Front Psychol. 2022 Feb 8;13:841204. doi: 10.3389/fpsyg.2022.

841204

Exploring the Impact of Music Education on the

Psychological and Academic Outcomes of Students:
Mediating Role of Self-Efficacy and Self-Esteem

Jian Sun 1,*

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PMCID: PMC8863131 PMID: 35211068

Abstract

In recent years, there has been a growing interest in scholars and practitioners to
explore the factors that lead to an improvement in Students’ psychological
wellbeing. Due to the tough challenges faced by students during their academic
life, severe issues of stress, anxiety, and other mental health issues emerge,
which affect their academic performance and have a long-lasting impact on their
future careers. The pandemic accelerates the stress levels, anxiety, and mental
issues of students. The main purpose of this study was to explore how music
education impacts on Students’ psychological wellbeing and academic
performance. This study also investigates the mediating effect of self-esteem
and self-efficacy. To the best of our knowledge, there has been little to no study
exploring the relationship of music education on the psychological wellbeing
and performance of students, especially from the perspective of Asian countries.
This study was conducted in undergraduate and graduate institutions of China.
This study was quantitative in nature and data were collected from 319
respondents. The structural equation modeling (SEM) technique was employed
for data analysis. Results reveal that music education has a significant positive
impact on psychological wellbeing, which improves Students’ academic
performance. Moreover, psychological wellbeing also has a significant and
positive impact on Students’ academic performance. Self-efficacy and
self-esteem significantly mediate the relationship between music education and
psychological wellbeing. The findings of this study open new avenues for future
research in music education and psychological wellbeing. This study suggests
that the policymakers and practitioners should make such policies that
encourage educational institutes to adopt music education to improve the
psychological wellbeing of students.

Keywords: psychological wellbeing, self-cognition theory, self-determination

theory, music education, self-esteem, self-efficacy, pandemic
Introduction

A huge amount of scientific research shows that the pandemic and its associated
illness has a significant influence on the behavoir and mental health of
individuals (Loades et al., 2020; Luo et al., 2020), with only a few studies
indicating contrary (Gijzen et al., 2020). Even during the month of April 2020,
when most people were on lockdown due to the pandemic, mental health
hotlines in the United States saw 100-fold increases. Many healthcare centers
have reported more casualties from suicide, likely due to severe psychological
problems, than from the novel coronavirus. Several persons who in the past
were not into wellbeing, now have more chance of getting into trouble during
the pandemic regarding their health concerns due to the inability of generating
more economic means. The pandemic has an influence on a wide range of
people, but because of the uncertainty surrounding academic progress, social
life, and employment, college students are among the most severely impacted
(Kim et al., 2020). Students all over the world were experiencing rising feelings
of anxiety, negative moods, low self-esteem, psychological symptoms, drug
addiction, and suicidal behaviors even before the epidemic (Huo et al., 2020;
Nawaz et al., 2020a; Wu et al., 2020).

Consequently, students now require more resources and help to deal with the
health-related adversities due to COVID-19. Students would be well-treated
during this pandemic if the officials associated with the health of university
students have pre-defined measures for coping with the negative impacts of the
pandemic on psychological factors. These consequences provide enough insight
about appropriate and necessary measures to be taken for addressing the health
issues of students (Hunt and Eisenberg, 2010). College students have
traditionally underused psychiatric and counseling services. Recognizing which
sub-populations may be affected by certain mixtures of psychological effects
can help with specific therapies, effective treatment, and coping methods for
those who are most at risk. To combat the possibility of illness spreading, the
government has taken a number of steps. Isolation and loneliness, travel
limitations, gathering restrictions, travel quarantine, trading closures, working
from home, self-isolation, lockdowns, curfews, and university closures are all
examples of these methods (Hao et al., 2020; Nawaz et al., 2020b; Sattar et al.,
2020). Governments in a range of countries have imposed a lockdown or curfew
as a precaution against the rapid spread of the virus (Abdullah et al., 2020;
Paital et al., 2020; Boonroungrut et al., 2022). Such policies have an adverse
impact on business, schooling, healthcare, and entertainment across the globe.

Many institutions worldwide have delayed or canceled all campus events to

reduce crowding and thereby viral spread. On the other hand, these policies
have greater economic, medical, and social consequences for both postgraduate
and undergrad communities. Owing to the cessation of classroom training at
several colleges and institutions, undergraduate and graduate students can now
benefit from online instruction (Iyer et al., 2020; Sahu, 2020; Yamin, 2020).
This kind of instruction offers an option to minimize either student-to-student
interaction or student-to-lecturer contact. Unfortunately, many students are
unable to access online education owing to a lack of resources or equipment as a
result of the economic and digital gap. COVID-19 has been linked to
educational studies in a few papers (Kanneganti et al., 2020; Mian and Khan,
2020; Sandhu and de Wolf, 2020). Graduate practitioners, dental medical
students, and radiological trainees are all affected by COVID-19 (Alvin et al.,
2020).

This study aims to establish a strong relationship between music education and
analyzing the impact of music education on Students’ wellbeing and academic
performance in universities. The primary goal of good education is to develop
social thinkers who think creatively. While stimulating learners’ vision and
imagination, music education may enhance Students’ passions, sentiments, and
other non-intellectual variables, fulfilling the goal of nurturing Students’
inventive identities. As a result, music instruction at colleges and universities is
an effective way to help students overcome “poorly functioning” personalities
(Arora and Singh, 2020). Students may develop their innovative identities and
feel a feeling of self and self-efficacy via music instruction, allowing them to
transcend personality flaws caused by the many negative elements in today’s
cultural milieu. When it comes to efforts to improve music instruction in
universities and colleges (Chen et al., 2019a).
Researchers believe that education about music at educational institutes could
develop creative thinking in students. Such education could be initiated by
theorizing the impact of music on regulating the function of psychology for the
wellbeing of the students. This could be combined with actual teaching methods
to identify a way forward for the improvement of the mental health of students
through mixed-method teaching. Students at the post-matriculation level could
be advised to actively participate in such music education activities to develop a
mastery of music. This would aid in developing open-mindedness in students of
this level and inter-communication skills regarding learning would also be
improved. It will develop a culture of understanding others at a social level and
their sense of self-control would also improve. It would also help them in
reducing anxiety and lead to psychological wellbeing, ultimately leading to
sound health (Ling et al., 2020).

Generally, it is assumed that teaching music is not only a way of learning an art,
but also has a significant role in psychological regulation and treatment; thus,
education in music will lead to a specific role in treating the disease at
educational institutes because the most important goal is to cultivate students
independent personalities. Some music instructors frequently utilize their
prowess to intimidate pupils and swamp them with information. Contextual
motives now account for a considerable portion of learning outcomes (Bagozzi
and Yi, 1988; Hair et al., 2014). The students at this level would consider this
challenging for keeping a pace in learning in this discipline if outside motives
are removed. Colleges and universities must begin with Students’ actual mental
wellbeing and provide colorful music teaching activities, which have been
extensively used in the practice of college Students’ mental health work, and the
role of psychological regulation function (Zupan and Gadpaille, 2020). It can
specifically assist children in improving their psychological health by
establishing music education rooms using teaching tools at school level.

This may assist students in realizing the importance of the positive mental
ability to develop learning skills by offering appropriate music psychological
optional courses centered on topics that are relevant to their learning and lives.
It can assist students in forming positive circles of friends and enhancing
emotional interactions amongst them (Le Prell et al., 2018). Furthermore, we
may use Internet resources to undertake digital psychological counseling
exercises, assist students by recommending additional attractive and
motivational music compositions, and teach a certain basic understanding of
music education, such that learners enjoy getting psychological enjoyment from
melody. Simultaneously, the institute’s psychological aspects, utilizing music as
a carrier, strengthening communication between students through games,
performances, and other means, establishing a decent vibe of assisting
individuals, cooperation, and love, in such a delicate way to monitor Students’
self-conscious study stress, help each other avoid depression, and promote a
healthy psychological condition (Chen et al., 2019b; Wang et al., 2019). The
impact of music education on the wellbeing, psychological, and academic
outcomes of the students could be mediated by the well-known concepts of
self-esteem and self-efficacy. Self-efficacy is an the confidence of an individual
in managing their environment, which determines how they act, perceive, and
think about coming occurrences. Self-esteem is a person’s overall positive or
negative assessment of their own value. Self-esteem has been linked to
happiness, fulfillment, good stress management, and coping with difficult
situations (Bandura, 1977; Yıldırım et al., 2017). In the context of our study,
both self-esteem and self-efficacy could yield significant results in terms of
helping the model and mediating the relationship of music education with
Students’ wellbeing and the academic outcomes in the era of the pandemic. Our
study mainly focuses on the above-developed relationships in Students’
performance and their wellbeing. This study was based on certain objectives as
follows: (1) To assess the relationship of musical education with the
psychological wellbeing of the students and academic performance. (2) To
evaluate self-esteem as a mediator between wellbeing and the academic
performance of students. (3) To evaluate the mediating role of Students’
self-efficacy between music education and psychological wellbeing and
academic outcomes during the pandemic.

The study has been structured thus: the first section explains the introduction
and supporting literature, while the second section supports the hypothesis
development and study model. Research methodology and data analysis have
been written up in the third section. The fourth section contains the discussion
and concluding remarks.
Review of Literature and Hypotheses Development

This research study revolves around the impact of music education on the
psychological wellbeing of students along with their academic outcomes.
Self-esteem and self-efficacy play a mediating role in the relationship of these.
These are supported by the following theories.

Social Cognitive Theory

This theory helps in describing the functionality of humans with an emphasis on

processes of an interactive nature. The cognitive activities are assigned a special
role by the theory through which individuals could obtain a handful of insight
from their surroundings. Individuals could give a reflection of the theory along
with mixing of own behaviors and the ideas. This could also regulate the
processes of own self-efficacy. The objective behind connecting this theory with
music education was to investigate the significance of developments for
developing acceptable learning and teaching practices for advanced students. It
is critical to have a good theoretical foundation for understanding how learning
happens when planning curricula and instructional services for children with
outstanding academic ability. To explain human functioning, social cognitive
theory stresses a dynamic interactive process between environmental,
behavioral, and personal components. This understanding of human connections
and functioning became characterized as a set of triadic reciprocal causation
(Avotra et al., 2021a). The theory assigns a major role to cognitive processes in
which a person may watch others and the environment, reflect on it in
conjunction with their own ideas and behaviors, and adjust their own
self-regulatory functions as a result. When looking at learning interventions for
that demographic, a learning model that stresses the primary role of cognition
appears reasonable. Human agency and perceived self-efficacy are components
of the social cognitive paradigm that influences cognitive growth and
performance. So, a link could be developed in light of this theory toward the
role of music education in developing certain cognitive factors in students for
psychological wellbeing.

Self-Esteem Theory

Self-esteem is still one of the most widely studied topics in social psychology.
Self-esteem is often thought of as a component of one’s self-concept (Harder,
1994), although it is one of the most significant aspects of one’s self-concept for
certain people. Indeed, self-esteem looked to be interchangeable with
self-concept in the literature on the self for a time. The link of strong
self-esteem with a range of favorable outcomes for individuals and communities
as a whole has prompted this attention on self-esteem. Furthermore, there is a
general view that boosting one’s self-esteem (particularly that of a child or
teenager) is advantageous to both the individual and society (Cast and Burke,
2002). Self-esteem can relate to a person’s total self or specific components of
their self, such as how they feel about their social status, ethnic or racial group,
physical characteristics, physical prowess, and work or school achievement.
Theorists have indeed classified various kinds of self-esteem as contingent vs.
non-contingent; visible vs. tacit; genuine vs. fake; steady vs. volatile; worldwide
vs. sector-specific. In terms of the complexity of self-esteem, many writers see
it as a single, worldwide characteristic, while some others see it as a
heterogeneous feature with distinct constituent parts such as the interpersonal,
cognitive, and actual self. Differentiation has been made between a false sense
of self-worth and a genuine sense of self-worth. Self-esteem which is dependent
on meeting certain criteria of achievement or staying true to certain relational or
psychological aspirations is referred to as contingent self-esteem (Deci and
Ryan, 1995). This is a form of self-aggrandizement related to being
ego-involved in certain objectives and obtaining them diligently. This is
frequently related to social comparison and is typically associated with
narcissism. From the other part, true self-esteem is much more consistent and is
founded on a stable and resilient sense of self. Their value would be represented
in action, proactive behavior, and vibrancy as an integral component of their
self. When it comes to assessing self-esteem, many writers differentiate among
explicit and implicit self-esteem, although that is the reflectively unrecognized
influence of self-attitude on the judgment of nature vs. self-dissociated objects.
In this connection of the theory, self-esteem was identified as a mediator
between the relationship of music education and academic outcomes.

Self-Determination Theory

Self-determination is a key concept in psychology that relates to a person’s

ability to make decisions and govern their own lives. This skill is crucial to
one’s mental stability and wellbeing. Individuals who have self-determination
believe they have self-control in life. This also affects motivation since
individuals are much more driven to act if they believe their actions will have an
impact on the result. Self-determination was used in a variety of fields, notably
education and health care. According to research, having a high level of
self-determination can help one succeed in a variety of areas. According to this
theory, people can become self-determined when their demands for competency,
connectedness, and independence are met. The concept of self-determination
emerged from the research of scientists (Deci and Ryan, 1995), who published
their views in the book “Self-Determination and Intrinsic Motivation in Human
Behavior.”
They established a motivational theory that argued that individuals are
motivated by a desire to learn and improve. Self-determination theory is a
meta-theory of motivation and personal development, including psychological
wellbeing, that is scientifically grounded (Ryan and Deci, 2000). According to
the idea, all humans are born with a strong sense of curiosity and a desire to
learn, and that certain contextual conditions may either promote or inhibit a
person’s feeling of wellbeing, self-regulation, and intrinsic drive to learn.
Belonging, competence, and autonomy are three intrinsic and basic
psychological demands identified by the theory. Based on this theory, a study
related to music participation was conducted by Krause et al. (2019). All these
theories provided a strong ground for the mediators used in this study for the
Students’ psychological wellbeing and academic outcomes.

Music Education Relationship With Psychological Wellbeing,

Self-Esteem, and Self-Efficacy

A few studies have been conducted in the past to look into the impact of music
education on Students’ psychological wellbeing from different perspectives
(e.g., Croom, 2014; Demirbatır, 2015; Erginsoy Osmanoğlu and Yilmaz, 2019;
Krause et al., 2019; Mehraban, 2020). Through stimulating Students’
imagination and association, music education may enhance Students’ interests,
emotions, and other non-intellectual variables, fulfilling the goal of nurturing
Students’ inventive personalities. As a result, music instruction at colleges and
universities is an effective way to help students overcome their “dysfunctional”
personalities. Students may regulate their own identities for developing a feeling
of self-efficacy via music instruction, allowing them to overcome the numerous
personality flaws caused by the many negative forces in today’s cultural context
(Arora and Singh, 2020). The significance of music education for treating
illness could be effectively performed in educational institutes since it is
understood that educating music is a way of tutoring art and has significance in
psychological regulation and treatment. Music education’s personal
development benefits have gotten less emphasis. Yet, other research continues
to link music training to the development of psychological advantages, such as
self-efficacy.

Another study of middle school and high school band, choruses, and orchestral
Students’ self-efficacy was undertaken by several researchers. The findings
revealed a small positive association between musical ability and self-efficacy.
Self-efficacy is higher among students who have a higher level of musical
talent. While this research shows a link between music ability and self-efficacy,
it does not examine the influence of tutoring music on children lacking this
ability by contrast (Zelenak, 2015). The benefits of individual music instruction
on pupils’ self-esteem have been proven in studies. Despite the fact that all
students have identical motor skills, musical ability, and cognitive abilities,
there is concrete evidence that children receiving paid piano lessons have a
considerable advantage in developing self-esteem compared to counterparts
unable to get tutoring on music education (Costa-Giomi, 2004). Researchers
back up this assertion by stating that an active passion for music is statistically
significant in predicting self-esteem in children who have paid music tutoring
(Wu and Lu, 2021). Research into the influence of school-based music
programs on personal development has also been undertaken.

The study focused on a music program that offered general music sessions to
primary school children during the school day. The control group received no
musical education and suffered a drop in self-esteem. The ones who were
enrolled for music learning did not experience a drop in self-esteem. The hand
drumming music program in Australia was shown to result in self-esteem being
boosted by a substantial amount along with reducing problems associated with
behaviors in the children who recently completed their training (Faulkner et al.,
2010; Rickard et al., 2013). When researchers looked at high school students
reporting specific personal reasons for participating in music-related
co-curricular activities, they discovered that they cited sentiments of good
self-esteem and self-efficacy. Furthermore, researchers discovered that
drumming participants in Africa thought of themselves as serving the cause of
music. They felt like it was a great thing to be a part of and it boosted their
ability in having the satisfaction of self-efficacy in concluding the lengthy
research on learners (Barbre, 2013). All these supportive papers suggested
relationships between music education and the psychological wellbeing of
students, along with the self-esteem and self-efficacy of the students, so we
propose the following:

​ H1. There is a relationship between Music education and psychological

wellbeing.
​ H2. There is a relationship between Music education and self-esteem.
​ H3. There is a relationship between Music education and self-efficacy.

Role of Self-Esteem on the Wellbeing of Students

Psychologically

According to the research on self-esteem, there is a substantial relationship

between self-esteem and psychological wellbeing. However, this relationship
differs depending on the sort of self-esteem being studied. Self-esteem, for
example, has been shown to play a beneficial influence in boosting
psychological wellbeing in a broad body of research. Furthermore, culture has
indeed been found to influence the causal relations between self-esteem and
happiness. In individualistic civilizations, self-esteem was shown to be more
strongly linked to life satisfaction than in collectivist societies. Individuals from
individualistic cultures may value their distinctive qualities and personal
characteristics, making self-esteem a more important factor. Individuals in
collectivist societies, on the other hand, may place a higher emphasis on
relational and communal elements of the self. In collectivist societies it is
critical to understand which types of self-esteem are favorable to psychological
wellbeing (Diener and Diener, 2009; Sowislo and Orth, 2013).

Some researchers studied the relationship between self-esteem and

psychological wellbeing by expanding self-esteem studies beyond the individual
to the social level. As per the social identity theory, the collective is an
important element of the self, and hence assessing the collective self may help
people feel better about themselves. Indeed, they discovered that self-esteem
was significantly linked with wellbeing in many white, Black, and Asian
students in the United States. Even so, once individual self was taken into
account, the relationship between collective self-esteem and wellbeing became
non-significant for white students, small for Black students, and moderate too
strong for Asian students. This shows that culture may have a significant impact
on the importance of various sorts of self-esteem (Crocker et al., 1994). Many
studies, such as Singhal and Prakash (2021), indicated a significant relationship
among the wellbeing of students and self-esteem. Numerous of studies also
pointed out the mediating role of self-esteem from different perspectives and
found a significant contribution of self-esteem as a mediator (Hesari and Hejazi,
2011; Bajaj et al., 2016). These studies suggested the role of self-esteem as
mediator in music education and psychological wellbeing in the context of our
study, so we developed the following hypotheses.

​ H4. There is a relationship between self-esteem and psychological

wellbeing.
​ H7. Self-esteem mediates between music education and psychological
wellbeing.

Role of Self-Efficacy and Psychological Wellbeing

People who have a high level of self-efficacy have a can-do attitude, which
helps them to perceive obstacles as issues to solve problems rather than avoid
them. They also create appropriately challenging objectives for themselves and
stick to them with tenacity. Because they are extremely engaged, people with
high self–efficacy love life. When they are confronted with difficult events,
their confidence in their capacity to control the situation to their advantage leads
them to be self-assured. Greater wellbeing, stress control, greater self-esteem,
improved physical state, and better illness adaptation and survival are linked to
high self-efficacy. On the other hand, poor self-efficacy seems linked to
increased symptoms of anxiety and depression, along with decreased rates of
psychological wellbeing (Bandura et al., 2003). A lot of studies such as Siddiqui
(2015) indicated a significant positive correlation between self-efficacy and the
psychological wellbeing and suggested analyzing the relationship in our context
of the study. Several researchers concluded the mediation of self-efficacy in
various situations in which self-efficacy plays a mediating role between
different variables and contexts (Zhao et al., 2005; Molero et al., 2018;
Sabouripour et al., 2021). These studies found a positive strong mediation of
self-efficacy and helped us in developing the following hypotheses of this study:

​ H5. There is a relationship between self-efficacy and psychological

wellbeing.
​ H6. Self-efficacy mediates between music education and psychological
wellbeing.

Relationship Between Psychological Wellbeing and the

Academic Performance
This interesting connection between academic outcomes and Students’
psychological wellbeing had been studied many times in the past and found
significant results (Bhat and Siddiqui, 2015; Alkhatib, 2020; Amholt et al.,
2020; Gökalp, 2020; Chaudhry and Ikram, 2021). Psychological suffering has
been identified as a serious and pressing concern among university students
across the world. According to a study done in the United States, psychology is
responsible for five of the top six health-related issues. High psychological
distress and low psychological wellbeing are two classifications that may be
used to describe university students who are suffering from a high level of
mental illness. According to a study conducted by experts, university students in
Australia discovered that high levels of psychological wellbeing were associated
with reduced levels of depression. However, a lack of psychological wellbeing
leads to an increase in despair. A scale to evaluate psychological wellbeing and
psychological discomfort was used to evaluate the wellbeing of students. The
link between discomfort and psychological wellbeing is presented in the
research (Bhullar et al., 2014; Roslan et al., 2017; Sharp and Theiler, 2018). All
this supporting literature hinted about the connection of the wellbeing of
students and academic achievement in terms of performance, so we propose the
following hypothesis in this regard:

​ H8. There is a relationship between psychological wellbeing and

Students’ academic performance.
This study is based on the following conceptual framework (see Figure 1).

FIGURE 1.

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Conceptual model.

Methodology
The population of this research study are students studying in schools, colleges,
and universities in China. This study is quantitative and empirical in nature. A
survey questionnaire was designed to collect data from respondents. A total 350
questionnaires were distributed out of which only 319 questionnaires were
received back so that the response rate of this study is 91%. Out of 319
respondents, 160 were boys/men and 159 respondents were girls/women.
Similarly, 85 respondents were below the age of 10–15 years, 95 respondents
between 16 and 20, and 130 respondents between 20 and 30 as depicted in Table
1. Similarly, the qualifications of 190 respondents were undergraduate, while
129 respondents were graduates. The convenience sampling technique was used
for data collection because it is the easiest way to collect data from the
respondents (Nawaz et al., 2019; Dar et al., 2022). Therefore, due to limited
time, this study employs a convenience sampling technique. A total of 25 items
were utilized from the literature to design a questionnaire for this study. Music
education was measured by a five-item scale adopted from Dönmez et al.
(2019). The psychological wellbeing was measured by a five-item scale adopted
from Diener et al. (2009). Furthermore, self-esteem was measured by a
four-item scale adopted from Rosenberg (1989). Similarly, self-efficacy was
assessed by a five-item scale from Schwarzer and Jerusalem (1995). Students’
performance was measured by a six-item scale adopted from Rashid and Zaman
(2018). This study is quantitative and cross-sectional. The partial least square
(PLS) method was used for data analysis. A statistical software Smart-PLS used
for data analysis.
TABLE 1.

Demographic details.

Valid Frequency Percent Valid percent Cumulative

percent
Female 159 49.8 49.8 49.8
Male 160 50.2 50.2 100.0
Total 319 100.0 100.0
10–15 85 26 26 26.6
16–20 95 30 30 56.0
20–30 139 44 44 100.0
Total 319 59.5 100.0
Undergradua 159 40.5 59.5 59.5
te
Graduate 160 100.0 40.5 100.0
Total 319 100.0

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N = 319.

Data Analysis and Results

This research study’s data was conducted using PLS methodology and statistical
software Smart-PLS was used for data analysis. Data analysis consists of two
stages, i.e., measurement analysis and structural analysis. In the first step, the
measurement model was used to investigate the reliability, convergence, and
validity of the construct. Finally, structural equation modeling (SEM) was used
for testing of hypotheses.

Measurement Model

The measurement model of the constructs was examined in the first step to
determine the reliability, convergence, and discriminant validity of latent
constructs. In this study, latent variables are assessed by the observed indicators
(items) and are reflective in nature. In the reflective model, indicators are
affected by the latent variable in the other words arrows are toward the
indicators from their latent variables as can be seen in Figure 2 measurement
model in which arrows point from latent variables toward indicators. In the First
step, indicator loading was measured for each construct. It has been proposed
that if the value of outer loadings is greater than 0.70, it is acceptable, which
means that construct represents the 70% of items that construct (Hair et al.,
2019; Avotra et al., 2021b). However, some studies suggest that a value greater
than 0.50 is also an acceptable reliability (Hulland, 1999). In this study as
indicated in Table 2, all outer loading is greater than 0.50 which shows
reliability, except for ME2, SE4, SEC5, SP6 which were removed from the
model to generate better results. Cronbach’s alpha, composite reliability and
rho_A test were used for investigating the internal consistency of the construct.
According to Hair et al. (2019), Cronbach’s alpha’s value should be higher than
0.7 to establish the internal consistency of constructs. Table 2 illustrates that
Cronbach’s alpha of each latent construct is higher than 0.70 which shows
higher internal consistency of scale. The second method that determines the
internal reliability and consistency of a scale is composite reliability. All
Composite Reliability (CR) values greater than 0.7 indicate Internal
Consistency (Hair et al., 2019; Yingfei et al., 2021). Table 2 highlights that the
composite reliability of each latent construct is above 0.70 thus internal
consistency is established. Third method for measuring reliability is rho_A. The
value of rho_A is greater than 0.70 is acceptable for determining reliability
(Hair et al., 2019; Xiaolong et al., 2021). Table 2 reflects that all value of rho_A
is greater than 0.70 thus internal consistency is established.
FIGURE 2.

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Output of measurement model algorithm.

TABLE 2.

Reliability and convergent validity.

Construct Items Outer Alpha rho_A CR AVE

loading
Psycholog 0.855 0.861 0.897 0.636
ical
wellbeing
PWB1 0.834
PWB2 0.698
PWB3 0.780
PWB4 0.861
PWB5 0.804
Self-estee 0.831 0.834 0.887 0.662
m
SE1 0.779
SE2 0.791
SE3 0.743
Self-effica 0.902 0.903 0.928 0.720
cy
SEC1 0.810
SEC2 0.831
SEC3 0.795
SEC4 0.819
Student
performan
ce
SP1 0.784
SP2 0.874
SP3 0.873
SP4 0.867
SP5 0.840
Music 0.746 0.751 0.84 0.568
education
ME1 0.744
ME3 0.766
 ME4 0.796
ME5 0.704

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CA, Cronbach’s alpha; CR, composite reliability; AVE, average variance extracted.
ME, Music education; PWB, Psychological wellbeing; SE, Self-esteem; SEC,
Self-efficacy; SP, Student’s performance.

Convergent validity refers to all items of the constructs that are closely related
to each other (Hair et al., 2012). The average variance extracted (AVE) is used
for determining convergent validity for all constructs. The threshold value of
AVE is equal or greater than 0.5 to establish the convergent validity of
constructs (Hair et al., 2019). In this study, AVE for all the variables is above
0.50. Thus, convergent validity has been established.
Discriminant Validity

Discriminant validity refers to each construct being empirically distinct from

other constructs. Discriminant validity discusses the differentiation of each
latent variable from other variables. There are three methods to determine
discriminant validity in Smart-PLS: Fornel and lacker criteria, Cross loadings,
and Heterotrait-Monotraite. According to Fornell and Larcker (1981), to
establish the discriminant validity of constructs the square root of AVE of each
variable in the research model must be higher than the correlation of the same
variable with others. Table 3 indicates that the square root of AVE of each
construct is greater than the diagonal values below. Hence, discriminant validity
is established.

TABLE 3.

Fornell and Larker.

 ME PWB SE SEC SP
ME 0.753
PWB 0.703 0.797
SE 0.491 0.501 0.771
SEC 0.504 0.575 0.483 0.814
SP 0.519 0.627 0.45 0.548 0.848

Open in a new tab

ME, Music education; PWB, Psychological wellbeing; SE, Self-esteem; SEC,

Self-efficacy; SP, Students performance. Bold values shows the significance between
the variables.

Another method to determine discriminant validity is cross-loading. After the

Fornell and Larker method, cross-loading is an authentic method for
determining discriminant validity. Criteria for this technique is that the values of
each item with its own construct are higher as compared to other constructs. If
the value of item is highly correlated to their own construct compared to other
constructs, then discriminant validity is established in Table 4.

TABLE 4.

Cross-loading.

ME PWB SE SEC SP
ME1 0.744 0.606 0.293 0.349 0.437
ME3 0.766 0.553 0.448 0.443 0.489
ME4 0.796 0.52 0.361 0.397 0.344
ME5 0.704 0.427 0.373 0.317 0.266
PWB1 0.623 0.834 0.436 0.507 0.507
PWB2 0.506 0.698 0.407 0.369 0.459
PWB3 0.469 0.78 0.323 0.432 0.481
PWB4 0.571 0.861 0.422 0.507 0.516
PWB5 0.615 0.804 0.400 0.564 0.532
SE1 0.425 0.395 0.779 0.357 0.313
SE2 0.356 0.351 0.791 0.423 0.345
SE3 0.35 0.409 0.743 0.341 0.386
SEC1 0.364 0.433 0.355 0.810 0.469
SEC2 0.374 0.421 0.32 0.831 0.451
SEC3 0.451 0.484 0.379 0.795 0.402
SEC4 0.437 0.519 0.498 0.819 0.464
SP1 0.445 0.528 0.352 0.431 0.784
SP2 0.452 0.553 0.383 0.447 0.874
SP3 0.458 0.546 0.437 0.481 0.873
SP4 0.401 0.528 0.372 0.507 0.867
SP5 0.442 0.502 0.363 0.459 0.840

Open in a new tab

ME, Music education; PWB, Psychological wellbeing; SE, Self-esteem; SEC,

Self-efficacy; SP, Students performance. Bold and italic values shows the significance
of variables.
Heterotrait-Monotrait ratio of correlations (HTMT) is another method for
evaluating discriminant validity of the data in SEM proposed by Dijkstra and
Henseler (2015). If the values of HTMT are high, then the discriminate value
problems arise. The threshold value of HTMT is 0.9 proposed by Dijkstra and
Henseler (2015) which means two variables are correlated but not more than
0.9. All values of HTMT in Table 5 have a value less than 0.9, which reflects
that the discriminant validity of constructs have been established.

TABLE 5.

HTMT ratio.

ME PWB SE SEC SP
ME 0.753
PWB 0.703 0.797
SE 0.491 0.501 0.771
SEC 0.504 0.575 0.483 0.814
SP 0.519 0.627 0.45 0.548 0.848
 Open in a new tab

ME, Music education; PWB, Psychological wellbeing; SE, Self-esteem; SEC,

Self-efficacy; SP, Students performance.

Collinearity Statistics (VIF)

Variance inflation factor values are used to investigate the collinearity Issues
and common method biasness of structural model. According to Hair et al.
(2019) VIF is an indicator which is used to measure whether all indicator
variables are correlated to each other or not and to avoid all issues regarding the
significance and its value must be less than three (Hair et al., 2019). In our
results, all values are less than three as shown in Table 6. Hence, we conclude
that there are no collinearity issues between the variables in the proposed
structural model.
TABLE 6.

Collinearity statistics (VIF).

VIF
ME1 1.383
ME3 1.419
ME4 1.649
ME5 1.438
PWB1 2.128
PWB2 1.454
PWB3 1.855
PWB4 2.522
PWB5 1.869
SE1 1.283
SE2 1.406
SE3 1.24
SEC1 2.084
SEC2 2.217
SEC3 1.614
SEC4 1.707
SP1 1.933
SP2 2.76
SP3 2.772
SP4 2.803
SP5 2.527

Open in a new tab

ME, Music education; PWB, Psychological wellbeing; SE, Self-esteem; SEC,

Self-efficacy; SP, Students performance.

Model fitting parametric was tested before going for the structural assessment
model. Model fits parametric includes SRMR (Standardized Root Mean Square
Residual) and NFI (Normed fit indices). SRMR refers to “the difference
between the observed correlation and the model implied correlation matrix
whereby values are less than 0.08” (Hu and Bentler, 1998). In this study value
of SRMR is greater than 0.8 which meets the required criteria. The second
model fit parametric is Normed fit indices (NFI), greater than 0.90. Value of
normed fit indices is 0.901 which is acceptable. The structure equation model
(SEM) provides the means that shows the hypothesized path by supporting the
theoretical model. Basically, SEM model comprises with the hypothesized
relationship between the independent and dependent variables in the projected
research model. The structural model predicts that how well the theoretical
model envisages the hypothesized pathways. For the current study, SEM Model
is assessed with the coefficient of determination (R2), Coefficient of
determination (R2) measures the variation in the dependent variable due to
independent variables. R2-value of 0.75, 0.50, and 0.25 are considered
substantial, moderate (Hair et al., 2019). Table 7 shows the value of 0.570 for
PWB which is strong. This shows that all independent variables have 57%
variance in psychological wellbeing whereas value of 0.242 for self-esteem
shows 24% variance in self-esteem due to all independent variables. Value of
0.242 for self-efficacy shows 25% variance in self-efficacy due to all
independent variable. Moreover, value of 0.394 for student performance shows
39% variance in student performance due to all independent capacity is
established.

TABLE 7.
Coefficient of determination (R2).

R2 SD T-value P-values
PWB 0.570 0.050 11.448 0.000
SE 0.242 0.049 4.930 0.000
SEC 0.254 0.044 5.816 0.000
SP 0.394 0.046 8.645 0.000

Open in a new tab

PWB, Psychological wellbeing; SE, Self-esteem; SEC, Self-efficacy; SP, Students

performance.

Hypothesis1 proposed that there is a relationship between music education and

psychological wellbeing. Result indicates that Music education has a significant
and positive effect on psychological wellbeing (β = 0.512, t = 9.010, p = 0.000).
As the value of p < 0.05, therefore this hypothesis is accepted. Hypothesis 2
proposed that there is a relationship between music education and self-esteem.
Our result indicates that the ME has a significant and positive effect on
self-esteem (β = 0.491, t = 9.873, p = 0.000). As the value of p < 0.05, therefore
this hypothesis is accepted. Hypothesis 3 proposed that there is a relationship
between music education and self-efficacy. Results indicate that music
education has significant and positive effect on self-efficacy (β = 0.504, t =
11.492, p = 0.000). As the value of p < 0.05, therefore this hypothesis is
accepted. Hypothesis 4 proposed that there is a relationship between self-esteem
and psychological wellbeing. Results indicate that the SE has a significant and
positive effect on psychological wellbeing (β = 0.125, t = 2.386, p = 0.017). As
the value of p < 0.05, therefore this hypothesis is accepted. Hypothesis 5
proposed that there is a relationship between self-efficacy and psychological
wellbeing. The result indicates that the SEC has a significant and positive effect
on PWB (β = 0.257, t = 5.306, p = 0.000). As the value of p < 0.05, therefore
this hypothesis is accepted. Hypothesis 8 proposed that PWB has significant
positive impacts on SP. Results indicate that the PWB has a significant and
positive effect on Students’ performance (β = 0.627, t = 17.247, p = 0.000). As
the value of p < 0.05, therefore this hypothesis is accepted (Table 8).

TABLE 8.
Hypotheses constructs.

Hypoth Relation Beta SD T-value P-value 2.50% 97.50% Decisio

eses ship coeffici s n
ent
H1 ME - > 0.512 0.057 9.010 0.000 0.386 0.616 Support
PWB ed
H2 ME - > 0.491 0.05 9.873 0.000 0.391 0.583 Support
SE ed
H3 ME - > 0.504 0.044 11.492 0.000 0.405 0.586 Support
SEC ed
H4 SE - > 0.125 0.052 2.386 0.017 0.022 0.233 Support
PWB ed
H5 SEC - > 0.257 0.048 5.306 0.000 0.163 0.355 Support
PWB ed
H8 PWB - 0.627 0.036 17.247 0.000 0.560 0.697 Support
> SP ed

Open in a new tab

ME, Music education; PWB, Psychological wellbeing; SE, Self-esteem; SEC,

Self-efficacy; SP, Student’s performance.
This study proposed the mediating role of self-esteem and self-efficacy between
the relationship of Music education and Students’ psychological wellbeing. Our
research applied Preacher and Hayes (2008) method for mediation analysis
which is the most powerful and rigorous method for mediation analysis.
Hypothesis 6 proposed that SEF mediates the relationship between ME and
PWB The result shows that SEF positively mediates the relationship between
ME and PWB (β = 0.061, t = 2.337, p = 0.020) as shown in Table 8. As the
value of p < 0.05, therefore this hypothesis is accepted. In Hypothesis 7, we
proposed that SEF mediates the relationship between ME and PWB. Results
illustrate that SEF positively mediates the relationship between ME and PWB (β
= 0.129, t = 4.851, p = 0.000) as shown in Table 7. As the value of p < 0.05,
therefore this hypothesis is accepted (Table 9 and Figure 2).

TABLE 9.

Mediation analysis.

Hypoth Relation Beta SD T-value P-value 2.50% 97.50% Decisio

eses ship coeffici s n
ent
H6 ME - > 0.061 0.026 2.337 0.020 0.011 0.111 Support
SE - > ed
PWB
H7 ME - > 0.129 0.027 4.851 0.000 0.079 0.182 Support
SEC - > ed
PWB

Open in a new tab

ME, Music education; PWB, Psychological wellbeing; SE, Self-esteem; SEC,

Self-efficacy; SP, Students performance.

Discussion

This research revolved around certain objectives based on set goals to check the
impact of music education on the wellbeing of the students psychologically and
their academic performance during the most depressing moments of Pandemic.
This study yielded some interesting results supporting the model of this
research. The model is based on the remedial purpose of combating the
depressing effects of COVID-19. Our first hypothesis was about checking the
relationship between music education and Students’ psychological wellbeing,
which has been previously tested and proved that music has a specific remedial
effect on individuals of every walk of life. Our hypothesis was also accepted
suggesting a strong relationship between psychological wellbeing and music
education. These results are in accordance with many past studies such as
Croom (2014) and Demirbatır (2015). The possibility of this kind of result is
due to the soothing nature of music itself. In the period of online classes,
socialization was limited to digital sources only, so music education was also
possible over the internet. It helped in fighting the distress caused by COVID-19
during these times. The second and third hypotheses were about the impact and
relationship of music education with self-esteem and the self-efficacy of the
students.

As discussed earlier in the review of literature section, many researchers

including Faulkner et al. (2010), Barbre (2013), and Rickard et al. (2013)
indicated that music education was positively related to Students’ self-esteem
and self-efficacy, which leads to academic achievement and the psychological
wellbeing of the students. Our results were in accordance with these
researchers’ results due to the importance of music in developing self-esteem
and a sense of self-ability in students during these pandemic times. The fourth
hypothesis was about the relationship of self-esteem with the Students’
psychological wellbeing. This hypothesis was also supported in the sense of this
relationship. This happens because self-esteem plays an integral role in
developing a strong sense of self-confidence in psychology, which leads to the
Students’ psychological wellbeing. These results are also in accordance with
many past researchers reporting similar results from different perspectives
(Barbre, 2013; Sowislo and Orth, 2013).

The relationship of Students’ self-efficacy with psychological wellbeing also

resulted in the same outcomes as self-efficacy is also associated with the
Students’ self-esteem and it leads to Students’ psychological wellbeing during
his pandemic. These results are in agreement with (Bandura et al., 2003;
Siddiqui, 2015). The hypotheses about the mediating roles of self-esteem and
self-efficacy were also accepted between the relationships of music education
and the psychological wellbeing of the students. As it is well established that
both self-esteem and self-efficacy had and have a strong relationship in
positively improving the psychological wellbeing of the students, so the
mediating role between music learning and the wellbeing of students
psychologically was understood to play a significant role due to the nature of
them. These results were in accordance with many past researchers who
analyzed the mediating roles of both self-esteem and the self-efficacy of the
students (Molero et al., 2018; Sabouripour et al., 2021).
The last hypothesis was about the relationship of the psychological wellbeing of
the students with their academic performance. It is a well-understood concept
that if a student is psychologically active, efficient, and has good mental
wellbeing then it would result in excellent performance, leading to distinction in
academic performance. Psychological wellbeing is directly related to elevated
grades or academic achievement. The last hypothesis yielded the same results
and confirmed the results of many researchers in the past such as Bhullar et al.
(2014) and Roslan et al. (2017). The results obtained through this study are a
great indicator of teaching music at institutes for developing better
psychological wellbeing of the students to achieve improved academic
performance from students.

Theoretical Contributions

This study contributes to the body of literature in a significant way. First, only
very limited previous studies have examined the cause and effects of the student
psychological and mental health, especially during crises. Recently, coronavirus
has affected every part of society, so like others, students were also affected
badly so there was a dire need to explore this topic and present solid solutions to
mitigate the anxiety, stress, and burnout among undergraduate and graduate
students. This study reveals that music education plays a vital role in improving
Students’ psychological wellbeing, which ultimately leads to improving the
Students’ performance. This study conceptualizes self-determination theory,
self-esteem theory, and social cognitive theory to investigate the conceptualized
path. The finding of this study reveals that music education develops
self-efficacy and self-esteem in the students which assists them in improving
their psychological wellbeing.

Practical Contributions

The results of this study can assist policymakers and practitioners in realizing
the importance of music education in the curriculum of undergraduate and
graduate students, which has long-lasting impacts on their psychological
wellbeing and practical life, so there is a dire need to include music education in
the curriculum. In addition to this, results show that self-efficacy and
self-esteem also play a vital role in improving Students’ psychological
wellbeing, so educational institutions should make their efforts to develop a
sense of self-esteem and self-efficacy through their curriculum, training, and
other means. Proper training should be provided to teachers of education
institutes to help the students mitigate the issues of anxiety, stress, and
depression, which are the main obstacles for students to become successful in
their academic and professional lives.

Limitation and Future Direction

Besides the contribution of this study, there are some limitations of this study
that could be mitigated in future studies to attain better results. First, the
sampling technique adopted for this study is the convenience sampling
technique, so future studies should adopt any other rigorous sampling technique.
The sample size of this study was very small due to the lockdown enforced by
the government to mitigate the COVID-19 pandemic. This study was
cross-sectional in nature so future studies should adopt time-series studies to get
better results. Future researchers should explore other factors that may assist in
improving psychological wellbeing as well as other impacts and consequences
of music education. Future studies should explore other mediators and
moderators in the relationship between music education and psychological
wellbeing.

Conclusion

Recent scientific studies reveal the effects of pandemic and its associated illness
which influence people’s mental health and psychological wellbeing. Music
education and its practices are recognized as a vital tool in reducing the level of
stress and anxiety among the students which has a significant impact on their
personality grooming and academic performance. The main purpose of this
study is to estimate the impact of music education on the psychological
wellbeing and academic performance of students. This study also investigates
the mediating role of self-esteem and self-efficacy between this relationship.
This study adopts the theoretical lens of social cognitive, self-esteem theory, and
self-determination theory to explain the proposed model of this study. This
study is quantitative in nature and data of this study was collected from 319
students who are studying in undergraduate and graduate institutions by using
self-administered questionaries. Convenience sampling was used in the data
collection. PLS-SEM technique was used for data analysis. The results show
that music education has a significant impact on Students’ psychological
wellbeing and academic performance. Self-esteem and self-efficacy mediate the
relationship between music education and psychological wellbeing. Results of
this research study contribute to the body of literature on music education and
psychological wellbeing and explore new avenues for future studies.
Policy-makers and practitioners should promote music education in educational
institutes to improve Students’ psychological wellbeing and academic
performance.

Data Availability Statement

The original contributions presented in the study are included in the

article/supplementary material, further inquiries can be directed to the
corresponding author/s.
Ethics Statement

The studies involving human participants were reviewed and approved by the
Xihua University, China. The patients/participants provided their written
informed consent to participate in this study. The study was conducted in
accordance with the Declaration of Helsinki.

Author Contributions

JS contributed in all tasks of writing of draft and data collection etc.

Conflict of Interest

The author declares that the research was conducted in the absence of any
commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential
conflict of interest.
 Publisher’s Note

All claims expressed in this article are solely those of the authors and do not
necessarily represent those of their affiliated organizations, or those of the
publisher, the editors and the reviewers. Any product that may be evaluated in
this article, or claim that may be made by its manufacturer, is not guaranteed or
endorsed by the publisher.

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