1 NHAI Profile

1.1 Introduction

The National Highway Authority of India (NHAI) was established by an act of Parliament, the NHAI
Act, 1988, to provide for the constitution of an Authority for the development, maintenance, and
management of national highways and matters connected or incidental thereto. It has been entrusted with
the National Highways Development Project, which, along with other minor projects, has vested in it
50,329 km of National Highways for development, maintenance, and management. The objective is to
ensure that all contract awards and procurements conform to the best industry practices with regard to
transparency of process, adoption of bid criteria to ensure healthy competition in the award of contracts,
implementation of projects conform to best quality requirements, and the highway system is maintained
to ensure best user comfort and convenience.

National Highways serve as the arterial roads of the country for inter-state movement of passengers and
goods. They traverse the length and width of the country, connecting the National and State capitals,
major ports, and rail junctions, and link up with border roads and foreign highways. The total length of
NH (including expressways) in the country is currently 132,499 km. While Highways/Expressways
constitute only about 1.7% of the length of all roads, they carry about 40% of the road traffic.

The National Highways Authority of India (NHAI) is an autonomous agency responsible for the
development, maintenance, and management of National Highways vested or entrusted to it by the
Central Government. National Highways are the arterial roads that facilitate the rapid movement of
passengers and goods across the country. Spread over the length and breadth of the country, National
Highways connect the national and state capitals, major cities, district headquarters, major ports, and rail
junctions while also providing connectivity to border roads and foreign highways.

Functions of the Authority are governed by the National Highways Authority of India Act, 1988, and
rules framed under the Act; land acquisition for the construction of national highways is governed by the
National Highways Act, 1956; and other matters related to encroachment and regulating the traffic on the
highways are governed by The Control of National Highways (Land and Traffic) Act, 2002. These acts
provide the governing framework for NHAI for the development, maintenance, and management of the
national highways entrusted to the authority by the Government.
Introduction

The National Highways Authority of India (NHAI) signed a Memorandum of Understanding (MoU) with
the Indian Space Research Organization (ISRO) and the North East Centre For Technology Application
and Research (NECTAR) in 2016. This agreement facilitated the use of spatial technology for monitoring
highways. NHAI is also responsible for toll collection on various highways. Yogendra Narain served as
the first Chairman of NHAI, appointed in 1988. The increasing volume of passenger and freight traffic
necessitates improvements to the country's road network. In response, the Government of India has
launched several initiatives to upgrade and strengthen national highways through different phases of the
National Highways Development Project (NHDP).

Organizational Structure

NHAI's organizational structure consists of three tiers:

● Headquarters (HQ): Responsible for overall supervision.
● Regional Offices (ROs): Oversee regional operations.
● Project Implementation Units (PIUs): Execute projects at the field level.

The PIUs are headed by project directors and are located throughout the country to decentralize and
strengthen field operations.

Funding and Mandate

NHAI receives funding through:

● Government support (capital base, cess fund, additional budgetary support, capital grant,
maintenance grant)
● Ploughing back of toll revenue
● Loans from multilateral agencies and market borrowings

NHAI is mandated to ensure transparency and adherence to best industry practices in all contract awards
and procurements. It also ensures project implementation meets quality requirements and that the
highway system provides user comfort and convenience.

Bharatmala Pariyojana

In 2017, the government announced the Bharatmala Pariyojana, India's largest highway development
program, aiming to develop a network of approximately 65,000 km. The project seeks to improve road
traffic efficiency by addressing critical infrastructure gaps, signaling a shift towards a corridor-based
approach to infrastructure development. Phase one includes the development of 34,800 km of national
highways at a cost of INR 5.35 lakh crore, connecting 600 districts across the nation. NHAI is responsible
for managing the development of approximately 30,257 km of this project. The project also includes the
development of new greenfield corridors and 25 greenfield expressways and access-controlled corridors
spanning over 9,100 km at an estimated cost of INR 4 lakh crore.
One key initiative of NHAI involves planning 35 Multimodal Logistics Parks to improve seamless
intermodal freight movement and offer diverse functionalities and services. These parks (MMLPs) will
facilitate a shift from point-to-point to a hub and spoke model, promoting efficient, cost-effective, and
environmentally friendly logistics management. Developed under a PPP model, the government will
provide land and external connectivity via road, rail, and inland waterways.

NHAI promotes technology adoption throughout infrastructure development to enhance efficiency,

construction quality, and infrastructure management. The Bhoomi Rashi portal has expedited land
acquisition and improved transparency through electronic compensation. Data Lake and PMIS aid project
monitoring, while drone surveys and GIS technology expedite the creation of Detailed Project Reports.
The widespread use of ETC has improved logistics efficiency and user convenience.

In recent years, NHAI has broadened its scope to improve the overall transportation ecosystem, including
a ropeway development program for hilly and urban areas. The focus has shifted from connectivity to
convenience by lowering logistics costs, providing multimodal and efficient transport, last-mile
connectivity, and improving existing supply chain infrastructure.

1.1.1 Mandate

NHAI is tasked with implementing the National Highways Development Project (NHDP), India's largest
highway project. National Highways span 1,32,499 km, serving as the country's arterial network.
Although they constitute only 2% of the road network, they carry 40% of the total road traffic. The rapid
growth of passenger and freight traffic necessitates road network improvements, leading the Government
of India to launch initiatives to upgrade and strengthen National Highways through the NHDP.

1.1.2 Vision

To meet the Nation's need for provision and maintenance of National Highways network to global
standards and to meet the user's expectations in the most time-bound and cost-effective manner, within
the strategic policy framework set by the Government of India and thus promote economic well-being and
quality of life of the people.

1.1.3 Mission
● To develop, maintain and manage National Highways vested in it by the Government.
● To collect fees on National Highways, regulate and control the plying of vehicles on National
Highways for its proper management.
● To develop and provide consultancy and construction services in India and abroad and carry on
research activities in relation to the development, maintenance and management of highways or
any other facilities there at.
● To advise the Central Government on matters relating to highways.
● To assist on such terms and conditions as may be mutually agreed upon, any State Government in
the formulation and implementation of schemes for highway development

1.1.4 Functions of NHAI

● Developing, maintaining and managing National Highways (NH) across the country.
● Collecting fees/tolls on NH, regulating and controlling the plying of vehicles on NH for proper
management.
● Developing and providing consultancy and construction services on a national and international
level. Also, conducting research activities that help develop, maintain and manage highways or
other facilities thereat.
● Advising the Central government on issues related to NH.
● Formulating and implementing schemes for NH development.
● Constructing offices and residential buildings for NHAI employees.
● Providing facilities and amenities to NH users necessary for the smooth flow of traffic on such
highways.

1.2 NHAI Board

The NHAI Board comprises a Chairman, 6 full-time members, 6 part-time members, and 2 non-
government part-time members.
Organization Structure

Chairman — — — — — —

Member Member Member Member Member Member CVO

(Admn.) (Finance) (PPP) (Projects) (Project) (Tech.)

Figure 1.1: Organization structure of NHAI

Table 1.1: Full-time members of NHAI

Full-time members Name

Chairman Sh.

Member (Admin) Shri Vishal Chauhan (IAS)

Member (Finance) Shri Rajendra Kumar

Member (PPP) Shri K. Venkata Ramana

Member (Project) Shri Anil Choudhary, IRSE

Member (Project) Shri V. K. Rajawat

Member (Technical) Shri Alok Deepankar

Table 1.2 Part-time members of NHAI

Name Designation

Shri B.V.R. CEO, Niti Aayog

Dr. T. V. Somanathan, IAS Secretary, Department of Expenditure

Shri Anurag Jain Secretary, Ministry of Road Transport &

Highways

Shri D. Sarangi DG (RD) & SS (In-Charge)

Table 4: NHAI Officers HQ (Karnataka Division)

Name Designation

Sh. CVO

Sh. Chief General Manager

Sh. General Manager

Sh. Deputy General Manager

Sh. General Manager

Shri. Deputy Manager

Table 1.3 Regional Office (Bengaluru)

Name Designation

Sh. General Manager

Vutla Padmaja Deputy General Manager

Sh. Deputy Manager

Programs of NHAI
1. Bharatmala Pariyojana
 2. National Highways Development Project (NHDP)
3. Environment, Forest, Wildlife Clearance
4. Green Highways
5. Road Safety
6. National Electronic Toll Collection
7. Asset Monetization Programme of NHAI

Bharatmala Pariyojana
● Bharatmala Pariyojana, India's largest infrastructure program, was envisioned in 2017 to develop
34,800 km of National Highway corridors, connecting 580+ districts in the nation.
● In 2017, the Government announced Bharatmala Pariyojana, India's largest ever highway
development program for a network of 65,000 km. Bharatmala Pariyojana envisions optimizing the
efficiency of road traffic movement across the country by bridging critical infrastructure gaps.
● The first phase of the program entails the development of 34,800 km of national highways at a cost
of INR 5.35 lakh crore, connecting 600+ districts in the nation. Of this, NHAI is responsible for
managing program development of -30,257 km of National Highway Authority of India projects.
● NHAI also envisages the development of new greenfield corridors under the Bharatmala
Pariyojana to connect remote areas and open new avenues for the socioeconomic development of
the country. Development of 25 Greenfield expressways and access-controlled corridors of over
9,100 km at INR 4 lakh crore is underway.

National Highways Development Project (NHDP)

● The National Highways Authority of India is mandated to implement the National Highways
Development Project (NHDP), which is India's largest ever Highways Project in a phased manner.
The National Highways have a total length of approximately 72,000 km to serve as the arterial
network of the country.

Although National Highways constitute only about 2 percent of the road network, they carry 40 percent of
the total road traffic. Rapid expansion of passenger and freight traffic makes it imperative to improve the
road network in the country. Accordingly, the Government of India launched major initiatives to upgrade
and strengthen National Highways through various phases of the National Highways Development
Project (NHDP).
NHDP Phase I:

CCEA on 12th January 2000, approved NHDP Phase-1 - Four laning of 6,359 km at a cost of Rs.
30,300.00 Cr.

NHDP Phase II:

CCEA on 18th December 2003, approved NHDP Phase-II: Four laning of 6,702 km at a cost of Rs.
34,339 Cr in December 2003. These two phases comprise the Golden Quadrilateral (GQ), North-South
and East-West Corridors (NEWSES), Port Connectivity, and other projects. The GQ (5,846 km) connects
the four major cities of Delhi, Mumbai, Chennai, and Kolkata. The NS-EW Corridors (7,300 km) connect
Srinagar in the North to Kanyakumari in the South, including a spur from Salem to Kochi and Silchar in
the East to Porbandar in the West.

NHDP Phase III:

CCEA on 12th April 2007, approved the upgradation of 12,109 km under NHDP Phase III at an estimated
cost of Rs. 80,626 Cr.

NHDP Phase-IV:

CCEA on 18th June 2008, approved the upgradation/strengthening of 20,000 km of national highways to
2/4 lanes with paved shoulders on EPC/BOT (Toll/Annuity) basis under NHDP Phase-IV.

NHDP Phase-V:

CCEA on 05th October 2006, approved six-laning of 6,500 km of national highways comprising 5,700
km of GQ and a balance of 800 km of other sections under NHDP Phase-V at a cost of Rs. 41,210 Cr.

NHDP Phase-VI:

In November 2006, construction of 1000 km of expressways with full access control on new alignments
was approved at a cost of ₹16,680 Cr under NH-Phase-VI.

NHDP Phase-VII:
CCEA approved the construction of ring roads, bypasses, grade separators, flyovers, elevated roads, and
tunnels in December 2007 at a cost of ₹16,680 Cr under NHDP Phase-VII.

1.3.3 Legal and Arbitration

Establishment of a Conciliation & Settlement Mechanism for Contractual Disputes under the contract
agreements with the Contractors/Concessionaires/Consultants in NHAI - Panel of Independent Experts
and Constitution of Conciliation Committees. The NHAI has been entering into various contract
agreements with the Contractors/Concessionaires/Consultants for implementing highway projects in
various modes [Item Rate, BOT (Toll), BOT (Annuity), Hybrid-Annuity, EPC, OMT, etc.]. Several
disputes have arisen under these contract agreements. Presently, there are 144 references before the
Courts on contractual disputes/claims involving a total claim amount of nearly ₹5,700 Crore. Further, 132
references have been made to various Arbitral Tribunals entailing a total claim amount of ₹38,000 Crore.
Thus, the problem of pending disputes and claims has assumed serious proportions. The associated legal
costs and diversion of manpower of both parties are enormous. The early resolution settlement of claims,
preferably through an out-of-court settlement process, is in the interest of all the stakeholders.

1.3.4 Environment, Forest, Wildlife Clearance

Some of the projects granted environmental clearance by the Ministry of

Environment, Forest & Climate Change in Karnataka are as follows:
● Four Laning of Solapur-Bijapur Section of NH-13 from Km 0/000 to Km 110/542 in the State of
Maharashtra and Karnataka.
● Hospet-Bellary-AP/KNT Border Section of NH-63 from Km 280.300 to Km 375.740 in the State
of Karnataka.
● Hospet-Chitradurga section of NH-13 from Km 299.000 to Km 418.600 in the State of Karnataka.

1.3.5 Green Highways

The Ministry of Road Transport and Highways (MoRTH), Government of India has promulgated Green
Highways (Plantations, Transplantation, Beautification and Maintenance) Policy-2015 on 29th September
2015 to develop eco-friendly National Highways with participation of the community, farmers, NGOs,
private sector, institutions, government agencies and the Forest Department for economic growth and
development in a sustainable manner.

Projects Executed through Government Agencies as per MoU

 ● The NHAI with the involvement of Central/State Government Agencies takes up the
implementation of plantation project. Central/State Government Agencies carry out plantation
activity in the State directly as implementation agency (Forests/Agriculture/Horticulture/NRLM/
SRLM/ Central Silk Board etc.) and also with the participation of Self-Help Groups (SHGs) as
project implementation unit which has sufficient expertise and infrastructure to take up the
plantations.
● Plantation works may be awarded to Forest Department State Development Corporations (FDCs)
or other similar State Government agencies if not included in the scope of work of
Contractor/Concessionaire. However, to promote healthy competition, plantation works may also
be awarded to plantation agencies/NGOs through competitive bidding process.
● In case of Government agencies, plantation work may be allotted on the basis of relevant schedule
of rates (SOR) of the State Forest Department. For works not included in the SOR of Forest
Department, approved rates of other agencies may be adopted.

Projects Executed through Private Agencies as per RFP

● NHAI has RFP in place for tender process to award the plantation projects to plantation agencies.
The projects are advertised on E-tenders website (https://etenders.gov.in) of Govt. of India.
● The tender process is single stage two cover quality cum cost-based system QCBS price discovery
method.
Major Projects in Karnataka Undertaken by NHAI

Sl.No Project Name Total Length (km) PIU

1 Bangalore Ring Road 35.49 Bangalore Expressway

(STRR)-NH948A-
Package-I of Phase-III
from Belagondapalli
(TN) to TN/KNT
border from km
144.480 to 179.969

2 Bangalore/TN border 21 Bengaluru

to Hoskote

3 Tumkur-Nelmangala 45.5 Chitradurga

(6L)

4 Balance work of 2L 54.12 Dharwad

PS from Km 30.800 to
Km 70.800 and 2L
with Rigid
Carriageway from Km
70.800 to km 84.120
KhanapurKA/GOA
Border section of NH-
4A

5 2L PS from km 0.000 69.48 Dharwad

to km 69.480 of
Sanquelim to Belagavi
Section of NH-748AA

6 6L from Belgaum to 40.02 Dharwad

Sankeshwar Bypass
from Km.
 7 6L from Sankeshwar 37.84 Dharwad
Bypass to MHKNT
Border from Km
555.017 to Km.

8 Yekkambi-Haveri 74.98 Dharwad

9 6L of MH/KN Border 71.00 Gulbarga

(Nimbal Village) to
KN/TS Border
(Singnodi Village)
from Km.

10 6L of MH/KN Border 40.60 Gulbarga

(Nimbal Village) to
KN/TS Border
(Singnodi Village)
from Km 162.5 to Km.

11 Short Term 50 Gulbarga

Rectification of 5 nos
of blackspots of
Jewargi-Shahapur

NHAI has a three-tier structure: the Headquarters (HO), the Regional Offices (ROs), and the Project
Implementation Units (PIUs). The PIUs, headed by Project Directors, are responsible for the
implementation of projects assigned to them, and ROs, headed by a CGM level officer, have been set up
in various parts of the country for decentralizing and strengthening the field-level operations in NHAI.
The HO is responsible for the overall supervision of the works assigned to NIHAI.

The Ministry of Shipping, Road Transport & Highways, Government of India, has been contemplating
enhancing the traffic capacity and safety of goods and passenger traffic on selected, heavy traffic-dense
corridors in India and has identified one such stretch of road in Karnataka state, i.e., Improvement &
upgradation of the existing 2-lane bypass to 6-laning from km 403.100 (Design Ch. 402.600) to km
433.000 (Design Ch. 433.200) of Hubli Dharwad bypass section of NH-4 (Old NH-4) in the State of
Karnataka. The estimated cost is Rs. 579.95 Crs and is to be completed in 912 days.

Project Implementation Unit (Dharwad) Table 1.5 Project Implementation Unit

Designation Name

Project Director Sh.

Manager Ajinkya Raosaheb Nawale

Deputy Manager Earladinne Yashwanth

1.5.2 Ongoing project of NHAI PIU Dharwad

Table 1.6 Major Projects undertaken by NHAI PIU Dharwad

Sl.No Description Carriage Date of Date of Chainage Length

 Way Submission Inspection

1 Level Service 29-Jan- 30-Jan- 419+140 to 200

checking of road 2024 2024 419+340
subgrade
top layer

2 Fdd Service 29-Jan- 30-Jan- 419+140 to 200

checking of road 2024 2024 419+340
etsb laying

3 Fdd Service 29-Jan- 30-Jan- 423+870 to 294

checking of road 2024 2024 424+164
RE wall -1
1st layer

4 Fdd Service 29-Jan- 30-Jan- 424+177 to 153

checking of road 2024 2024 424+330
RE wall -1
4th layer

5 Checking Service 29-Jan- 30-Jan- — —

of road 2024 2024
reinforcem
ent and
profile
girder (no-
38)

6 Checking Service 29-Jan- 30-Jan- 408+920 to 60

of level road 2024 2024 408+980
and layout
of drain
excavation

1.6 Project Overview

Ministry Shipping Road Transport & Highways. The government of India has been contemplating to
enhance the traffic capacity and safety of goods and passenger traffic on selected, heavy traffic dense
corridors in India, and had identified one such stretch of road in Karnataka State i.e. Improvement &
Upgradation of Existing Two-Lane Bypass to Six Lanning from Km 403.100 (Design Ch. 402.600) to
Km 433.000 (Design Ch. 433.200) of Hubli-Dharwad Bypass section of NH-48 (Old NH-4) in the State
of Karnataka.

1.6.1 Scope of work of the contract

The scope of works involves - Improvement & Upgradation of Existing Two-Lane

Bypass to Six Lanning from Km. 403.100 (Design Ch. 402.600) to Km 433.000
(Design Ch. 433.200) of Hubli-Dharwad Bypass section of NH-48 (Old NH-4) in the
State of Karnataka. The work includes the following:
1. Construction of the Project Highway on the above Site as outlined in Schedule-B together with the
provision of Project Facilities as specified in Schedule-C, and in conformity with the
Specifications and Standards outlined in Schedule-D, as given in the Contract agreement.
2. Maintenance of the Project Highway following the provisions of this Agreement and in conformity
with the requirements outlined in Schedule-E.
3. Performance and fulfillment of all other obligations of the Contractor following the provisions of
the Contract Agreement and matters incidental thereto or necessary for the performance of any or
all of the obligations of the Contractor under this Agreement.
4. Improvement & Upgradation of Existing Two-Lane Bypass to Six Lanning from Km. 403.100
(Design Ch. 402.600) to Km. 433.000 (Design Ch. 433.200) of Hubli-Dharwad Bypass section of
NH-48 (Old NH-4) in the State of Karnataka. On EPC mode under Bharathmala / Phase-1.
Salient Features of Project:

Project Name Improvement & Upgradation of Existing Two-

Lane Bypass to Six Laning from Km 403.100
(Design Ch 402.600) to Km 433.000 (Design Ch
433.200) of Hubli-Dharwad Bypass section of
NH-48 (Old NH-4) in the State of Karnataka

NH No (new/old) NH-48 / NH-4

Scheme phase Bharathmala / Phase-1

Mode of the Execution (BOT TOLL/BOT EPC

Annuity/EPC/HAM/Item Road/Others

No. of Lanes Configuration Existing 2 Lane to 6 Lane

Length of the project (in km) 30.60

Total awarded Project Cost (in Cr) 579.95 Crs (As per LOA)

No. of Toll plazas (Number and Location) 01 No (Km 425+440)

No. of Flyovers (Number and Location) 01 No (Km 403-090)

No of Interchanges (Number and Location) 06 (406+070, 414+220, 414+200, 416+700,

421+010 & 429+960)

DPR Consultant Name M/s CV Kand Consultants PVT LTD

 Contractor M/s APS Hydro Private Limited-M/s R&C
Infraengineers Pvt Ltd (JV)

Generative AI is experimental.
Project Milestone Table (2023-24)

Project Descrip Planned Planned Planned Actual Actual Actual Current

Milesto tion Physica Amount Schedul Physica Financi Revised Status
ne (Days l to be e Date l al Date
from Progres Achieve Progres Progres
Appoint s (%) d (Cr) s (%) s (Cr)
ed
Date)

Milesto 319 10% 057.995 07-02- 18.32% 100.33 - 100.33

ne I Days 2024 Work
Done
Amount

Milesto 547 35% & 202.983 22-09- 00 00 - -

ne II Days should 2024
have
started
constru
ction of
all
Bridges

Milesto 775 70% & 405.965 08-05- 00 00 - -

ne III Days should 2025
have
started
constru
ction of
all
Project
Facilitie
s

Schedul 912 100% 579.95 22-09- 00 00 - -

ed Date Days 2025
of
Comple
tion
Project Milestone Table (2023-24)

Project Descrip Planned Planned Planned Actual Actual Actual Current

Milesto tion Physica Amount Schedul Physica Financi Revised Status
ne (Days l to be e Date l al Date
from Progres Achieve Progres Progres
Appoint s (%) d (Cr) s (%) s (Cr)
ed
Date)

Milesto 319 10% 057.995 07-02- 18.32% 100.33 - 100.33

ne I Days 2024 Work
Done
Amount

Milesto 547 35% & 202.983 22-09- 00 00 - -

ne II Days should 2024
have
started
constru
ction of
all
Bridges

Milesto 775 70% & 405.965 08-05- 00 00 - -

ne III Days should 2025
have
started
constru
ction of
all
Project
Facilitie
s

Schedul 912 100% 579.95 22-09- 00 00 - -

ed Date Days 2025
of
Comple
tion
Table 1.9 Key Plan

Key Plan Section Item Unit Quantity

Project Proposed (Project) Km 30.60

Road

— Realignment Km —

— Junction No 21

— Main Carriageway Km 30.60

— Rigid Pavement Km 0.60

(PQC/CRCP)

Road Flexible Pavement Km 30.00

— Service Road Km 29.540 BHS

— Toll Plaza No 01

— Bus Bays No. 10

— Minor Bridge No 03

— Minor Bridge - No. 01

Reconstruction

— Minor Bridge - New No 02

 Construction

— Box Culvert No 41

— Box Culvert - No 40
Reconstruction

— Box Culvert - No 01
Widening

Structure Road Over Bridge No 04

(ROB)

— Existing ROB (10 + No 01

24 + 10) - Widening

— Proposed ROB (1 No 03
Span 48m)

— Vehicular Underpass No 13
(VUP)

— Vehicular Underpass - No 13
New Construction

— Light Vehicular No. 07

Underpass (LVUP)

1.10 Key Contracting Models for Highway Construction

BOT (Toll)

In BOT (Toll) pattern, the private developers/operators meet the upfront cost and expenditure on annual
maintenance and recover the entire cost along with the interest from toll collections as per toll policy
during the concession period. To increase the viability of projects, capital grants up to a maximum of 40%
are provided by NHAI.

BOT (Annuity)

In BOT (Annuity) projects, the private sector is required to meet the entire upfront cost and the
expenditure on annual maintenance. The concessionaire recovers the entire investment through
predetermined annuity payments by NHAI. The government is responsible for collecting toll revenue and
thereby commercial risk is not transferred to the concessionaire.

Engineering, Procurement and Construction (EPC)

In the new Engineering, Procurement and Construction (EPC) model, projects are contracted for a fixed
term, fixed time, and fixed cost. There is a shift from an item rate construction contract to an EPC (lump
sum) contract to minimize time and cost overruns. The Government collects toll revenue after the
construction period. There is no commercial risk for the Contractor except for maintenance for 4 years of
defect liability period.

Hybrid Annuity Mode (HAM)

HAM assures better risk allocation amongst private concessionaires and NHAI. In the new Hybrid
Annuity Mode (HAM), 40% of the bid project cost is payable to the concessionaire by NHAI in ten (10)
equal installments linked to project completion milestones, and concessionaires shall have to arrange the
balance 60% of the bid project cost. The remaining Bid Project Cost shall be paid in the thirty (30)
biannual installments.

Special Purpose Vehicle (SPV) for Port Connectivity

NHAI has taken up the development of port connectivity projects by setting up Special Purpose Vehicles
(SPVs) wherein NHAI contributes up to 30% of the project cost as equity. The SPVs also have equity
participation by port trusts, State Governments or their representative entities.

Historical Development of Road Construction

2.1 Early development

The oldest mode of travel was on footpaths. Animals were also used to transport people and materials.
Later, simple animal-drawn vehicles were developed, becoming a common mode of transportation for a
long period after the invention of the wheel. This led to the need for a hard surface for these wheeled
vehicles. Such a hard surface is believed to have existed in Mesopotamia around 3500 BC. The earliest
authenticated record of a road comes from the Assyrian empire, constructed around 1900 BC. During the
Roman Empire, roads were constructed on a large scale, and the earliest construction techniques are
known as Roman Roads. The Romans built an extensive system of roads radiating from Rome throughout
the empire, mainly for military operations. Therefore, Romans are considered pioneers in road
construction.

Roads at different eras:

● Roman Roads
● Tresaguet Construction
● Metcalf Construction
● Telford
● Macadam Construction

2.1.1 Roman Roads

Many early Roman roads were elaborate constructions, some of which still exist after over 2000 years.
During the Roman civilization, many roads were built with stone blocks of considerable thickness. The
Appian Way, built by the Romans in 312 BC, extended over approximately 580 km, illustrating Roman
road-building techniques.

Main Features of Roman Roads:

● They were built straight, regardless of gradient.
● Soft soil was excavated and removed until a hard stratum was reached.

Construction Steps of Roman Roads

● The total thickness of the road section was 0.76 to 1.2 meters.
● A trench, equal in width to the carriageway, was dug along a straight path after removing loose
soil. The trench was dug until a hard stratum was reached.
● One or two layers of large foundation stones were laid in lime mortar at the bottom, ranging from
10 to 20 cm thick. Vertical kerb stones were placed along the pavement edges.
● A second layer of lime concrete, with large broken stones mixed in lime mortar, was laid over the
bottom course, up to 25 to 40 cm thick.
● Another layer of lime concrete, with smaller broken stones mixed in lime mortar, was laid over
this, 25 to 40 cm thick, or more if necessary.
● The wearing course, consisting of dressed large stone blocks set in lime mortar, was provided at
the top, with a thickness varying from 10 to 15 cm.
● The construction was stronger than needed for animal-drawn carts. The high cost may not be
 justifiable compared to modern pavement design based on scientific approaches.

Figure 2.1: Typical Cross Section of Roman Road Construction (1775 A.D.)
Large stone slabs in lime mortar:

10 to 15 cm thick

Lime concrete:

25 to 40 cm thick

Kerb stone

Total thickness:

0.75 to 1.2 m

Large foundation stones in lime mortar:

10 to 20 cm thick

Broken stones in lime mortar:

25 to 40 cm thick

Hard soil stratum

2.1.2 Tresaguet Construction

● The subgrade was prepared and a layer of large foundation stones were laid on edge by hand. At
the two edges of the pavement, large stones were embedded edgewise to serve as submerged kerb
stones.
● The corners of these heavy foundation stones were hammered and then the interstices filled with
smaller stones. Broken stones were packed to a thickness of about 8 cm and compacted.
● The top wearing course was made of smaller stones and compacted to a thickness of about 5 cm at
the edges and gradually increased towards the center giving a cross slope of 1 in 45 to the surface,
to provide surface drainage.
● The shoulders were also provided cross slope to drain the surface water to the side drain.

Telford Construction

2.1.4 Telford Construction

Thomas Telford (1757-1834) began his work in the early 19th century. He was the founder of the
Institution of Civil Engineers in London. He also believed in using heavy foundation stone above the soil
subgrade in order to keep the road foundation firm. He insisted on providing a definite cross slope for the
top surface of pavement by varying the thickness of foundation stones.

The construction steps are given below:

1. A level subgrade was prepared to a width of about 9 m.
2. Large foundation stones of thickness 17 to 22 cm were laid by hand with their largest face down so
as to be laid in a stable position. The stones of lesser thickness (17 cm) were placed towards the
edges, and stones of increasing thickness up to 22 cm were laid towards the center such that these
foundation stones of varying thickness provide the cross slope designed by Telford.
3. The interstices between foundation stones were filled with smaller stone and chipping and properly
beaten down.
4. The central portion of about 5.5-meter width was covered with two layers of angular-broken stones
to a compacted thickness of 10 and 5 cm.
5. A binding layer of wearing course 4 cm thick was constructed on the top using gravel. The finished
surface had a cross slope of about 1 in 45.

Macadam Construction

John Macadam (born 1756) observed that most of the "paved" U.K. roads in the early 1800s were
composed of rounded gravel. He knew that angular aggregate over a well-compacted subgrade would
perform substantially better. He used a sloped subgrade surface to improve drainage on which he placed
angular aggregate (hand-broken, maximum size 75 mm) in two layers for a total depth of about 200 mm.
On top of this, the wearing course was placed (about 50 mm thick with a maximum aggregate size of 25
mm). Macadam's reason for the 25 mm maximum aggregate size was to provide a "smooth" ride for
wagon wheels. Thus, the total depth of a typical Macadam pavement was about 250 mm.

In 1815, Macadam was appointed "surveyor-general" of the Bristol roads and was now able to use his
design on numerous projects. It proved successful enough that the term "macadamized" became a term for
this type of pavement design and construction. Macadam realized that the layers of broken stone would
eventually become "bound" together by fines generated by traffic. With the introduction of the rock
crusher, large mounds of stone dust and screenings were generated. This resulted in the use of such fines,
resulting in the more traditional dense graded base materials which in turn produced pavement
thicknesses as thin as 100 to 150 mm.

Road Development in India

The major developments, plans, and committees appointed for road development in
India were as follows:
● 1928 - Jayakar Committee
● 1929 - Central Road Fund
● 1934 - Indian Roads Congress (IRC)
● 1939 - Motor Vehicle Act
 ● 1943 - Nagpur Road Conference and plan
● 1950 - Central Road Research Institute (CRRI)
● 1956 - National Highway Act
● 1961 - Second twenty-year road plan
● 1973 - Highway Research Board
● 1978 - National Transport Policy Committee (NTPC)
● 1981 - Third twenty-year road development plan
● 1995 - National Highway Authority of India (NHAI)

Jayakar Committee

The Road Development Committee was appointed by the Government in 1927, with
M.R. Jayakar as the Chairman. The Jayakar Committee submitted its report in
1928. The most important recommendations made by the committee are:
● Road development in the country should be considered a national interest as it has become beyond
the capacity of provincial governments and local bodies.
● An extra tax should be levied on petrol from road users to develop a road development fund called
the 'Central Road Fund.'
● A semi-official technical body should be formed to pool technical know-how from various parts of
the country and act as an advisory body on various aspects of roads.
● A research organization should be instituted to carry out research and development work pertaining
to roads and be available for consultations.

Central Road Fund

Central Road Fund was formed in the year 1929. The semi-official technical body called the Indian Roads
Congress was formed in 1934, and the Central Road Research Institute was started in the year 1950.

At that period, consumers of petrol were charged an extra levy of 2.64 paisa per liter of petrol to build this
road development fund. 20 percent of the annual revenue was to be retained as a Central Reserve, from
which grants are to be given by the Central Government for meeting expenses on the administration of the
road fund, road experiments, and research on road and bridge projects of special importance. The balance
80 percent was to be allotted by the Central Government to various states based on actual petrol
consumption or the levy collected on the sale of petrol.

The Central Road Fund Act 2000 was notified in December 2000, which gave statutory status to the
existing Central Road Fund governed by a resolution of the Parliament in 1988.

Indian Roads Congress

At the instance of the central government, a semi-official technical body known as the Indian Roads
Congress (IRC) was formed in 1934. It may be recalled that this was one of the main recommendations
made by the Jayakar Committee. The Indian Roads Congress was constituted to provide a forum for
regular pooling of experience, technical knowledge, and ideas on all matters related to the planning,
construction, and maintenance of roads in India. The IRC prepares standard specifications and provides a
platform for the expression of professional opinion on matters relating to road engineering, including
those of organization and administration.

Motor Vehicles Act

In 1939, the Motor Vehicles Act was brought into effect by the Government of India to regulate road
traffic in the form of traffic laws, ordinances, and regulations. The three phases primarily covered are the
control of the driver, vehicle ownership, and vehicle operation on roads and in the traffic stream. The
Motor Vehicle Act has been appended with several ordinances subsequently. The Motor Vehicles Act of
1939.

Solidated and revised in the year 1988 and various laws regulating road transport were rationalized. The
Motor Vehicle Act - 1988 came into force from July 1989, replacing the 1939 Act.

2.2.5 Nagpur Road Conference and Plan

The First 20-year Road Development Plan in India was finalized for the period 1943-63 at the Nagpur
Road Conference. Therefore, this road development plan is popularly known as "Nagpur Road Plan." The
total target road length aimed at the end of this plan period was 16 km per 100 square km area of the
country.

During the first and second five-year plan periods (1951-56 and 1956-61), the road development
programme also was more systematic and hence the Nagpur Road Plan target of total road length was
achieved about two years ahead, in 1961. A committee was appointed to prepare the second 20-year road
development plan starting from the year 1961.

2.2.6 Central Road Research Institute

In the year 1950, the Central Road Research Institute (CRRI) was started at New Delhi for carrying out
research pertaining to road technology. It may be indicated that one of the recommendations of the
Jayakar Committee report was to set up a central organization for research and dissemination of
information.

2.2.7 National Highway Act

In 1956 the National Highway Act was passed in the country. Some of the main
features of the act include powers:
● To declare certain selected highways as 'National Highways, responsibility for the development
and maintenance of which to be with the central government
● To enter into any land for carrying out surveys
● To acquire land and take possession for the development of the national highway

The National Highway Act was subsequently revised and the 'National Highways Authority of India Act
1988 was passed by the Parliament of India in 1988. The National Highways Authority of India (NHAI)
started operating in February 1995.

2.2.8 Formation of NHAI

National Highways Authority of India (NHAI) was constituted by an Act of Parliament in 1988 under the
administrative control of the Ministry of Road Transport and Highways. NHAI has been set up as a
Central Authority to develop, maintain, and manage the National Highways entrusted to it by the
Government of India. The authority, however, became operational in February 1995. The Authority
consists of a full-time Chairman, and not more than five full-time Members and four part-time Members
who are appointed by the Central Government.

The part-time members are the Secretary (RT&H), Secretary (Expenditure), Secretary (Planning), and DG
(RD) & SS. NHAI has technical, Finance, Administrative, and Vigilance Wings at its Headquarters.
Project Implementation Units (PIUs) headed by a Project Director and supported by various technical and
accounts officers have been set up at various sites to oversee the timely completion of the projects.

2.2.9 Second twenty-year road development plan (1961-81)

The second 20-year Road Development Plan for the period 1961 to 1981 was initiated by the IRC and
was finalized in 1959 at the meeting of the Chief Engineers held at Mumbai and the same was forwarded
to the Government of India. The plan gave due consideration to the development that is actually taking
place and developments that have to take place in various regions of the country in different fields during
the plan period. The target road length at the end of this second 20-year road development plan was
almost double that of the Nagpur Road plan target, i.e., a total road length of 10,57,330 km or about 32
km per 100 sq. km area.

2.2.10 Third 20-year road development plan (1981-2001)

The Third 20-year road development plan 1981-2001 was prepared by the Roads Wing of the Ministry of
Transport with the active cooperation from a number of organizations and experts in the field of Highway
Engineering and Transportation. This document was released during the 45th Annual Session and the
Golden Jubilee celebrations of the Indian Road Congress in February 1985 at Lucknow. The third 20-year
road development plan aimed at increasing the total road length (including urban and project roads) from
15,02,700 km in the year 1981 to 27,02,000 km by the year 2001.
PAVEMENT

3.1 Introduction

A layered structure supported by the sub-grade soil to form the carriage-way of a road is called a road
pavement. A pavement is essentially constructed to fulfill the two basic requirements of the road, namely
the strength and a good riding surface. Thus, with the provision of pavement, the road can carry heavy
wheel loads of vehicular traffic and provide a smooth riding surface. The road pavements may be flexible
or rigid according to their method of construction and their structural action.

3.1.1 Purpose of road pavements:

● To carry heavy wheel loads of vehicular traffic and to distribute the same over a large area of the
underlying sub-grade soil.
● To prevent the sub-grade soil from the bad effects of weathering agencies.
● To provide a smooth riding surface.

3.1.2 Requirements of a good road pavement:

● It should be cheap and easy to construct.
● It should be structurally strong to withstand all types of stresses imposed upon it.
● It should have an adequate coefficient of friction to prevent the skidding of vehicles.
● It should be suitable for all types of vehicles.
 ● It should provide good visibility at night.

3.1.3 Component of Road

Figure 3.1 Cross-sectional elements of pavement

sumanth
Cross slope or camber
Cross slope or chamber is the slope provided to the road surface in the transverse direction to
drain off the rain water from the road surface. Drainage and quick disposal of water from the
pavement surface by providing cross slope is considered Important because of two reasons:

i. To prevent the entry of surface water into the subgrade soil through pavement, the
stability, surface condition and the life of the pavement get adversely affected if the water
enters in the subgrade and the soil gets soaked.

ii. To prevent the entry of water into the bituminous pavement layers, as continued contact
with water causes stripping of bitumen from the aggregates and results in deterioration of
the pavement layer.

Carriage way

The pavement or carriageway width depends on the width of traffic lane and number of lanes.
The carriageway intended for one line of traffic movement may be called a traffic lane. The lane
width is determined on the basis of the width of vehicle and the minimum side clearance which
may be provided for the safety.

Table 3.1 Width of Carriageway

Class of road Width of carriageway
Single lane 3.75m

Two lanes, with raised kerbs 7.0m

Two lanes, without raised kerbs 7.5m
Intermediate carriageway 5.5m
Multi-lane Pavement 3.5m per lane

Kerb

Kerb indicates the boundary between the pavement and shoulder; or sometimes islands or foot
path or kerb parking space. It is desirable to provide kerbs on urban roads. There are a variety of
kerb designs. Kerts may be mainly divided in three groups based on their functions.

1. Low kerb or mountable type kerb encourages traffic to remain through traffic lanes, yet
allows the driver to enter the shoulder area at slow speed. The height of this type of kerb
is about 100mm above the pavement edge with a slope or batter to enable vehicles to
climb the kerb at slow speed.
This type of kerb is provided at medians and channelization schemes and is also useful
for
 longitudinal drainage system.
2. Semi- barrier type kerb is provided on the periphery of a roadway where the pedestrian
traffic is high. This type of kerb has a height of about 150mm above the pavement edge.

3. Barrier type kerb is provided in built-up areas adjacent to footpaths with considerable
pedestrian traffic. The height of the kerb stone is about 200mm above the pavement edge.
At times submerged kerb is provided on rural roads between pavement edge and
shoulders. The submerged kerb provides lateral confinement and stability to the flexible
pavements in general and to granular base course of pavements in particular.

Median

 A median in a road is an area that separates incoming traffic from traffic going in the
same direction. Road median is commonly used where there are separate lanes traveling
in opposite directions
 The main function is to prevent head on collision between the vehicle moving in opposite
direction.
 Channelize traffic into streams at intersection.
 Segregate slow traffic and to protect pedestrians.
 IRC recommends a minimum desirable width of 5 m and may be reduce to 3 m where
land is restricted.

Road margin

 The various elements included in the road margins are shoulder, parking lane, frontage
road, driveway, cycle track, footpath, guard rail and embankment slope.

 Shoulders are provided along the road edge to serve as an emergency lane for vehicle
compelled to be taken out of the pavement or roadway. Shoulders also act as service
lanes for vehicles that have broken down. It is desirable to have a minimum shoulder
width of 4.6 m so that a truck stationed at the side of the shoulder would have a clearance
of 1.85 m from the pavement edge. The minimum shoulder width recommended by the
IRC is 2.5 m.
3.2 Types of Pavements:

Based on structural behavior, road pavement is generally classified into two categories namely

1. Flexible Pavement
2. Rigid Pavement

3.2.1 Flexible Pavement

Flexible pavements are those, which on the whole have low or negligible flexural strength and
are rather flexible in their structural action under the loads. The flexible pavement layers reflect
the deformation of the lower layers on-to the surface of the layer. Thus, if the lower layer of the
pavement or soil subgrade is undulated, the flexible pavement surface also gets undulated. A
typical flexible pavement consists of four components: (i)soil subgrade (ii) sub-base course (iii)
base course and (iv) surface course.

The flexible pavement layers transmit the vertical or compressive stresses to the lower layers by
grain-to-grain transfer through the points of contact in the granular structure. A well compacted
granular structure consisting of strong graded aggregate can transfer the compressive stresses
through a wider area and thus forms a good flexible pavement layer. The load spreading ability
of this layer therefore depends on the type of the materials and the mix design factors.

Bituminous concrete is one of the best flexible pavement layer materials other materials which
fall under the group are, all granular materials with or without bituminous binder, granular base
and sub-base course materials like the Water Bound Macadam, crushed aggregate, gravel, soil-
aggregate mixes etc.

The vertical compressive stress is maximum on the pavement surface directly under the wheel
load and is equal to the contact pressure under the wheel. Due to the ability to distributed the
stresses to larger area in shape of truncated cone the stresses get decreased at lower layers

The flexible pavement is commonly designed sing empirical design chart or equation taking into
account of some of design factors.
3.2.1.1 Advantages of flexible pavement

 Flexible pavements are generally designed and constructed for a design life of 15 years.
However, if there is a constraint of funds, it is possible to decrease the initial cost of
flexible pavement by resorting to design and construction in two stages.
 It is possible to resort to 'milling and recycling' technique and thus utilize substantial
portion of damaged bituminous pavement layers. This results in high salvage value of
deteriorated flexible pavement material
 The functional evaluation studies can be carried out at desired intervals and the
deteriorated functional condition of the road surface can be restored with a thin
bituminous re- surfacing layer
 The combined effect of wheel loads of different magnitudes, their repetitions and growth
rate are taken into account in the design in terms of 'Cumulative Standard Axles' (CSA)
 The curing period for bituminous surface course is less and hence the surface can be
opened to traffic within 24 hours

3.2.1.2 Components of flexible pavement

Layers of flexible pavement

Sub-grade layer

 The sub-grade is the lowermost layer of the flexible pavement and usually consists of a
compacted layer of natural soil. Its primary function is to bear all the imposed stresses
from the upper layers.
 The finished surface of the sub grade should be well compacted so that it prevents
compressive under heavy traffic load and provides good support to road pavement.
 Sub grade is the bottom most layer which is nothing but natural soil layer compacted up
to required depth generally about 150 to 300 mm to receive the loads coming from top
layers. This layer termed as foundation for the pavement system.
 The material to be used in sub grade shall be non-expansive and shall satisfy design CBR
at the specified dry density and moisture content. In case the available materials fail to
meet the requirement of CBR, use of stabilization methods.
 The pavement thickness should be based on 4-day soaked CBR value of the soil,
remolded at placement density (minimum 97% of maximum Proctor compaction test
density) and optimum moisture content ascertained from the compaction curve.
 Compaction and dry density requirement for sub grade Not less than 97% and 17.5
kN/cum respectively.
 Tolerance of subgrade is ± 20mm
Sub-base course

The sub-base layer serves three functions:

1. to provide a strong support for the compaction of the granular base (WMM/WBM) layer
2. to protect the sub grade from over stressing
3. to serve as drainage and filter layers.

The sub-base layers can be made of granular material which can be unbound or chemically
stabilized with additives such as cement, lime, fly ash and other cementations stabilizers.

Table 3.2 Physical requirement for materials for granular sub-base

Aggregate Impact Value (AIV) Maximum 40

Liquid limit Maximum 25

Plasticity Index Maximum 6

CBR at 98% dry density Minimum 30 unless otherwise specified in the

contract.

Cementitious (Cement Treated) Sub-base (CTSB) Layer

 The material used for cementitious (cement treated) sub-base may consist of soil, river
 bed materials, natural gravel aggregates, reclaimed concrete aggregates, crushed
aggregates or soil aggregate mixture modified with different cementitious materials such
as cement, lime, lime fly ash, commercially available stabilizers, etc.
 The recommended minimum thickness for CTSB layer is 200 mm.
 The cemented sub-base shall be cured for a minimum of three days before the
construction of next layer.
 The recommended aggregates gradation for CTSB is Grading 4.
 Tolerance of sub base is ± 10mm

Base course

 Mainly, hard crushed aggregates are used in the construction of this layer. The base
course is the backbone of flexible pavement.
 The unbound base layer consists of wet mix macadam, water bound macadam, crusher
run macadam, reclaimed concrete, etc.
 Wet Mix Macadam is a pavement layer that involves combining crushed graded
aggregates and granular material, such as graded coarse sand, with water in a mixing
plant. This mixture is then rolled onto a prepared surface to create a dense mass.
Compared to WBM (Water Bound Macadam) construction, it offers numerous
 advantages, including superior aggregate gradation, faster construction rates, higher
densification standards, reduced water consumption, and stricter quality standards.
 The thickness of the unbound granular layer shall not be less than 150 mm except for the
crack relief layer placed over cement treated base for which the thickness shall be 100
mm.
 Tolerance of base course is ± 6 mm
 Prime coat: In order to bond two layers together, a binder layer is placed on an absorbent
surface, such as granular bases, and low viscosity cutback bitumen is applied to it. Prime
coat, in contrast to tack coat, penetrates into the layer beneath, fills in the gaps, and
creates a watertight surface.

Binder course

 The binder course is the intermediate layer between the surface course and the base
course and duly transmits the wheel load from the surface to the base course. It is a
bitumen-bound aggregate (nominal size) layer.
 Dense Bituminous Macadam (DBM) Pavement: DBM pavement is similar to bituminous
concrete pavement but does not have a separate surface layer. It consists of multiple
layers of crushed stone aggregates bound together with bitumen. DBM pavement is
 commonly used as a base course layer in road construction.
 A bituminous pavement generally consists of bituminous surfacing course and a
bituminous base/binder course.
 For expressways and national highways, even if the design traffic is less than 20 msa,
VG40 or modified bitumen shall be used for surface course and VG40 bitumen shall be
used for the DBM.
 Tolerance of binder course is ± 6mm.
 Tack coat: A very thin layer of asphalt emulsion diluted with water is used as a "tack
coat" to promote bonding between two layers of binder course. It must be extremely thin,
evenly cover the entire area, and dry quickly.
Surface course

 The surface course is the topmost layer of the flexible pavement and is generally the layer
of the best quality as it has to withstand maximum stress and wear and tear. It is primarily
designed to resist the imposed loads, prevent water ingress to the underlying layers, and
ensure a skid-resistant riding surface.
 Bituminous concrete, also known as asphalt concrete, is a composite material made of
aggregate (such as sand or gravel) and bitumen (a sticky, black substance that is a form of
asphalt). It is a versatile material that is used in a variety of applications, including road
construction, roofing, and paving.
 Bituminous concrete is a strong and durable material that is resistant to water and
weathering. It is also relatively inexpensive to produce and maintain.
 Tolerance of subgrade is ± 6 mm
 Seal coat: It is a thin surface treatment used to water proof the surface and to provide
skid resistance.
3.2.2 Rigid pavement

Rigid pavement are those which possess noteworthy flexural strength or flexural rigidity. The
stresses are not transferred from grain to grain to the lower layers as in the ease of flexible
pavement layers. The rigid pavemenare made of Portland cement concrete-either plain,
reinforced or prestressed concrete, The plain cem concrete slabs are expected to take-up about 40
kg/cm² flexural stress.

The rigid pavement has the slab action and is capable of transmitting the wheel load stresses
through a wider area bel The main point of difference in the structural behaviors of rigid
pavement as compared to the flexible pavement is that the critical condition of stress in the rigid
pavement is the maximum flexural stress occurring in the slab due to wheel load and the
temperature changes where-as in the flexible pavement it is distribution of compressive stresses.

As the rigid pavement slab has tensile strength, tensile stresses are developed due to the bending
of the slab under with load and temperature variations. Thus, the types of stresses developed and
their distribution win the cement concrete slab are quite different. The rigid pavement does not
get deformed to the shape of lower surface as it can bridge the minor variations of lower layer.

3.2.2.1 Advantages of rigid pavement

 Rigid pavements, especially those made of high-quality concrete, are known for their
durability. They can withstand heavy loads and traffic for an extended period without
significant deterioration.
 Due to the durability, rigid pavements often have a longer service life compared to flexible
pavement such as asphalt). This can result in lower maintenance and rehabilitation costs over
time.
 Rigid pavements generally require less maintenance than flexible pavements. They are less
prone to deformatie rutting, and other surface irregularities, reducing the need for frequent
repairs.
 Rigid pavements have excellent load-bearing capacity, making them suitable for areas with
heavy traffic or industrial applications where there is a need to support substantial loads.
 While theoratical construction cost of rigid pavements may be higher than that of flexible
 pavements, the lower maintenance requirements and longer service life can lead to lower
overall life cycle.

3.2.2.2 Component of rigid Pavement

Figure 3.7 Components of rigid pavement

Soil subgrade

The subgrade is the lowest layer of the pavement layer system which ultimately supports all
other pavement component layers and traffic loads.

Granular sub-base or drainage layer

The GSB course have to serve as an effective drainage layer of the rigid pavement to prevent
early failures due to excessive moisture content in the subgrade soil. It also supports the other
pavement layers.

Dry Lean Concrete (DLC)

 The granular base course is generally provided under the CC pavement slab in low- volume
roads and also in roads with moderate traffic loads.
 On carrying heavy to very heavy traffic loads, high quality base course materials such as lean
cement concrete or 'dry lean concrete' (DLC) are preferred in the base course of the CC
 pavements as they are designed for a life of 30 years or more.

PQC (Pavement Quality Concrete)

PQC stands for Pavement Quality Concrete made with larger size aggregates following IRC
specifications and laid over a Dry Lean Concrete (DLC), concrete sub base course. PQC
construction is explicitly used for highway concrete pavements and runway pavements to take
heavy loads.

3.3 Difference between flexible pavement and rigid pavement.

Figure 3.8 Different layers of flexible and rigid pavement

Table 3.3 Difference between flexible pavement and rigid pavement

Flexible Pavement Rigid Pavement

Flexible pavement has very low flexural Rigid pavements have a great amount of
strength and is flexible in its structural action flexural strength or flexural rigidity. In this
under vehicle loads. In this pavement, the pavement, the load is distributed by the slab
wheel load stresses are transferred from grain action, and the pavement acts as an elastic
to grain to the lower layers. plate.

Have low flexural strength. Have sufficient flexural Strength.

 Constructed using bituminous materials like Constructed using Portland cement.
asphalt.

Can be opened to traffic shortly after Require curing, which delays the opening to
construction. traffic.

Provides poor night visibility due to the Concrete offers good night visibility.
colour of asphalt

Initial Cost is less whereas maintenance cost Initial cost is more whereas maintenance cost
is more. is less.

It is less durable. It is more durable.

4 JOINTS IN CEMENT CONCRETE PAVEMENT

Joints are purposefully placed discontinuities in a rigid pavement surface course. All types of
joints are used in rigid pavement construction methods for all PCC pavement types. CRCP uses
longitudinal reinforcing steel in order to limit the number of transverse contraction joints, but it
still uses longitudinal joints and periodic transverse joints.

Joints can be formed in two ways. Contraction joints are most often sawed in after PCC
placement. Others such as expansion, isolation and construction joints, are created by formwork
before the PCC is placed. Each one of these methods of joint construction has its own method
and set of considerations.

Requirement of good joint

a) Joint must move freely.

 b) Joint must not allow infiltration of rain water and ingress of stone grits.
c) Joint must not protrude out the general level of the slab.
4.1 Types of joints
1. Transverse joint
a) Expansion Joint
b) Contraction Joint
c) Warping Joints
d) Construction Joints
2. Longitudinal Joints

4.1.1 Transverse Joints

Expansion joints

These joints are provided to allow for expansion of the slabs due to rise in slab temperature
above the construction temperature of cement concrete. Expansion joints also permit the
contraction of slabs. Expansion joints in India are provided at interval of 50 to 60 metre for
smooth interface laid in winter and 90 to 120 meters for smooth interface laid in summer.
However, for rough interface the spacing between expansion joint may be 140m. The
approximate gap width for this type of joints is from 20-25mm.It may be stated here that the
break in slab, continuity forming a joint adds a weaker plane in the cement concrete pavement.
The stresses include due to the wheel loads at such joints are of very high order at the edge and
corner regions.
 Figure 4.1 Expansion Joints

Dowel bar

 The load transference across the transverse joint is carried out through a system of
reinforcement provided at suitable intervals projecting in the concrete in longitudinal
direction upto 60 cm length. Such a device is named as dowel bar.
 In the expansion joint, thus load transference is affected through a system of dowel bars.
Dowel bars are embedded and kept fixed in concrete at one end and the other end is kept
free to expand contract by providing a thin coating of bitumen over it.
 Metal cap is provided at this end to offer a space of about 2.5 cm for movements during
expansion. In the design, 40 percent of wheel load is expected to be taken up by the
group of dowel bars and transferred to the adjoining slab. Spacing between the dowel
bars is generally adopted as 30 cm.
 The size of the dowel varies with pavement thickness and it ranges between 20 to 30 mm.
The total length of dowel bar varies between 40 cm to 73 cm depending upon the dowel
diameter
Figure 4.2 Dowel bars

Contraction Joints

Contraction joints are provided to permit the contraction of the slab. These joints are spaced
closer than expansion joints. Load transference at the joints is provided through the physical
interlocking by the aggregates projecting out at the joint faces. As per IRC specifications, the
maximum spacing of contraction joints in unreinforced CC slabs is 4.5 m and in reinforced slab
of thickness 20 cm is 14 m.

Since it is recommended to provide contraction joints at close spacing, there seems to be no need
of providing any load transference, as mainly this will be done by the aggregate interlocking. For
added safety, some agencies recommended the use of dowel bar which are fully bounded in the
concrete.

Figure 4.3 Contraction Joint

Warping joints

The warping joints are provided to relieve stresses included due to warping. These are known as
hinged joints. Longitudinal joints with tie bars fall in this class of joints. These joints are rarely
needed if the suitably designed expansion and contraction joints are provided to prevent cracking

Construction Joints

A construction joint is a joint between slabs that results when concrete is placed at different
times. This type of joint can be further broken down into transverse and longitudinal
construction. Longitudinal construction joints also allow slab warping without appreciable
separation or cracking of the slabs.

Figure 4.4 Construction Joint

4.1.2 Longitudinal joints

Longitudinal joints are provided in cement concrete roads which have width over 4.5 m. On soil
subgrade of clay, such joints are provided to allow differential shrinkage and swelling due to
rapid changes in prevent longitudinal cracking in the cement concrete pavements. This type of
joint acts as a hinge and subgrade moisture under the edges than under the Centre of road. The
longitudinal joints are provided to helps to minimize the two slabs together, at the same level.