costs of secondary system
components, cost of labor, capital cost and inflation rates.

❖ Distribution transformer cost is major component of secondary system cost so it

should be selected as not to have extra spare capacity and load growth is met
by replacing it with one of the larger capacity or by secondary banking.
❖ In low load density areas, single phase secondary systems and in high load
density areas, three phase secondary systems are preferred. 119
In considerations of load, its nature and reliability considerations,
secondary system can be one of the following

1. The separate service system for each consumer with separate

distribution transformer and secondary connection. It is seldom
used and serves industrial or rural consumers
2. Radial system with a common secondary main, which is supplied by
one distribution transformer and feeding a group of consumers.
3. The secondary bank system with a common secondary main that is
supplied by several distribution transformers, which are all fed from
the same primary feeder.
4. The secondary network system with a common grid type main that
is supplied by a large number of distribution transformers, which
may be connected to various primary feeders for their supplies.

To summarize design of secondary system is affected mainly by I2R

losses in transformer and secondary lines, voltage dip, voltage flicker
and economics. I2R losses can be reduced by increasing voltage level
and reducing length of secondary systems. Voltage drop can be
overcome by using a conductor of larger size. Voltage flicker can be
reduced by grouping various loads. Therefore economics becomes only
consideration for design of secondary system. 120
 Difference Between Primary Selective And Secondary
Selective Distribution System
Primary Selective System Secondary selective System
Each unit substation is supplied by Each unit substation is supplied by only one
two primary feeders on primary side primary feeder.
Secondary circuits on the secondary Secondary circuits on both the transformers are
sides of transformer operate connected by a normally open switch
independently
In case of a fault on one feeder In case of a fault on one feeder, switching can
switching can be done on alternate be done on other transformer with secondary
supply on primary normally open
Switching takes time and load is Switching takes very little or no time so there is
interrupted for that time less or no interruption of load
More expensive Less Expensive
In case of a transformer fault, load on In case of a transformer fault. Load on its
its circuits remains interrupted circuits can be supplied by other transformer
In case of switching, entire load can In case of switching entire load of transformer
be served by both transformers can not be served and load equal to the capacity
of healthy feeder transformer can be served.
121
Figure. Simplified distribution system planning technique 122
Economic Design of Secondary System / TAC

Total annual cost (TAC) of secondary system is annual cost of

owing and operating the secondary system. While relating TAC,
voltage drop and voltage dip are considered.

Figure above shows the layout and one particular pattern having one
123
span of secondary lines on both sides of distribution transformer.
Following are the notations commonly used
ST = Transformer capacity (kVA)
Isec = Per unit existing current based on ST (Ampere)
PT Fe = Transformer core losses at rated voltage and frequency
PT cu = Transformer copper losses at rated kVA
ASL = Area of the conductor of service line
ρSL = R4esistivity of conductor of service line
ASD = Size of the conductor for service line
ρSD = R4esistivity of conductor of service drop

TAC is summation of different fixed and variable costs. It is given

as
TAC = ∑ICT +∑ICSL +∑ICSD +∑ICPH +∑OCexc +∑OCT. Fe +∑OCT. cu
+∑OCSL. cu +∑OCSD cu

Following is the explanation of terms involved in TAC equation

∑ICT is annual installed cost of distribution transformer and associated
protective equipments.
ICT = A +B * ST $/transformer = 250 + 7.26 * ST $/transformer
124
∑ICSL is annual installed cost of service line
ICSL = (A +B * ASL ) i $/1000 ft = (60 + 4.5 * ASL ) i $/1000 ft
Where ( i ) is per unit fixed charge rate on investment.
It must be noted that cost is for 1000 ft of cable i.e. 3000 ft of conductor

∑ICSD is annual installed cost of service drop

ICSL = (A +B * ASD ) i $/1000 ft = (60 + 4.5 * ASD ) i $/1000 ft
Where ( i ) is per unit fixed charge rate on investment.
It must be noted that cost is for 1000 ft of cable i.e. 3000 ft of conductor

∑ICPH is annual installed cost of poles and hardware excluding

transformer and its protective equipments
ICSL = A i $/#/pole = 160 i $/#/pole

∑OCexc is annual operating cost of transformer excitation current

OCexc = Iexc * ST * ICcap* i $ / transformer
Where Iexc is average value of transformer excitation current based on
rated kVA
ICcap = total installed cost of shunt capacitor $ / KVAR
125
∑OCT.Fe is annual operating cost of transformer due to core losses
∑OCT.Fe = (ICsys* i + 8760 * ECoff) PT Fe $ / transformer
where ICsys*I is average operation cost of power system operation towards generators from
distribution transformers to meet the losses.
ECoff is incremental cost of electrical energy (Off peak) $ 0.008 / kWh
PT Fe are annual transformer core losses 0.004 * ST 15 kVA< ST < 100 kVA
∑OCT.Cu is annual operating cost of transformer due to copper losses
∑OCT.Cu = (ICsys* i + 8760 * ECon * FLS) PT Cu $ / transformer
where ECon = s incremental cost of electrical energy on peak $ 0.1 / kWh
PT Cu = Transformer copper losses at rated kVA 0.073 * ST 15 kVA< ST < 100 kVA
FLS = Annual loss factor
∑OCSL.Cu is annual operating cost of copper losses in a unit length of service line
∑OCSL.Cu = (ICsys* i + 8760 * ECon * FLS) PSL Cu $ / 1000 ft
where PSL Cu is power loss in unit length of service line at the time of annual peak due to
copper losses
∑OCSD.Cu is annual operating cost of copper losses in a unit length of service drop
∑OCSD Cu = (ICsys* i + 8760 * ECon * FLS) PSD Cu $ / 1000 ft
where PSD Cu is power loss in unit length of service drop
at the time of annual peak due to copper losses

126
How TAC can be allocated on per customer basis
TAC can be allocated on per customer basis by dividing total TAC
by number of consumers served by the particular secondary
system.

What affects the numerical values in TAC

Data in the TAC equation is affected by area, country, inflation
and interests etc.

How TAC can be minimized on the transformer rating ST,

cross sectional area of service line and service drop
From equation of TAC it can be seen that it is function of
transformer capacity ST, area of service line ASL and area of
service drop ASD. i.e. TAC = ƒ (ST ,ASL ,ASD)
Taking partial derivatives of TAC with respect to ST, ASL and ASD
and equating to zero gives minimized TAC for that particular
variable.
∂ (TAC)/∂ST =0 for transformer rating,
∂ (TAC)/∂ASL =0 for size of service line
∂ (TAC)/∂ASD=0 for size of service drop 127
Restructuring of Electrical sector

❖ Many countries around the world are in the process of

restructuring their electricity sectors. It is part of de regulation.
De regulation is a philosophy that every thing should be market
oriented with out the monopoly of anyone. So for electricity
main idea is to make electricity a commodity that can be traded
like rice or computers, thereby generating profits for the
investors. Increased trade was supposed to result in lower
prices because of improved efficiency and competition. In
practice this idea meant unbundling state oriented integral
electric utilities and allowing different players, including private
ones, to control generation of electricity, its transmission and
distribution.

128
❖ In the US, such structuring has had several effects. One that
is relevant to the August 14 blackout is that vast amount of
electricity now flow through the grid through great distances.
For example, large industrial costumers in the Eastern US
routinely shop for power in Midwest. Since the system was not
originally designed to deal with such these volumes, the grid
has been under stress. Investment on transmission has only
been a fraction of what is needed. Another effect has been
that in order to maximize profits, utilities have cut their
expenses by working with low power margins capacities. The
introduction of multiple players means that for a stable and
reliable electric grid, different power generators, transmitters
and users have to follow very strict rules. But given the anti-
regulatory sentiment that accompanies the new-liberal
economic ideology that underlies restructuring, it should not
be surprising that the agencies or institutions that could set
and enforce rules are relatively weak.

129
❖ All of these changes resulting from deregulation have led to
greater un-reliability of the grid. North American has seen a
number of grid collapses in recent years, including the one in
august 14,2003.The event illustrates how complex ,tightly
coupled systems, like the electric grid are prone to accidents.
Small failures can quickly cascade. On 14th august there
were 10,000 individual events across 34000 square miles of
transmission lines and 290 transmission units that all took
place over a 9 second period leading to the blackouts. Alarm
system at First energy corporation, the utility that owned the
transmission lines, whose failure triggered the black out, did
not properly notify the utility, of the failure of one of the major
transmission line. Malfunctioning of computers at First Energy
prevented its technicians from understanding the cause of
failing transmission lines.

130
❖ Restructuring of electrical sector has taken place in broader context
with markets and private capitals being entrusted with various
functions that were formerly under control preview of Governments.
Under this philosophy, the notion that people were entitled to cheap
and reliable electricity supply came under attack. Hence in the
current restructuring scheme, availability to poor or other wise
disadvantageous customer has not been given high priority. Similarly
environmental considerations also take a second consideration to
profit. Thus other considerations in electricity sector restructuring
may affect a large number of people especially in the long term. So
for the matters have largely been articulated by NGOs, such as
Paryas in Pune, India, International energy initiative and the world
resources institute. This has to change. For these consideration to
play a vital role public must intervene and shape restructuring
process. People around the world have paid a heavy price by letting
Government bureaucracies and politicians operate the electricity
sector as they saw fit. Market is no more to be treated to protect the
public good.
❖ One elliptical intersense from August 14 blackout is the excessive
reliance on such complex systems is dangerous. In the case of
blackout the consequences were grave but this sort of massive in
case of nuclear weapon command and control system could load to
131
catastrophic.
Reliability Issue

❖ Even without restructuring, it was getting difficult ot maintain

reliability
❖ Restructuring of industry has threatened to dismantle the
basic for planning and operation of a reliable power network
and created a host of new problems that must be dealt with
reliability.
❖ Complicating factors are that even with significant increase in
demand very little investment is being done in transmission.
❖ Different users demand different levels of reliability and
willing to pay only for that
❖ New players whose interests and responsibility need
defining in relation to system planning
❖ Dispersion of ownership, authority and reliance on market
forces may need new rules of the road to maintain reliability

132
How Restructuring affects the Reliability

❖ Diffusion of responsibility
❖ Disjoined responsibility and authority
❖ Diffused decision making
❖ Unbundling of services
❖ Unrelated cost and benefits
❖ Tragedy of common

In the new utility environment, different segments of industry will

have to meet both diversified requirements of a competitive
market place and main power reliability and power quality. The
new situation requires a higher view of the power system
reliability. This higher view needs clear definition of separable
responsibilities of various players and new rules of the road. In
addition since elements of the system are to be planned and
operated by a diversity of players but still must function as one
large Integrated system, a new system of control and protocol
and framework is required.
133
 VOLTAGE LEVELS FOR POWER SYSTEM OF PAKISTAN

Primary Transmission System Voltages are 500kV & 220kV (EHV Voltages)

Secondary Transmission System Voltages are 132kV & 66kV (H.V Voltages)

Distribution System Voltages are 33kV & 11kV (HV Voltages)

Utilization System Voltages are 415 Volts (3-Phase) & 230 Volts (1-Phase)

NEPRA VOLTAGE STANDARD

Normal Condition N-I Condition

Voltage Level
Maximum Minimum Maximum Minimum

500kv 540 475 550 450

220kv 238 209 245 198

132kv 143 125 145 119

134
 POWER SYSTEM CAPABILITY
NAME OF POWER INSTALLED CAPABILITY
PLANT CAPACITY
HYDEL'S
Total Hydel 6516 5554
GENCO's
GENCO - I
Total GENCO - I 1024 840
GENCO - II
Total GENCO - II 2437 1927
GENCO - III
Total GENCO -III 1961 1530
GENCO - IV
Total GENCO - IV 150 30
IPP's
TOTAL THERMAL 9699 8917
IPP'S
TOTAL SOLAR 100 100
WIND IPP'S
TOTAL WIND 306 306
TOTAL SYSTEM 22193 19204

135
 DISCO's :- LOAD DEMAND & SUPPLY (JAN - 2016)
Name of Company DEMAND ALLOCATED DRAWN
(MW) (MW) (MW)

HESCO 519 370 369

SEPCO 560 369 313
MEPCO 1671 1214 1189
QESCO 1236 766 444
GEPCO 1035 717 802
IESCO 1140 812 883
LESCO 2401 1826 1870
FESCO 1484 950 1040
PESCO 2031 977 1485
TESCO 382 230 88
136
 DISTRIBUTION
TRANSFORMERS

137
 TYPES OF DISTRIBUTION TRANSFORMERS

Transformers used in distribution system

➢ Power Transformers
➢ Autotransformers
➢ Distribution Transformers
➢ Instrument Transformers

138
Power Transformers
They are normally oil immersed used for substations and connection to
large commercial and industrial customers. Smaller power transformers
may be dry types used primarily for commercial customers.

➢A smaller distribution substation may have power transformer rated

1000kVA, and a large may have a 30,000kVA. Power transformers are
made with capacities to over 1000MVA.

➢Power transformers are designed for very high efficiency, and are
routinely maintained.

➢Power transformers are well protected both for safety and economy.

➢Almost all larger power transformers are 3 – phase.

139
EPDU/NNS/DIST TRAN/LUCES M. WLATER COFFER 140
Autotransformers
They are one winding transformers, often used in transmission and sub
transmission substations. figure “a”

Note:
Primary & secondary sides are not
isolated from each other. That means
primary and secondary neutral is
common.

➢ If by any reason it becomes open,

the full primary voltage could appear
on the secondary side, as shown in
figure b. results could be disastrous.

141
3 – phase Autotransformer

142

EPDU/NNS/DIST TRAN/LUCES M. WLATER COFFER

 143
EPDU/NNS/DIST
TRAN/LUCES M.
 DISTRIBUTION TRANSFORMERS
Distribution transformers are used to provide the final link with the
customer. Primary voltage is between 33kV to 11kV, usually 3 – phase
depending on the customer size, and secondary is normally 480Y/277V,
400Y/230V, 208Y/120V three – phase or 240/120V single – phase.
Very large commercial and industrial customers may be fed 11kV or
even higher voltages, and have a distribution substation of their own on
their property.
Distribution transformers may be dry type, these are usually used in
moderate to small commercial installations where cost is the primary
consideration.
The most familiar distribution transformer is the pole top, (PMT) shown in
figure.
They are protected with a minimum of a primary fuse, and a lightning
arrester at or near the transformer primary.
Difference between Distribution and Power
Transformers
Distribution and power transformers do not differ a lot in the construction but
they differ in the design considerations.
Distribution transformers are small in size as compared to the power
transformers.
Distribution transformers remain in operation for 24 hours but power
transformers remain in operation when required.
Distribution transformers operate at variety of loads i.e. fractions of rated load
normally less than or close to 50% of rated capacity whereas power
transformers operate near to rated capacity.
Major consideration in design of Distribution transformer is voltage drop and
voltage regulation whereas in design of power transformers major
consideration is resistive power losses.
Distribution transformers are designed to have low iron losses whereas power
transformers are designed to have low copper losses.
Distribution transformers are designed to have low reactance whereas power
transformers are designed to have low resistance.
 Define Voltage Regulation. Explain why distribution
transformer must have a good voltage regulation?
It is defined as change in secondary voltage, when load at a given power factor is
reduced to zero when primary applied voltage is held constant.
The change in the secondary terminal voltage with load current is due to primary
and secondary leakage impedance of the transformer.
Magnitude of this change depends upon
1. Load current
2. Load power factor
3. Total resistance of the transformer.
4. Total reactance of the transformer.
A distribution transformer should have a good voltage regulation i.e. low value of
voltage regulation so that the terminal voltage at the consumers’ premises does not
vary widely as the load changes. For a transformer of poor voltage regulation, the
voltage at consumers’ premises will fall appreciably with the increase in the load.
This has a drastic effect on consumer appliances.
 Transformer Selection (Residential)
Estimating residential transformer capacity is not simply adding the individual
residence loads.
▪ Large houses doesn't means more electric appliance than smaller houses.
▪ It would be very rare for a house to have all of its electric appliances ON at
once and even rare for several houses to have most of their electric
appliances ON at once.
▪ Diversity of residential loads is great, so estimation of residential loads needs
many historical studies that compile actual usage for residences for various
types over a long period. These studies are updated from time to time.
▪ Most electric utilities use their own data to establish their own residential load
estimates.
▪ Many companies consider average residential load to be 25kVA
Making the loading chart (for all installations, not only residential) for the
transformer capacity is its overload capacity.
Nameplate rating shows the power (kVA), the transformer can carry continuously
without overheating.
Oil filled distribution transformers can withstand considerable short time
overloading without materially reducing their reliability or lifetime.
▪ A transformer can carry 300% of its normal rating for short while without
damage, and 150% of its rating for several hours without overheating.
▪ Thus the load from the rate occasions that everyone turns on all of their
electric appliances can be handled by the transformer overload capability.
If a house has a total electric load of 25kVA it can be served with a transformer
smaller than 25kVA because of load diversity. A 15kVA transformer will be
normally adequate but 20kVA would be better.
Table shows residential transformer capacities for normal 25kVA connected load
per residence.
 Residential Transformer Capacities For
Normal 25kVA Connected Load Per
Residence.
No of houses served Capacity required for Transformer normally used
by T/F given connected load
% Transformer capacity
of load
50% 60%
1 12.5kVA 15kVA kVA is the smallest distribution
transformer built. Many utilities
companies use nothing smaller than
25kVA

2 25kVA 30kVA A 37.5kVA X- former is an acceptable

choice.

4 50kVA 60kVA A 50kVA X – former is an acceptable

choice because of the diversity of 4
houses.

6 75kVA 90kVA 75kVA is acceptable because of load

diversity.

8 100kVA 120kVA 100kVA is acceptable because of load

diversity. 87.5kVA would be acceptable
for the same reason if that size is
available.
Thanks

151