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Essentials of
Dental Radiography
and Radiology
Dedication
To Catriona, Stuart, Felicity and Claudia

Commissioning Editor: Micheal Parkinson

Project Development Manager: Jim Killgore
Project Manager: Frances Affleck
Designer: Erik Bigland
Essentials of
Dental Radiography
and Radiology
WRITTEN AND ILLUSTRATED BY

Eric Whaites
MSc BDS(Hons) FDSRCS(Edin) DDRRCR LDSRCS(Eng)

Senior Lecturer and Honorary Consultant in Dental Radiology in charge

of the Department of Dental Radiology, Guy's, King's and St Thomas'
Dental Institute, King's College, University of London, London, UK

FOREWORD BY
R. A. CaWSOn MDFRCPathFDS

Emeritus Professor in Oral Medicine and Pathology in the University of London, UK

CHURCHILL
LIVINGSTONE

EDINBURGH LONDON NEW YORK OXFORD PHILADELPHIA ST LOUIS SYDNEY TORONTO 2002
CHURCHILL LIVINGSTONE
An imprint of Elsevier Science Limited
© Longman Group UK Limited 1992
© Pearson Professional Limited 1996
© Harcourt Publishers Limited 2002
© Elsevier Science Limited 2003
The right of Eric Whaites to be identified as author of this work
has been asserted by him in accordance with the Copyright,
Designs and Patents Act 1988

No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a

retrieval system, or transmitted in any form or by any means,
electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise,
without either the prior permission of the publishers or a
licence permitting restricted copying in the United
Kingdom issued by the Copyright Licensing Agency,
90 Tottenham Court Road, London WIT 4LP.
Permissions may be sought directly from Elsevier's
Health Sciences Rights Department in Philadelphia, USA:
phone: (+1) 215 238 7869, fax: (+1) 215 238 2239,
e-mail: [email protected]. You may also
complete your request on-line via the Elsevier Science
homepage (http://www.elsevier.com), by selecting
'Customer Support' and then 'Obtaining Permissions'.
First edition 1992
Second edition 1996
Third edition 2002
Reprinted 2003
ISBN 0443-07027-X

British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data

A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library

Library of Congress Cataloging in Publication Data

A catalog record for this book is available from the Library of Congress
Note
Medical knowledge is constantly changing. As new information
becomes available, changes in treatment, procedures, equipment
and the use of drugs become necessary. The author and the
publishers have taken care to ensure that the information given in
this text is accurate and up to date. However, readers are strongly
advised to confirm that the information, especially with regard to
drug usage, complies with the latest legislation and standards of
practice.
your source for books,
ELSEVIER journals and multimedia
in the health sciences
www.elsevierhealth.com

The
publisher's
policy is to use
paper manufactured
from sustainable forests

Printed in China
Contents

Foreword ix 15. Dental panoramic tomography 161

Preface xi
16. Factors affecting the radiographic image,
Acknowledgements xiii
film faults and quality assurance 177
17. Alternative and specialized imaging
Part 1
modalities 191
Introduction
1. The radiographic image 3 Part 5
Radiology
Part 2 18. Introduction to radiological
Radiation physics and equipment interpretation 211
2. The production, properties and interactions 19. Dental caries and the assessment of
of X-rays 15 restorations 217
3. Dose units and dosimetry 25 20. The periapical tissues 229
4. The biological effects and risks associated 21. The periodontal tissues and periodontal
with X-rays 29 disease 241
5. X-ray equipment, films and processing 33 22. Implant assessment 253
23. Developmental abnormalities 261
Part 3
24. Radiological differential diagnosis -
Radiation protection
describing a lesion 285
6. Radiation protection 53
25. Differential diagnosis of radiolucent lesions
of the jaws 291
Part 4
26. Differential diagnosis of lesions of variable
Radiography
radiopacity in the jaws 317
7. Dental radiography - general patient
27. The maxillary antra 335
considerations including control of
infection 69 28. Trauma to the teeth and facial
skeleton 347
8. Periapical radiography 75
29. The temporomandibular joint 371
9. Bitewing radiography 101
30. Bone diseases of radiological
10. Occlusal radiography 101
importance 389
11. Oblique lateral radiography 117
31. Disorders of the salivary glands and
12. Skull and maxillofacial radiography 125 sialography 403
13. Cephalometric radiography 145 Bibliography and suggested reading 415
14. Tomography 153 Index 419
This page intentionally left blank
Foreword

I am flattered to have been asked to write another of the second edition were demanded, has
Foreword to Eric Whaites' excellent text. It has confirmed that its qualities had been appreciated.
been a great pleasure to see how successful this There is little therefore that one needs to add
book has been. With the appearance of the first except to encourage readers to take advantage of
edition it was obvious that it provided an unusu- all that this book offers.
ally clear, concise and comprehensive exposition
of the subject. However, its success speaks for R.A.C.
itself and the fact that no fewer than three reprints 2002
This page intentionally left blank
Preface

This new edition has been prompted by the intro- as well as by students of the Professions
duction of new legislation and guidance on the Complementary to Dentistry (PCDs). It therefore
use of ionising radiation in the UK. In addition to remains first and foremost a teaching manual,
providing a summary of these new regulations I rather than a comprehensive reference book. The
have taken the opportunity to update certain content remains sufficiently detailed to satisfy the
chapters and encompass many of the helpful sug- requirements of most undergraduate and post-
gestions and comments I have received from graduate dental examinations.
reviewers, colleagues and students. In particular I As in previous editions some things have
have increased the number of examples of many inevitably had to be omitted, or sometimes, over-
of the pathological conditions so that a range of simplified in condensing a very large and often
appearances is illustrated. complex subject. The result I hope is a clear, logical
However, the aims and objectives of the book and easily understandable text, that continues to
remain unchanged from the first edition, namely make a positive contribution to the challenging task
to provide a basic and practical account of what I of teaching and learning dental radiology.
consider to be the essential subject matter of both
dental radiography and radiology needed by London E.W.
undergraduate and postgraduate dental students, 2002
This page intentionally left blank
Acknowledgements

Once again this edition has only been possible Professor Richard Palmer (Chapter 22),
thanks to the enormous amount of help and Professor Peter Morgan and Dr Eddie Odell
encouragement that I have received from my (Chapters 25 and 26), Mr Peter Longhurst
family, friends and colleagues. (Chapter 28) and Mr Paul Robinson (Chapters
In particular I would like to thank the members 28 and 29). My thanks also to the many col-
of staff in my Department both past and present. leagues and students who provided comments
Mrs Jackie Brown and Mr Nicholas Drage have and feedback on the second edition that I hope
provided invaluable help throughout including have led to improvements.
providing me with illustrations, their advice and Special thanks to Mr Andrew Dyer and
constructive comments. Mr Brian O'Riordan Mrs Emma Wing of the GKT Department of
painstakingly commented on every chapter and Photography, Printing and Design who spent so
offered a wide range of helpful advice before his many hours producing the new clinical photo-
retirement. As both my teacher and colleague he graphs and new radiographic illustrations which
has been an inspiration throughout my career and are so crucial to a book that relies heavily on visual
I shall miss his wise counsel. I am also particularly images. My thanks also to Miss Julie Cooper for
indebted to Professor David Smith for allowing willingly sitting as the photographic model.
me to plunder his radiographic collection to Mrs Wendy Fenton helped with the proof-
enable me to increase the number of illustrations reading for which I am very grateful. My thanks
of many pathological conditions. Grateful thanks also to Mr Graham Birnie, Mr Jim Killgore and
also to Mrs Nadine White, Ms Jocelyn Sewell, Ms the staff of Harcourt for their help and advice in
Sharon Duncan, Miss Julie Cooper, Miss Amanda the production process.
Medlin, Mrs Cathy Sly, Mrs Wendy Fenton and It is easy to forget the help provided with the
Miss Allisson Summer-field for their collective initial manuscript for the first edition several years
help and encouragement. I am indeed fortunate ago, but without the help of Professor Rod
to work with such an able and supportive team. Cawson this book would never have been pro-
My thanks to the following for their help and duced in the first place. My thanks once again to
advice with specific chapters: Dr Neil Lewis him and to my various colleagues who helped with
(Chapter 6), Mr Peter Hirschmann, Mr Tony the previous editions.
Hudson, Mr Ian Napier and the NRPB for allow- Finally, once again a very special thank you to
ing me to reproduce parts of the 2001 Guidance my wife Catriona for all her help, advice, support
Notes (Chapter 6), Mr Guy Palmer and Dr and encouragement throughout the production of
Carole Boyle (Chapter 7), Professor Fraser this edition and to my children Stuart, Felicity
Macdonald (Chapter 13), Ms Penny Gage and Claudia for their understanding that precious
(Chapter 17), Mr Sohaib Safiullah (Chapter 21), family time has had to be sacrificed.
This page intentionally left blank
Introduction
This page intentionally left blank
 1 The radiographic image

Introduction The final image can be described as a two-

dimensional picture made up of a variety of black,
The use of X-rays is an integral part of clinical white and grey superimposed shadows and is thus
dentistry, with some form of radiographic exami- sometimes referred to as a shadowgraph (see
nation necessary on the majority of patients. As a Fig. 1.1).
result, radiographs are often referred to as the Understanding the nature of the shadowgraph
clinician's main diagnostic aid. and interpreting the information contained within
The range of knowledge of dental radiography it requires a knowledge of:
and radiology thus required can be divided conve- • The radiographic shadows
niently into four main sections: • The three-dimensional anatomical tissues
• Basic physics and equipment — the production of • The limitations imposed by a two-dimensional
X-rays, their properties and interactions which picture and superimposition.
result in the formation of the radiographic image
• Radiation protection — the protection of The radiographic shadows
patients and dental staff from the harmful
effects of X-rays The amount the X-ray beam is stopped (attenu-
• Radiography — the techniques involved in ated) by an object determines the radiodensity of
producing the various radiographic images the shadows:
• Radiology — the interpretation of these • The white or radiopaque shadows on a film
radiographic images. represent the various dense structures within
Understanding the radiographic image is the object which have totally stopped the X-ray
central to the entire subject. This chapter provides beam.
an introduction to the nature of this image and to • The black or radiolucent shadows represent
some of the factors that affect its quality and areas where the X-ray beam has passed through
perception. the object and has not been stopped at all.
• The grey shadows represent areas where the
X-ray beam has been stopped to a varying
Nature of the radiographic image degree.
The final shadow density of any object is thus
The image is produced by X-rays passing through
affected by:
an object and interacting with the photographic
emulsion on a film. This interaction results in • The specific type of material of which the
blackening of the film. The extent to which the object is made
emulsion is blackened depends on the number of • The thickness or density of the material
X-rays reaching the film, which in turn depends • The shape of the object
on the density of the object. • The intensity of the X-ray beam used
4 Essentials of dental radiography and radiology

Fig. 1.1 A typical dental radiograph. The image shows the various black, grey and
white radiographic shadows.

Fig. 1.3(i) Front view of four apparently similar cylinders

Fig. 1.2(i) Front view and (ii) plan view of various cylinders made from plaster of Paris, (ii) Plan view shows the
of similar shape but made of different materials: A plaster of cylinders have varying internal designs and thicknesses.
Paris, B hollow plastic, C metal, D wood, (iii) Radiographs (iii) Radiographs of the apparently similar cylinders show
of the cylinders show how objects of the same shape, but of how objects of similar shape and material, but of different
different materials, produce different radiographic images. densities, produce different radiographic images.
 The radiograph ic image 5

Fig. 1.4(1) Front view of five apparently similar cylinders

made from plaster of Paris, (ii) Plan view shows the objects
are in fact different shapes, (iii) Radiographs show how
objects of different shape, but made of the same material,
produce different radiographic images.
Fig. 1.5(1) Front view and (ii) plan view of four cylinders
made from plaster of Paris but of different diameters.
(iii) Four radiographs using different intensity X-ray beams
show how increasing the intensity of the X-ray beam causes
greater penetration of the object with less attenuation, hence
the less radiopaque (white) shadows of the object that are
produced, particularly of the smallest cylinder.

• The position of the object in relation to the three-dimensional anatomy responsible for the
X-ray beam and film image must be considered (see Fig. 1.6). A sound
• The sensitivity of the film. anatomical knowledge is obviously a prerequisite
for radiological interpretation (see Ch. 18).
The effect of different materials, different
thicknesses/densities, different shapes and differ-
ent X-ray beam intensities on the radiographic The limitations imposed by a two-
image shadows are shown in Figures 1.2-1.5. dimensional image and superimposition
The main limitations of viewing the two-
The three-dimensional anatomical tissues dimensional image of a three-dimensional object
are:
The shape, density and thickness of the patient's
tissues, principally the hard tissues, must also • Appreciating the overall shape of the object
affect the radiographic image. Therefore, when • Superimposition and assessing the location
viewing two-dimensional radiographic images, the and shape of structures within an object.
6 Essentials of dental radiography and radiology

Cortical bone
of the socket,
producing the
radiological
dura

^ Cancellous or
"^s, trabecular bone
producing the
radiological
trabecular
pattern Cortical bone
Dense compact of the socket
bone of the
lower border
Buccal
cortical
plate
Lingual
cortical Cancellous or
plate trabecular
bone

Inferior dental
canal

Fig. 1.6A (i) Sagittal and (ii) coronal sections through the body of a dried mandible showing the hard tissue anatomy and
internal bone pattern.

Periodontal ligament space

Lamina dura

Trabecular pattern

Fig. 1.6B Two-dimensional radiographic image of the three-dimensional mandibular anatomy.

 The radiographic image 7

Front view Side view Plan view

Fig. 1.7 Diagram illustrating three views of a house. The side view shows that there is a corridor at the back of the house
leading to a tall tower. The plan view provides the additional pieces of information that the roof of the tall tower is round and
that the corridor is curved.

Appreciating the overall shape the architect to describe the whole house from the
To visualize all aspects of any three-dimensional front view alone.
object, it must be viewed from several different
positions. This can be illustrated by considering
an object such as a house, and the minimum infor- Superimposition and assessing the location
mation required if an architect is to draw all and shape of structures -within an object
aspects of the three-dimensional building in two The shadows cast by different parts of an object
dimensions (see Fig. 1.7). Unfortunately, it is only (or patient) are superimposed upon one another
too easy for the clinician to forget that teeth and on the final radiograph. The image therefore pro-
patients are three-dimensional. To expect one vides limited or even misleading information as to
radiograph to provide all the required information where a particular internal structure lies, or to its
about the shape of a tooth or patient is like asking shape, as shown in Figure 1.8.

Fig. 1.8 Radiograph of the head from the front (an

occipitomental view) taken with the head tipped back, as
described later in Chapter 12. This positioning lowers
the dense bones of the base of the skull and raises the
facial bones so avoiding superimposition of one on the
other. A radiopaque (white) object (arrowed) can be
seen apparently in the base of the right nasal cavity.
 8 Essentials of dental radiography and radiology

In addition, a dense radiopaque shadow on These limitations of the conventional radi-

one side of the head may overlie an area of radi- ographic image have very important clinical impli-
olucency on the other, so obscuring it from view, cations and may be the underlying reason for a
or a radiolucent shadow may make a superim- negative radiographic report. The fact that a partic-
posed radiopaque shadow appear less opaque. ular feature or condition is not visible on one
One clinical solution to these problems is to take radiograph does not mean that the feature or con-
two views, at right angles to one another (see dition does not exist, merely that it cannot be
Figs 1.9 and 1.10). Unfortunately, even two seen. Many of the recently developed alternative
views may still not be able to provide all the and specialized imaging modalities described in
desired information for a diagnosis to be made Chapter 17 have been designed to try to overcome
(see Fig. 1.11). these limitations.

Fig. 1.9 Radiograph of the head from the side (a true lateral skull view) of the same patient shown in Figure 1.8. The
radiopaque (white) object (arrowed) now appears intracranially just above the skull base. It is in fact a metallic aneurysm clip
positioned on an artery in the Circle of Willis at the base of the brain. The dotted line indicates the direction of the X-ray beam
required to produce the radiograph in Figure 1.8, illustrating how an intracranial metallic clip can appear to be in the nose.
 The radiographic image 9

Similar Different Similar

images images images

Fig. 1.10 Diagrams illustrating the limitations of a two- Fig. 1.11 Diagrams illustrating the problems of
dimensional image: A Postero-anterior views of a head superimposition. Lateral views of the same masses shown in
containing a mass in a different position or of a different Figure 1.10 but with an additional radiodense object
shape. In all the examples, the mass will appear as a similar superimposed. This produces a similar image in each case
sized opaque image on the radiograph, providing no with no evidence of the mass. The information obtained
differentiating information on its position or shape. B The previously is now obscured and the usefulness of using two
lateral or side view provides a possible solution to the views at right angles is negated.
problems illustrated in A; the masses now produce different
images.

Quality of the radiographic image

Overall image quality and the amount of detail These factors are in turn dependent on several
shown on a radiograph depend on several factors, variables, relating to the density of the object, the
including: image receptor and the X-ray equipment. They
are discussed in greater detail in Chapter 16.
• Contrast — the visual difference between the
However, to introduce how the geometrical accu-
various black, white and grey shadows
racy and detail of the final image can be influ-
• Image geometry — the relative positions of the
enced, two of the main factors are considered
film, object and X-ray tubehead
• Characteristics of the X-ray beam below.
• Image sharpness and resolution.
10 Essentials of dental radiography and radiology

Positioning of the film, object and X-ray

beam
The position of the X-ray beam, object and film
needs to satisfy certain basic geometrical require- Parallel X-ray
beam meeting both
ments. These include: the object and film
• The object and the film should be in contact at right angles
or as close together as possible
• The object and the film should be parallel to
one another
• The X-ray tubehead should be positioned so Film and object
that the beam meets both the object and the parallel and in
contact
film at right angles.
Fig. 1.12 Diagram illustrating the ideal geometrical
These ideal requirements are shown diagram- relationship between the film, object and X-ray beam.
matically in Figure 1.12. The effects on the final
image of varying the position of the object, film or
X-ray beam are shown in Figure 1.13.

Image Image
elongated foreshortened

Object position
not ideal
Film position not ideal

Image
distorted

X-ray beam
position not ideal

Fig. 1.13A Diagrams showing the effect on the final image of varying the position of A the film, B the object and C the X-ray
beam.
 The radiographic image 11

Fig. 1.14 Radiographs of the same

area showing variation in contrast —
the visual difference in the black, white
and grey shadows due to the
penetration of the X-ray beam.
A Increased exposure
(overpenetration). B Normal
exposure. C Reduced exposure
(underpenetration).

X-ray beam characteristics with limited information in the form of different

density shadows. To complete the picture, the
The ideal X-ray beam used for imaging should be:
clinician fills in the gaps, but we do not all neces-
• Sufficiently penetrating, to pass through the sarily do this in the same way and may arrive
patient and react with the film emulsion and at different conclusions. Three non-clinical
produce good contrast between the different examples are shown in Figure 1.15. Clinically,
shadows (Fig. 1.14) our differing perceptions may lead to different
• Parallel, i.e. non-diverging, to prevent diagnoses.
magnification of the image
• Produced from a point source, to reduce
Effect of contrast
blurring of the edges of the image, a
phenomenon known as the penumbra effect. The apparent density of a particular radiographic
shadow can be affected considerably by the
These ideal characteristics are discussed
density of the surrounding shadows. In other
further in Chapter 5.
words, the contrast between adjacent structures
can alter the perceived density of one or both of
them (see Fig. 1.16). This is of particular impor-
Perception of the radiographic image
tance in dentistry, where metallic restorations
produce densely white radiopaque shadows that
The verb to perceive means to apprehend with the
can affect the apparent density of the adjacent
mind using one or more of the senses. Perception is
tooth tissue. This is discussed again in Chapter 19
the act or faculty of perceiving. In radiology, we use
in relation to caries diagnosis.
our sense of sight to perceive the radiographic
image, but, unfortunately, we cannot rely com-
pletely on what we see. The apparently simple Effect of context
black, white and grey shadowgraph is a form of
The environment or context in which we see an
optical illusion (from the Latin illudere, meaning to
image can affect how we interpret that image. A
mock). The radiographic image can thus mock our
non-clinical example is shown in Figure 1.17. In
senses in a number of ways. The main problems
dentistry, the environment that can affect our
can be caused by the effects of:
perception of radiographs is that created by the
• Partial images patient's description of the complaint. We can
• Contrast imagine that we see certain radiographic changes,
• Context. because the patient has conditioned our percep-
tual apparatus.
These various perceptual problems are
Effect of partial images
included simply as a warning that radiographic
As mentioned already, the radiographic image interpretation is not as straightforward as it may at
only provides the clinician with a partial image first appear.
12 Essentials of dental radiography and radiology

Fig. 1.15 The problem of partial images requiring the observer to fill in the missing gaps. Look at the three non-clinical pictures
and what do you perceive? The objects shown are A a dog, B an elephant and C a steam ship. We all see the same partial images,
but we don't necessarily perceive the same objects. Most people perceive the dog, some perceive the elephant while only a few
perceive the ship and take some convincing that it is there. Interestingly, once observers have perceived the correct objects, it is
impossible to look at the pictures again in the future without perceiving them correctly. (Figures from: Coren S, Porac C, Ward
LM 1979 Sensation and perception. Harcourt Brace and Company, reproduced by permission of the publisher.)

Fig. 1.16 The effect of contrast. The four small inner

squares are in reality all the same grey colour, but they
appear to be different because of the effect of contrast. When
the surrounding square is black, the observer perceives the
inner square to be very pale, while when the surrounding
square is light grey, the observer perceives the inner square to
be dark. (Figure from: CornsweetTN 1970 Visual
perception. Harcourt Brace and Company, reproduced by
permission of the publisher.)

Fig. 1.17 The effect of context. If asked to read the two lines

A,B,C,D,IE,F shown here most, if not all, observers would read the letters
A,B,C,D,E,F and then the numbers 10,11,12,13,14. Closer
examination shows the letter B and the number 13 to be
identical. They are perceived as B and 13 because of the
context (surrounding letters or numbers) in which they are

10,11,12,13,14 seen. (Figure from: Coren S, Porac C,Ward LM 1979

Sensation and perception. Harcourt Brace and Company,
reproduced by permission of the publisher.)

Common types of dental radiographs These various radiographic techniques are

described later, in the chapters indicated. The
The various radiographic images of the teeth, approach and format adopted throughout these
jaws and skull are divided into two main groups: radiography chapters are intended to be straight-
forward, practical and clinically relevant and are
• Intraoral — the film is placed inside the
based upon the essential knowledge required by
patient's mouth, including:
clinicians. This includes:
— Periapical radiographs (Ch. 8)
— Bitewing radiographs (Ch. 9) • WHY each particular projection is taken —
— Occlusal radiographs (Ch. 10) i.e. the main clinical indications
• Extraoral — the film is placed outside the • HOW the projections are taken — i.e. the
patient's mouth, including: relative positions of the patient, film and
— Oblique lateral radiographs (Ch. 11) X-ray tubehead
— Various skull radiographs (Chs 12 and 13) • WHAT the resultant radiographs should look
— Dental panoramic tomographs (Ch. 15). like and which anatomical features they show.
Radiation physics and
equipment
This page intentionally left blank
 2
11^ it The production, properties
and interactions of X-rays

Introduction Atomic structure

X-rays and their ability to penetrate human Atoms are the basic building blocks of matter.
tissues were discovered by Roentgen in 1895. He They consist of minute particles — the so-called
called them X-rays because their nature was then fundamental or elementary particles — held
unknown. They are in fact a form of high-energy together by electric and nuclear forces. They con-
electromagnetic radiation and are part of the elec- sist of a central dense nucleus made up of nuclear
tromagnetic spectrum, which also includes low- particles — protons and neutrons — surrounded by
energy radiowaves, television and visible light (see electrons in specific orbits or shells (see Fig. 2.1).
Table 2.1).
X-rays are described as consisting of wave
packets of energy. Each packet is called a photon
and is equivalent to one quantum of energy. The Nucleus
X-ray beam, as used in diagnostic radiology, is
made up of millions of individual photons.
To understand the production and interactions
of X-rays a basic knowledge of atomic physics is
essential. The next section aims to provide a
simple summary of this required background Orbiting
information. electrons
Fig. 2.1 Diagrammatic representation of atomic structure
showing the central nucleus and orbiting electrons.

Table 2.1 The electromagnetic spectrum ranging from the low energy (long wavelength) radio waves to the high
energy (short wavelength) X- and gamma-rays

Radiation Wavelength Photon energy

Radio, television 3 x 104m to 100 |im 4.1 x 10'" eV

and radar waves to 1.2x10- 2 eV
Infra-red 100 ^m to 700 nm 1.2x 10~2eV
to 1.8 eV
Visible light 700 nm to 400 nm 1.8eVto3.1 eV
Ultra-violet 400 nm to 10 nm 3.1 eVto 124 eV
X-and gamma-rays 10 nm to 0.01 pm 124eVto 124MeV

15
16 Essentials of dental radiography and radiology

Useful definitions N ... 32

O ... 50
• Atomic number (Z) —The number of protons • Electrons can move from shell to shell but
in the nucleus of an atom cannot exist between shells — an area known
• Neutron number (N) —The number of as the forbidden zone
neutrons in the nucleus of an atom • To remove an electron from the atom,
• Atomic mass number (A) — Sum of the number additional energy is required to overcome the
of protons and number of neutrons in an atom binding energy of attraction which keeps the
(A = Z + N) electrons in their shells.
• Isotopes — Atoms with the same atomic
number (Z) but with different atomic mass
numbers (A) and hence different numbers of Summary of important points on atomic
neutrons (N) structure
• Radioisotopes — Isotopes with unstable nuclei
which undergo radioactive disintegration (see • In the neutral atom, the number of orbiting
Ch. 17). electrons is equal to the number of protons in the
nucleus. Since the number of electrons deter-
mines the chemical behaviour of an atom, the
Main features of the atomic particles atomic number (Z) also determines this chemical
behaviour. Each element has different chemical
Nuclear particles (nucleons) properties and thus each element has a different
Protons atomic number. These form the basis of the periodic
table.
• Mass = 1.66x 10~27 kg • Atoms in the ground state are electrically
• Charge = positive: 1.6 x 10 19 coulombs. neutral because the number of positive charges
(protons) is balanced by the number of negative
charges (electrons).
Neutrons
• If an electron is removed, the atom is no
• Mass = 1.70X 10 2 7 kg longer neutral, but becomes positively charged
• Charge = nil and is referred to as a positive ion. The process of
• Neutrons act as binding agents within the removing an electron from an atom is called ion-
nucleus and hold it together by counteracting ization.
the repulsive forces between the protons. • If an electron is displaced from an inner shell
to an outer shell (i.e. to a higher energy level), the
atom remains neutral but is in an excited state.
Electrons This process is called excitation.
• The unit of energy in the atomic system is
• Mass = 1/1840 of the mass of a proton
the electron volt (eV),
• Charge = negative: -1.6 x 10 19 coulombs
1 e V = 1.6x 10 19 joules.
• Electrons move in predetermined circular or
elliptical shells or orbits around the nucleus
• The shells represent different energy levels and
are labelled K,L,M,N,O outwards from the X-ray production
nucleus
• The shells can contain up to a maximum X-rays are produced when energetic (high-speed)
number of electrons per shell: electrons bombard a target material and are
K ... 2 brought suddenly to rest. This happens inside a
L ... 8 small evacuated glass envelope called the X-ray
M ... 18 tube (see Fig. 2.2).
 Production, properties and interactions of X-rays 17

3. The focusing device aims the electron

stream at the focal spot on the target.
4. The electrons bombard the target and are
brought suddenly to rest.
5. The energy lost by the electrons is trans-
ferred into either heat (about 99%) or X-rays
(about 1%).
6. The heat produced is removed and dissi-
pated by the copper block and the surrounding oil.
Fig. 2.2 Diagram of a simple X-ray tube showing the main 7. The X-rays are emitted in all directions from
components. the target. Those emitted through the small
window in the lead casing constitute the beam
used for diagnostic purposes.
Main features and requirements of an
X-ray tube
• The cathode (negative) consists of a heated
Interactions at the atomic level
filament of tungsten that provides the source of
The high-speed electrons bombarding the target
electrons.
(Fig. 2.3) are involved in two main types of colli-
• The anode (positive) consists of a target (a
sion with the tungsten atoms:
small piece of tungsten) set into the angled
face of a large copper block to allow efficient • Heat-producing collisions
removal of heat. • X-ray-producing collisions.
• A focusing device aims the stream of electrons
at the focal spot on the target.
Heat-producing collisions
• A high-voltage (kilovoltage, kV) connected
between the cathode and anode accelerates the • The incoming electron is deflected by the
electrons from the negative filament to the cloud of outer-shell tungsten electrons, with a small
positive target. This is sometimes referred to as loss of energy, in the form of heat (Fig. 2.4A).
kVp or kilovoltage peak, as explained later in • The incoming electron collides with an outer
Chapter 5. shell tungsten electron displacing it to an even
• A current (milliamperage, mA) flows from the more peripheral shell (excitation) or displacing it
cathode to the anode. This is a measure of the from the atom (ionization), again with a small loss
quantity of electrons being accelerated. of energy in the form of heat (Fig. 2.4B).
• A surrounding lead casing absorbs unwanted
X-rays as a radiation protection measure since
X-rays are emitted in all directions.
• Surrounding oil facilitates the removal of heat.

Practical considerations
The production of X-rays can be summarized as
the following sequence of events:
1. The filament is electrically heated and a cloud
of electrons is produced around the filament.
2. The high-voltage (potential difference)
across the tube accelerates the electrons at very Fig. 2.3 Diagram of the anode enlarged, showing the target
high speed towards the anode. and summarizing the interactions at the target.
 18 Essentials of dental radiography and radiology

Fig. 2.4A Heat-producing collision: the incoming electron is deflected by the tungsten electron cloud. B Heat-producing
collision: the incoming electron collides with and displaces an outer-shell tungsten electron.

Important points to note X-ray-producing collisions

• Heat-producing interactions are the most • The incoming electron penetrates the outer
common because there are millions of incoming electron shells and passes close to the nucleus of
electrons and many outer-shell tungsten electrons the tungsten atom. The incoming electron is
with which to interact. dramatically slowed down and deflected by the
• Each individual bombarding electron can nucleus with a large loss of energy which is
undergo many heat-producing collisions resulting emitted in the form of X-rays (Fig. 2.5A).
in a considerable amount of heat at the target. • The incoming electron collides with an
• Heat needs to be removed quickly and effi- inner-shell tungsten electron displacing it to an
ciently to prevent damage to the target. This is outer shell (excitation) or displacing it from the
achieved by setting the tungsten target in the atom (ionization), with a large loss of energy and
copper block, utilizing the high thermal capacity subsequent emission of X-rays (Fig. 2.5B).
and good conduction properties of copper.

Fig. 2.5A X-ray-producing collision: the incoming electron passes close to the tungsten nucleus and is rapidly slowed down
and deflected with the emission of X-ray photons. B X-ray-producing collision: Stage 1 — the incoming electron collides with
an inner-shell tungsten electron and displaces it; Stage 2 — outer-shell electrons drop into the inner shells with subsequent
emission of X-ray photons.
 Production, properties and interactions of X-rays 19

X-ray spectra • Low-energy photons have little penetrating

power and most will not exit from the X-ray tube
The two X-ray-producing collisions result in the itself. They will not contribute to the useful X-ray
production of two different types of X-ray spectra: beam (see Fig. 2.6B).This removal of low-energy
photons from the beam is known as filtration (see
• Continuous spectrum
later).
• Characteristic spectrum. • Large deflections are less likely to happen so
there are relatively few high-energy photons.
Continuous spectrum • The maximum photon energy possible
The X-ray photons emitted by the rapid decelera- (E max) is directly related to the size of the
tion of the bombarding electrons passing close to potential difference (kV) across the X-ray tube.
the nucleus of the tungsten atom are sometimes
referred to as bremsstrahlung or braking radiation. Characteristic spectrum
The amount of deceleration and degree of deflec-
tion determine the amount of energy lost by the Following the ionization or excitation of the tung-
bombarding electron and hence the energy of the sten atoms by the bombarding electrons, the
resultant emitted photon. A wide range or spec- orbiting tungsten electrons rearrange themselves
trum of photon energies is therefore possible and to return the atom to the neutral or ground state.
is termed the continuous spectrum (see Fig. 2.6). This involves electron 'jumps' from one energy
level (shell) to another, and results in the emission
Summary of important points of X-ray photons with specific energies. As stated
previously, the energy levels or shells are specific
• Small deflections of the bombarding elec- for any particular atom. The X-ray photons
trons are the most common, producing many low- emitted from the target are therefore described as
energy photons. characteristic of tungsten atoms and form the char-
acteristic or line spectrum (see Fig. 2.7).The photon
lines are named K and L, depending on the shell
from which they have been emitted (see Fig. 2.1).

Fig. 2.6A Graph showing the continuous X-ray spectrum at

the target for an X-ray tube operating at 100 kV. B Graph Fig. 2.7 Graph showing the characteristic or line spectrum
showing the continuous spectrum in the emitted beam, as the at the target for an X-ray tube (with a tungsten target)
result of filtration. operating at 100 kV.
20 Essentials of dental radiography and radiology

Summary of important points Each wave packet is equivalent to a quantum of

• Only the K lines are of diagnostic importance energy and is called a photon.
since the L lines have too little energy. An X-ray beam is made up of millions of
• The bombarding high-speed electron must photons of different energies.
have sufficient energy (69.5 kV) to displace a The diagnostic X-ray beam can vary in its
K-shell tungsten electron to produce the charac- intensity and in its quality:
teristic K line on the spectrum. (The energy of the — Intensity = the number or quantity of X-ray
bombarding electrons is directly related to the photons in the beam
potential difference (kV) across the X-ray tube, — Quality = the energy carried by the X-ray
see later.) photons which is a measure of
• Characteristic K-line photons are not pro- their penetrating power.
duced by X-ray tubes with tungsten targets oper- The factors that can affect the intensity and/or
ating at less than 69.5 kV — referred to as the the quality of the beam include:
critical voltage (Vc). — Size of the tube voltage (kV)
• Dental X-ray equipment operates usually — Size of the tube current (mA)
between 50 kV and 90 kV (see later). — Distance from the target (d)
— Time = length of exposure (t)
— Filtration
Combined spectra — Target material
In X-ray equipment operating above 69.5 kV, the — Tube voltage waveform (see Ch. 5).
final total spectrum of the useful X-ray beam will be In free space, X-rays travel in straight lines.
the addition of the continuous and characteristic Velocity in free space = 3 x 108 m s ]
spectra (see Fig. 2.8). In free space, X-rays obey the inverse square
law:

Intensity = 1/d2
Summary of the main properties and
characteristics of X-rays Doubling the distance from an X-ray source
reduces the intensity to \ (a very important
• X-rays are wave packets of energy of electro- principle in radiation protection, see Ch. 6).
magnetic radiation that originate at the atomic
level. No medium is required for propagation.
Shorter-wavelength X-rays possess greater
energy and can therefore penetrate a greater
distance.
Longer-wavelength X-rays, sometimes referred
to as soft X-rays, possess less energy and have
little penetrating power.
The energy carried by X-rays can be attenuated
by matter, i.e. absorbed or scattered (see later).
X-rays are capable of producing ionization
(and subsequent biological damage in living
tissue, see Ch. 4) and are thus referred to as
ionizing radiation.
X-rays are undetectable by human senses.
X-rays can affect film emulsion to produce a
visual image (the radiograph) and can cause
Fig. 2.8 Graphs showing the combination photon energy
certain salts to fluoresce and to emit light —
spectra (in the final beam) for X-ray sets operating at 50 kV, the principle behind the use of intensifying
l O O k V a n d 150kV. screens in extraoral cassettes (see Ch. 5).
 Production, properties and interactions of X-rays 21

Interaction of X-rays with matter

When X-rays strike matter, such as a patient's
tissues, the photons have four possible fates,
shown diagrammatically in Figure 2.9. The
photons may be:
• Completely scattered with no loss of energy
• Absorbed with total loss of energy
• Scattered with some absorption and loss of
energy
• Transmitted unchanged.
Fig. 2.9 Diagram summarizing the main interactions when
X-rays interact with matter.
Definition of terms used in X-ray
interactions Photoelectric effect
• Scattering — change in direction of a photon The photoelectric effect is a pure absorption
with or without a loss of energy interaction predominating with low-energy
• Absorption — deposition of energy, i.e. removal photons (see Fig. 2.10).
of energy from the beam
• Attenuation — reduction in the intensity of the Summary of the stages in the photoelectric
main X-ray beam caused by absorption and effect
scattering 1. The incoming X-ray photon interacts with a
Attenuation = Absorption + Scattering bound inner-shell electron of the tissue atom.
• lonization — removal of an electron from a 2. The inner-shell electron is ejected with con-
neutral atom producing a negative ion (the siderable energy (now called a photoelectrori) into
electron) and a positive ion (the remaining the tissues and will undergo further interactions
atom). (see below).
3. The X-ray photon disappears having
deposited all its energy; the process is therefore
Interaction of X-rays at the atomic level one of pure absorption.
4. The vacancy which now exists in the inner
There are four main interactions at the atomic electron shell is filled by outer-shell electrons
level, depending on the energy of the incoming dropping from one shell to another.
photon, these include: 5. This cascade of electrons to new energy
• Unmodified or Rayleigh scattering — pure levels results in the emission of excess energy in
scatter the form of light or heat.
• Photoelectric effect — pure absorption 6. Atomic stability is finally achieved by the
• Compton effect — scatter and absorption capture of a free electron to return the atom to its
• Pair production — pure absorption. neutral state.
7. The high-energy ejected photoelectron
Only two interactions are important in the X-ray behaves like the original high-energy X-ray
energy range used in dentistry: photon, undergoing many similar interactions and
• Photoelectric effect ejecting other electrons as it passes through the
• Compton effect. tissues. It is these ejected high-energy electrons
that are responsible for the majority of the ioniza-
tion interactions within tissue, and the possible
resulting damage attributable to X-rays.
Other documents randomly have
different content
being, outdoing the phlegmatic perseverance of an ass, casting Job
himself in the background for patience, from league to league, from
county to county, and from year to year, urged on his ponderous
vehicle with almost imperceptible progression.
It was soon found that he was not more singular in appearance,
than eccentric in mind. A villager, thinking to do him a kindness,
offered to wheel his barrow, but what was the surprise of the gazers
to see him present the man payment when he had moved it a
considerable way, and on its being refused, to behold him quietly
raise the barrow, turn it round, and wheel it back to the identical
spot whence the villager set out.
On reaching the hamlet, he took up his quarters in a stable, and
opened his one-wheeled caravan, displaying a good assortment of
cutlery ware. It was there I first saw him, and was struck with his
grave and uncomplying air, more like that of a beadle stationed to
keep off intruders, than of a solicitous vender of wares. He was
standing with a pair of pliers, twisting wire into scissor-chains;
keeping, at the same time, a shrewd eye upon the goods. The prices
were so wonderfully low that it was whispered the articles could not
be good, or they were stolen: yet I did not perceive that either idea
was sufficient to dissuade the people from buying, or from
attempting to get them still lower. Then it was that his character and
temper showed themselves. He laid aside the goods attempted to be
chaffered for, saying,—“You shall not have them at all, I tell no lies
about them nor shall you.” In fact his goods were goods. So much
so, that many of them are in use in the village to this day: he desired
only such a profit as would supply the necessities of one who never
slept in a bed, never approached a fire for the sake of its warmth,
nor ever indulged in any luxury. His greatest trial appeared to be to
bear with the sordid spirit of the world. When this did not cross him
he became smiling, communicative, and, strange as it may seem,
exceedingly intelligent. I well recollect my boyish astonishment when
he quoted to me maxims of Plato and Seneca, and when I heard him
pouring out abundance of anecdote from the best sources. He had a
real spirit of kindliness in him, though the most immediately striking
features of his mind were shrewdness and rigid notions of truth;
which, as he practised it himself, he seemed to expect from the
whole world. He had a tame hedgehog which partook his fare, slept
in a better nest than himself, and was evidently a source of
affectionate enjoyment. He was fond of children; but he had a stern
spirit of independence which made him refuse gifts and favours,
unless permitted to make some return. My mother frequently sent
him warm messes in the wintry weather, and he brought her a
scissor-chain and a candlestick of brass-wire. He was a writer of
anagrams, acrostics, and so forth; and one epitaph written for one of
his bystanders was,—
“Too bad for heaven, too good for hell,
So where he’s gone I cannot tell.”
He always slept with his barrow chained to his leg; and on
Sundays kept himself totally shut up, except during service time,
standing the day through, reading his bible.
When his character was known, he grew to be a general
favourite. His stable became a sort of school, where he taught, to a
constant audience, more useful knowledge than has emanated from
many a philosopher, modern or antique. The good-will he excited
evidently pleased the old man; he came again, and again, till at
length years rolled away without his reappearance, and he was
considered as dead. But not so. For ten or eleven years he was still
going on his pilgrimage, a wanderer and an outcast; probably doing
voluntary penance for some sin or unhappiness of youth; for he
carefully kept aloof of his native country, Scotland, and though he
spoke of one living sister with tearful eyes, he had not seen her for
many, many years. In 1820 he had found his way to Midsomer
Norton, near Bristol, where he was hooted into the town by a troop
of boys, a poor, worn-down object, of the most apparent misery. This
I accidentally learnt, a short time ago, from a little book, the
memorial of his last days, written by the worthy clergyman of that
place, and published by Simpkin and Marshall, London.
What a tale would the history of those years have displayed.
What scenes of solitary travel, exhaustion, suffering, insults, and
occasional sympathy and kindness, breaking, like cheering
sunbeams, through the ordinary gloom. His barrow was gone!
Poverty had wrung from him, or weakness had compelled him to
abandon, that old companion of his travels. I have often thought
what must have been his feelings at that parting. Poor old man, it
was his house, his friend, his dog, his everything. What energies had
he not expended in propelling it from place to place. It could not
have been left without a melancholy pang,—without seeming to
begin a more isolated and cheerless existence. But I cannot dwell
upon the subject. It is sufficient to say that he found in the rev.
William Read, who wrote the little book just mentioned, an excellent
friend in the time of final need. That he retained the same eccentric,
yet consistent character to the last; displaying, in a concluding scene
of such bodily wretchedness and sufferings as has seldom been
paralleled, the same astonishing endurance, nay ebullient
thankfulness of heart; and that his piety seems to have worn off
much of his asperity of manner.
A didactic poem called “The Flower Knot,” or, “The Guide Post,”
was found after his death, a composition of no ordinary merit, from
which we will quote two passages, and bid a final adieu to our old
friend under every name of Thomas Hogg, Tam Hogg, or Cheap
Tommy.
 Wit.
“Pope calls it feather—does he not say right?
’Tis like a custard weak, and bears no weight;
But had it not that wiping feather been
The poet’s lines had never shone so clean.
Wisdom on foot ascends by slow degrees;
But wit has wings, and soars aloft with ease.
The sweetest wine makes vinegar most sour,
So wit debased is hell’s consummate power.”
Hope.
“Fountain of song, it prayer begins and ends;
Hope is the wing by which the soul ascends.
Some may allege I wander from the path,
And give to Hope the proper rights of Faith.
Like love and friendship, these, a comely pair,
What’s done by one, the other has a share:
When heat is felt, we judge that fire is near,
Hope’s twilight comes,—Faith’s day will soon appear.
Thus when the christian’s contest doth begin
Hope fights with doubts, till Faith’s reserves come in.
Hope comes desiring and expects relief;
Faith follows, and peace springs from firm belief.
Hope balances occurrences of time;
Faith will not stop till it has reached the prime.
Just like copartners in joint stock of trade,
What one contracts is by the other paid.
Make use of Hope thy labouring soul to cheer,
Faith shall be giv’n, if thou wilt persevere.
We see all things alike with either eye,
So Faith and Hope the self-same object spy.
But what is Hope? or where, or how begun?
It comes from God, as light comes from the sun.”
H.

In consequence of this interesting narrative concerning Thomas

Hogg, the “little book—the memorial of his last days” by the rev. Mr.
Read, was procured by the editor. It is entitled “The Scottish
Wanderer,” and as our kind correspondent “H.” has only related his
own observations, probably from apprehension that his narrative
might be deemed of sufficient length, a few particulars are extracted
from Mr. Read’s tract respecting the latter days of this “singular
character.”
Mr. Read commences his “Memoir of Thomas Hogg,” by saying
—“On Sunday the ninth of January 1820, as I was proceeding in the
services of the day, my attention was attracted by a wretched object
seated in the nave of the church. There was an air of devout
seriousness about him, under all the disadvantages of tattered
garments and squalid appearance, which afforded a favourable
presentiment to my mind. When the service was over the stranger
disappeared.”
Mr. Read conceived that he was some poor passing beggar, who
had been allured by the fire in the stove, but to his surprise on the
following Sunday the same object presented himself, and took his
station, as before, near the stove. He seemed to be a man decrepit
with age: his head resting upon his bosom, which was partly
exposed, betokened considerable infirmity. Under a coarse and dirty
sackcloth frock was to be seen a soldier’s coat patched in various
places, which was strangely contrasted with the cleanliness of his
shirt. His whole appearance was that of the lowest degree of poverty.
His devout attention induced Mr. Read when the service was
concluded to inquire who this old man was. “Sir,” replied his
informant, “he is a person who works at the blacksmith’s shop; he is
a remarkable man, and carries about with him a bible, which he
constantly reads.”
In the course of the week Mr. Read paid him a visit. He found him
standing by the side of the forge, putting some links of iron-wire
together, to form a chain to suspend scissors. The impressions of
wretchedness excited by his first appearance were greatly
heightened by the soot, which, from the nature of his occupation,
had necessarily gathered round his person; and after a few general
observations Mr. Read went to Mr. H. S., the master of the shop, who
informed him that on Tuesday the fourth of January, in the severely
cold weather which then prevailed, this destitute object came to his
shop, almost exhausted with cold and fatigue. In his passage
through the neighbouring village of P——, he had been inhumanly
pelted with snow-balls by a party of boys, and might probably have
perished, but for the humanity of some respectable inhabitants of the
place, who rescued him from their hands. Having reached Mr. S.’s
shop, he requested permission to erect, in a shed which adjoined the
shop, his little apparatus, consisting of a slight table, with a box
containing his tools. The benevolent master of the premises kindly
stationed him near the forge, where he might pursue his work with
advantage. In the evening, when the workmen were about to retire,
Mr. S. asked him where he intended to lodge that night. The old man
inquired if there were any ox-stall or stable near at hand, which he
might be permitted to occupy. His benefactor offered his stable, and
the poor creature, with his box and table upon his back,
accompanied Mr. S. home, where as comfortable a bed as fresh
straw, and shelter from the inclemency of the weather, could afford,
was made up. One of Mr. S.’s children afterwards carried him some
warm cider, which he accepted with reluctance, expressing his fears
lest he should be depriving some part of the family of it.
The weather was very cold: the thermometer, during the past
night, had been as low as six or seven degrees of Fahrenheit. In the
morning he resumed his post by the side of the forge. Mr. S. allowed
him to retain his station as long as he needed it; and contracted so
great a regard for him, as to declare, that he never learned so
complete a lesson of humility, contentment, and gratitude, as from
the conduct of this man.
The poor fellow’s days continued to be passed much in the
manner above described; but he had exchanged the stable, at night,
for the shop, which was warmer, as soon as his benevolent host was
satisfied respecting his principles; and with exemplary diligence he
pursued his humble employment of making chains and skewers. He
usually dined on hot potatoes, or bread and cheese, with
occasionally half a pint of beer. If solicited to take additional
refreshment, he would decline it, saying, “I am thankful for the
kindness,—but it would be intemperate.”
At an early hour in the afternoon of the first Saturday which he
spent in this village, he put by his work, and began to hum a hymn
tune. Mr. S. asked him if he could sing. “No, sir,” he replied. “I
thought,” added Mr. S., “I heard you singing.” “I was only composing
my thoughts a little,” said the poor man, “for the sabbath.”
On Mr. Read being informed of these particulars, he was induced
to return to the stranger with a view to converse with him. He says
“There was a peculiar bluntness in his manner of expressing himself,
but it was very far removed from any thing of churlishness or
incivility. All his answers were pertinent, and were sometimes given
in such measured terms as quite astonished me. The following was a
part of our conversation.—‘Well, my friend, what are you about?’
‘Making scissor-chains, sir.’ ‘And how long does it take you to make
one?’ With peculiar archness he looked up in my face, (for his head
always rested upon his bosom, so that the back part of it was
depressed nearly to the same horizontal plane with his shoulders,)
and with a complacent smile, said, ‘Ah! and you will next ask me how
many I make in a day; and then what the wire costs me; and
afterwards what I sell them for.’ From the indirectness of his reply, I
was induced to conclude that he was in the habit of making
something considerable from his employment, and wished to conceal
the amount of his gains.” It appeared, however, that he was unable,
even with success in disposing of his wares, to earn more than
sixpence or sevenpence a day, and that his apparent reluctance to
make known his poverty proceeded from habitual contentment.
Mr. Read asked him, why he followed a vagrant life, in preference
to a stationary one, in which he would be better known, and more
respected? “The nature of my business,” he replied, “requires that I
should move about from place to place, that, having exhausted my
custom in one spot, I may obtain employment in another. Besides,”
added he, “my mode of life has at least this advantage, that if I leave
my friends behind me, I leave also my enemies.”
When asked his age, he replied, with a strong and firm voice,
“That is a question which I am frequently asked, as if persons
supposed me to be a great age: why, I am a mere boy.”
“A mere boy!” repeated Mr. Read; “and pray what do you mean
by that expression?”—“I am sixty-five years of age, sir; and with a
light heel and a cheerful heart, hope to hold out a considerable time
longer.” In the course of the conversation, he said, “It is not often
that I am honoured with the visits of clergymen. Two gentlemen,
however, of your profession once came to me when I was at ——, in
——, and I expressed a hope that I should derive some advantage
from their conversation. ‘We are come,’ said they, ‘with the same
expectation to you, for we understand that you know many things.’ I
told them that I feared they would be greatly disappointed.” He then
stated that the old scholastic question was proposed to him, “Why
has God given us two ears and one mouth?” “I replied,” said he,
“that we may hear twice as much as we speak;” adding, with his
accustomed modesty, “I should not have been able to have given an
answer to this question if I had not heard it before.”
Before they parted, Mr. Read lamented the differences that
existed between persons of various religious persuasions. The old
man rejoined in a sprightly tone, “No matter; there are two sides to
the river.” His readiness in reply was remarkable. Whatever he said
implied contentment, cheerfulness, and genuine piety. Before Mr.
Read took leave of him, he inquired how long he intended to remain
in the village. He answered, “I do not know; but as I have house-
room and fire without any tax, I am quite satisfied with my situation,
and only regret the trouble I am occasioning to my kind host.”
Until the twentieth of the month Mr. Read saw but little of him.
On the morning of that day he met him creeping along under a vast
burden; for on the preceding Monday he had set out on a journey to
Bristol, to procure a fresh stock of wire, and with half a hundred
weight of wire upon his back, and three halfpence in his pocket, the
sole remains of his scanty fund, he was now returning on foot, after
having passed two days on the road, and the intervening night
before a coal-pit fire in a neighbouring village. The snow was deep
upon the ground, and the scene indescribably desolate. Mr. Read was
glad to see him, and inquired if he were not very tired. “A little, a
little,” he replied, and taking off his hat, he asked if he could execute
any thing for me. An order for some trifling articles, brought him to
Mr. Read on the following Wednesday, who entered into conversation
with him, and says, “he repeated many admirable adages, with which
his memory appeared to be well stored, and incidentally touched on
the word cleanliness. Immediately I added, ‘cleanliness is next to
godliness;’ and seized the opportunity which I had long wanted, but
from fear of wounding his mind hesitated to embrace, to tell him of
the absence of that quality in himself. He with much good nature
replied, ‘I believe I am substantially clean. I have a clean shirt every
week: my business, however, necessarily makes me dirty in my
person.’ ‘But why do you not dress more tidily, and take more care of
yourself? You know that God hath given us the comforts of life that
we may enjoy them. Cannot you afford yourself these comforts?’
‘That question,’ said he emphatically, but by no means rudely, ‘you
should have set out with. No, sir, I cannot afford myself these
comforts.’”
Mr. Read perceiving his instep to be inflamed, and that he had a
miserable pair of shoes, pressed a pair of his own upon him.
On the following day he visited him, and found him working upon
his chains while sitting,—a posture in which he did not often indulge.
Mr. Read looked at his foot, and found the whole leg prodigiously
swollen and discoloured. It had inflamed and mortified from fatigue
of walking and inclemency of the weather during the journey to
Bristol. Mr. Read insisted on his having medical assistance. “The
doctor is expected in the village to-day, and you must see him: I will
give orders for him to call in upon you.” “That is kind, very kind,” he
replied. At this moment an ignorant talker in the shop exclaimed in a
vexatious and offensive manner, that he would not have such a leg
(taking off his hat) “for that, full of guineas.” The old man looked up
somewhat sharply at him, and said, “nor I, if I could help it.” The
other, however, proceeded with his ranting. The afflicted man added,
“You only torture me by your observations.” This was the only
instance approaching to impatience he manifested.
It appears that of late he had slept in one corner of the
workshop, upon the bare earth, without his clothes, and with the
only blanket he had, wrapped round his shoulders. It was designed
to procure him a bed in a better abode; but he preferred remaining
where he was, and only requested some clean straw. He seemed
fixed to his purpose; every thing was arranged, as well as could be,
for his accommodation.
 Early the next morning Mr. Read found the swelling and blackness
extending themselves rapidly towards the vital parts. The poor fellow
was at times delirious, and convulsed; but he dozed during the
greater part of the day. It was perceived from an involuntary gesture
of the medical gentleman on his entrance, that he had not before
witnessed many such objects. He declared there was but little hope
of life. Warm fomentations, and large doses of bark and port wine
were administered. A bed was provided in a neighbouring house, and
Mr. Read informed the patient of his wish to remove him to it, and his
anxiety that he should take the medicines prescribed. He submitted
to every thing proposed, and added, “One night more, and I shall be
beyond the clouds.”
On the Saturday his speech was almost unintelligible, the delirium
became more frequent, and his hands were often apparently
employed in the task to which they had been so long habituated,
making links for chains; his respiration became more and more
hurried; and Mr. Read ordered that he should be allowed to remain
quite quiet upon his bed. At certain intervals his mind seemed
collected, and Mr. R. soothed him by kind attentions. He said, “There
are your spectacles; but I do not think they have brought your bible?
I dare say you would like to read it?” “By-and-by,” he replied: “I am
pretty well acquainted with its contents.” He articulated indistinctly,
appeared exhausted, and on Sunday morning his death-knell was
rung from the steeple. He died about two o’clock in the morning
without a sigh. His last word was, in answer to the question, how are
you?—“Happy.”
A letter from a gentleman of Jedburgh, to the publishers of Mr.
Read’s tract, contains the following further particulars respecting this
humble individual.

At school he seldom associated with those of his own age, and

rarely took part in those games which are so attractive to the
generality of youth, and which cannot be condemned in their own
place. His declining the society of his schoolfellows did not seem to
arise from a sour and unsocial temper, nor from a quarrelsome
disposition on his part, but from a love of solitude, and from his
finding more satisfaction in the resources of his own mind, than in all
the noise and tumult of the most fascinating amusements.

He was, from his youth, noted for making shrewd and sometimes
witty remarks, which indicated no ordinary cast of mind; and in many
instances showed a sagacity and discrimination which could not be
expected from his years. He was, according to the expressive
language of his contemporaries, an “auld farrend” boy. He began at
an early period to make scissor-chains, more for amusement than for
profit, and without ever dreaming that to this humble occupation he
was to be indebted for subsistence in the end of his days. When no
more than nine or ten years of age, he betook himself to the selling
of toys and some cheap articles of hardware; and gave reason to
hope, from his shrewd, cautious, and economical character, that he
would gradually increase his stock of goods, and rise to affluence in
the world. His early acquaintances, considering these things, cannot
account for the extreme poverty in which he was found at the time of
his death. He appears to have been always inattentive to his external
dress, which, at times, was ragged enough; but was remarkable for
attention to his linen—his shirts, however coarse, were always clean.
This was his general character in the days of his youth. On his last
visit to Jedburgh, twenty-nine years before his death, he came with
his clothes in a most wretched condition. His sisters, two very
excellent women, feeling for their brother, and concerned for their
own credit, got a suit of clothes made without delay. Dressed in this
manner, he continued in the place for some time, visiting old
acquaintances, and enjoying the society of his friends. He left
Jedburgh soon after; and, from that time, his sisters heard no more
of their brother.

Hogg’s father was not a native of Jedburgh. Those with whom I

have conversed seem to think that he came from the neighbourhood
of Selkirk, and was closely connected with the progenitor of the
Ettrick Shepherd. He, properly speaking, had no trade; at least did
not practise any: he used to travel through the country with a pack
containing some hardware goods, and at one time kept a small shop
in Jedburgh. All accounts agree that the father had, if not a talent for
poetry, at least a talent for rhyming.

He appears to have had a most excellent mother, whom he

regularly accompanied to their usual place of public worship, and to
whom he was indebted for many pious and profitable instructions,
which seem to have been of signal service to her son when she
herself was numbered with the dead and mouldering in the dust.

During the time of his continuance in Jedburgh and its vicinity, he

evinced a becoming regard to the external duties of religion; but
nothing of that sublime devotion which cheered the evening of his
days, and which caused such astonishing contentment in the midst
of manifold privations. My own belief is, from all the circumstances of
the case, that the pious efforts of his worthy mother did not succeed
in the first instance, but were blessed for his benefit at an advanced
period of life. The extreme poverty to which he was reduced, and the
corporal ailments under which he had laboured for a long time, were
like breaking up the fallow ground, and causing the seed which had
been sown to vegetate.

We must here part from “the Scottish Wanderer.” Some, perhaps,

may think he might have been dismissed before—“for what was he?”
He was not renowned, for he was neither warrior nor statesman, but
to be guileless and harmless is to be happier than the ruler of the
turbulent, and more honourable than the leader of an army. If his life
was not illustrious, it was wise; for he could not have been seen, and
sojourned in the hamlets of labour and ignorance, without exciting
regard and communicating instruction. He might have been ridiculed
or despised on his first appearance, but where he remained he
taught by the pithy truth of his sayings, and the rectitude of his
conduct: if the peripatetic philosophers of antiquity did so much, they
did no more. Few among those who, in later times, have been
reputed wise, were teachers of practical wisdom: the wisdom of the
rest was surpassed by “Cheap Tommy’s.”
 NATURALISTS’ CALENDAR.
Mean Temperature 64·07.

July 12.
A Vicious Swan.
In July, 1731, “an odd accident happened in Bushy-park to one of
the helpers in the king’s stables, riding his majesty’s own hunting
horse, who was frighted by a swan flying at him out of the canal,
which caused him to run away, and dash out his brains against the
iron gates; the man was thrown on the iron spikes, which only
entering his clothes did him no hurt. Some time before, the same
swan is said to have flown at his highness the duke, but caused no
disaster.”[253]

This, which is noticed by a pleasant story in column 914 as the

“swan-hopping season,” is a time of enjoyment with all who are fond
of aquatic pleasures. On fine days, and especially since the invention
of steam-boats, crowds of citizens and suburbans of London glide
along the Thames to different places of entertainment on its banks.

Annual Excursion to Twickenham.

To the Editor of the Every-Day Book.
Sir,—As it is the object of the Every-Day Book to preserve a
faithful portraiture of the prominent features and amusements of the
age, as well as the customs of the “olden time,” I subjoin for
insertion a brief account of an unobtruding society for the relief of
the distressed; with the sincere hope that its laudable endeavours
may be followed by many others.
A number of respectable tradesmen, who meet to pass a few
social hours at the house of Mr. Cross, Bethnal-green, impressed by
the distresses of the thickly-populated district in which they reside,
resolved to lay themselves and friends under a small weekly
contribution, to allay, as far as possible, the wretchedness of their
poorer neighbours. They feel much gratification in knowing that in
the course of two years their exertions have alleviated the sorrows of
many indigent families. Nearly four hundred friends have come
forward as subscribers to assist them in their praise-worthy
undertaking; yet such is the misery by which they are surrounded—
such are the imperative demands on their bounty, that their little
fund is continually impoverished.
In furtherance of their benevolent views they projected an annual
excursion to Twickenham, sometime in the month of July; the profits
from the tickets to be devoted to the Friend-in-Need Society. I have
joined them in this agreeable trip, and regard the day as one of the
happiest in my existence. A few gentlemen acted as a committee,
and to their judicious arrangements much of the pleasure of the day
is due. The morning was particularly favourable: at eight o’clock the
“Diana” steam-packet left her moorings off Southwark-bridge, and
bore away up the river with her long smoky pendant; a good band of
music enlivened the scene by popular airs, not forgetting the eternal
“Jagher chorus.” I arrived on board just at starting, and having
passed the usual “how d’ye does,” seated myself to observe the
happy circle. They appeared to have left “old care” behind them; the
laugh and joke resounded from side to side, and happiness dwelt in
every countenance. There was no unnecessary etiquette; all were
neighbours and all intimate. As soon as we began to get clear of
London, the beautiful scenery formed a delightful panoramic view.
Battersea, Wandsworth, Putney, Kew, and Richmond, arose in
succession; when, after staying a short time at the latter place to
allow those who were disposed to land, we proceeded on to
Twickenham Aite, an island delightfully situated in the middle of the
Thames, where we arrived about twelve o’clock. Preparation had
been made for our reception: the boat hauled up alongside the island
for the better landing; tents were erected on the lawn; a spacious
and well-stocked fruit-garden was thrown open for our pleasure; and
plenty of good cheer provided by “mine host” of the “Eel-pie house.”
On each side of the lawn might be seen different parties doing ample
justice to “ham sandwiches, and bottled cider.” After the repast, the
“elder” gentlemen formed into a convivial party; the “report of the
society” was read; and, afterwards, the song and glee went merrily
round; while the younger formed themselves in array for a country-
dance, and nimbly footed to the sound of sweet music “under the
greenwood tree:” the more juvenile felt equal delight at “kiss-in-the-
ring,” on the grass-plat.
He must have been a stoic indeed who could have viewed this
scene without feelings of delight, heightened as it was by the smiles
of loveliness. These sports were maintained until time called for our
departure; when having re-embarked, the vessel glided heavily back,
as if reluctant to break off such happy hours. The dance was again
renewed on board—the same hearty laugh was again heard; there
was the same exuberance of spirits in the juniors; no one was tired,
and all seemed to regret the quickly approaching separation. About
nine o’clock we safely landed from the boat at Queenhithe stairs, and
after a parting “farewell,” each pursued the way home, highly
delighted with the excursion of the day, enhanced as it was by the
reflection, that in the pursuit of pleasure we had assisted the
purposes of charity. J. H. C.
Kingsland-road, July, 1826.

Swan-hopping.
It appears that formerly—“When the citizens, in gaily-decorated
barges, went up the river annually in August, to mark and count their
swans, which is called swan-hopping, they used to land at Barn Elms,
and, after partaking of a cold collation on the grass, they merrily
danced away a few hours. This was a gala-day for the village; and
happy was the lad or lass admitted into the party of the fine folks of
London. This practice has, however, been long discontinued.”[254]
“Swan-hopping”—Explained.
The yearly visit of members of the corporation of London to the
swans on its noble river, is commonly termed “Swan-hopping.” This
name is a vulgar and long used corruption of “Swan-upping,”
signifying the duties of the official visiters, which was to “take up”
the swans and mark them. The ancient and real term may be
gathered from the old laws concerning swans, to have been
 technically and properly used. They were manorial and royal birds;
and in proof of their estimation in former times, a rare and valuable
quarto tract of four leaves, printed in 1570, may be referred to. It
mentions the “vpping daies;” declares what persons shall “vp no
swannes;” and speaks of a court no longer popularly known, namely,
“the king’s majesties justices of sessions of swans.” This curious tract
is here reprinted verbatim, viz:—
THE

Order for Swannes

both by
The Statutes, and by the Auncient Orders and Customes, used within

the Realme of England.

The Order for Swannes.

First, Ye shall enquire if there be any person that doth possesse any
Swanne, and hath not compounded with the Kings Maiesty for his
Marke (that is to say) six shillings eight pence, for his Marke during
his life: If you know any such you shall present them, that all such
Swans and Cignets, may be seazed to the King.
2. Also you shall enquire, if any person doth possesse any Swan, or
Cignet, that may not dispend the cleare yearly value of five Markes
of Freehold, except Heire apparant to the Crowne: then you shall
present him. 22 Edw. iv. cap. 6.
3. Also, If any person or persons doe drive away any Swanne or
Swannes, breeding or prouiding to breed; be it vpon his own
ground; or any other mans ground: he or they so offending, shall
suffer one yeeres imprisonment, and fine at the Kings pleasure,
thirteene shillings four pence. 11 Hen. vii.
4. If there be found any Weares vpon the Riuers, not hauing any
Grates before them; It is lawfull for every Owner, Swan-Masters, or
 Swanne-herdes, to pull vp, or cut downe the Birth-net, or Gynne of
the said Weare or Weares.
5. If any person, or persons, be found carrying any Swan-hooke, and
the same person being no Swan-herd, nor accompanied with two
Swan-herds: every such person shall pay to the King. Thirteene
shillings four pence, (that is to say) Three shillings foure pence to
him that will informe, and the rest to the King.
6. The auncient custome of this Realme hath and dothe allow to
every owner of such ground where any such Swan shall heirie, to
take one Land-bird; and for the same, the Kings Maiestie must
have of him that, hath the Land-bird, Twelve pence, Be it vpon his
owne ground, or any other.
7. It is ordained, that if any person, or persons, do convey away or
steale away the Egge, or Egges of any Swannes, and the same
being duely proued by two sufficient witnesses, that then euery
such offender shall pay to the King thirteene shillings foure pence,
for euery Egge so taken out of the Nest of any Swanne.
8. It is ordained, that euery owner that hath any Swans, shall pay
euery yeare yearly for euery Swan-marke, foure pence to the
Master of the Game for his Fee, and his dinner and supper free on
the Upping daies: And if the saide Master of the Game faile of the
foure pence, then he shall distraine the Game of euery such owner,
that so doth faile of payment.
9. If there be any person or persons, that hath Swannes, that doe
heirie vpon any of their seuerall waters, and after come to the
co’mon Riuer, they shall pay a Land-bird to the King, and be
obedient to all Swanne Lawes: for diuers such persons doe use
collusion, to defraud the King of his right.
10. It is ordained, that euery person, hauing any Swans, shal begin
yearly to mark, the Monday next after St. Peters day, and no
person before; but after as conueniently may be, so that the
Master of the Kings Game, or his Deputy, be present. And if any
take vpon him or them, to marke any Swanne or Cignet, in other
manner, to forfeit to the Kings Maiestie for euery Swan so marked
fortie shillings.
11. It is ordained, that no person or persons being Owners, or
Deputies, or seruants to them, or other, shall go on marking
without the Master of the Game, or his Deputie be present, with
other Swan-herds next adioyning, vpon paine to forfeit to the
Kings Maiesty, fortie shillings.
12. It is ordained, that no person shall hunt any Duckes, or any other
chase in the water, or neere the haunt of Swans in Fence-time,
with any Dogge or Spaniels: viz. from the feast of Easter to
Lammas: vpon paine for euery time so found in hunting, to forfeit
sixe shillings eight pence.
13. It is ordained, that if any person doth set any snares or any
manner of Nets, Lime, or Engines, to take Bittorns or Swans, from
the Feast of Easter to the Sunday after Lammas day; He or they to
forfeit to the Kings Maiestie for euery time so setting, six shillings
eight pence.
14. It is ordained that no person take vp any Cignet unmarked, or
make any sale of them, but that the Kings Swan-herd, or his
Deputie be present, with other Swan-herds next adioyning, or
haue knowledge of the same: vpon paine to forfeit to the Kings
Maiestie fortie shillings.
15. It is ordained that the Swan-herdes of the Duchie of Lancaster,
shall vp no Swannes, or make any sale of them, without the
Master of the Swannes or his Deputy be present: vpon paine to
forfeite to the Kings Maiestie forty shillings.
16. And in like manner, the Kings Swan-herd shal not enter into the
Libertie of the Duchie, without the Duchies Swanherd be there
present: vpon the like paine to forfeite forty shillings.
17. It is ordained, that if any Swannes or Cignets be found double
marked, they shall be seaz’d to the Kings vse, till it be prooved to
whom the same Swans or Cignets doe belong: And if it cannot be
prooved to whome they doe belong, that then they be seazd for
the King, and his Grace to be answered to the value of them.
18. It is ordained that no person make sale of any white Swans nor
make delivery of them, without the Master of the Game be present
or his Deputy, with other Swan-herds next adioyning; vpon paine
 to forfiet forty shillings: whereof six shillings eight pence to him
that will informe: and the rest to the Kings Maiestie.
19. It is ordained, that no person shall lay Leapes, set any Nets, or
Dragge, within the common streames or Riuers vpon the day time,
from the Feast of the Inuention of the Crossse, vnto the Feast of
Lammas: vpon paine so oft as they be found so offending, to
forfeit twenty shillings.
20. It is ordained, that if the Master of the Swans, or his Deputy, do
seaze, or take vp any Swa’nes, as strayes, for the Kings Maiesty,
that he shall keepe them in a Pit within twenty foote of the Kings
streame, or within twenty foote of the common High-way, that the
Kings subiects may have a sight of the said Swans so seazed, vpon
paine of forty shillings.
21. It is ordained, that if any person doe raze out, counterfeit, or alter
the Marke of any Swanne, to the hindering or losse of any mans
Game, and any such offendor duly prooved before the Kings
Maiesties Commissioners of Swannes, shal suffer one yeares
imprisonment, and pay three pounds six shillings eight pence, to
the King.
22. It is ordained, that the Commons (that is to say) Dinner and
Supper, shall not exceed above twelve pence a man at the most: If
there be any Game found where the dinner or supper is holden,
vpon that Riuer, the owner being absent and none there for him,
the Master of the Game is to lay out eight pence for him, and he is
to distraine the Game of him that faileth the paiment of it.
23. It is ordained, that there shall be no forfeiture of any white
Swanne or Cignet, but only to the Kings Grace, as well within the
Franchise and Liberties, as without, and if any doe deliver the
Swanne or Signet so seazed, to any person, but only to the Master
of the Kings Game, or to his Deputy, to the Kings vse; he is to
forfeit sixe shillings eight pence; and the Swannes to be restored
vnto the Master of the Game.
24. It is ordained, that no person shall take any Gray Swans, or
Cignets, or white Swans flying, but that he shall within foure dayes
next after, deliver it, or them, to the Master of the Kings Game,
 and the Taker to haue for his paines eight pence. And if he faile,
and bring him not, he forfeits forty shillings to the King.
25. It is ordained, that no person, having any Game of his own shall
not be Swan-herd for himselfe; nor keeper of any other mans
Swannes: upon paine to forfeit to the Kings Maiestie forty shillings.
26. It is ordained, that no Swan-herd, fisher, or fowler, shall vex any
other Swan-herd, fisher or fowler, by way of action, but only before
the Kings Maiesties Justices of Sessions of Swans, vpon paine of
forfeiting to the Kings Grace forty shillings.
27. The Master of the Kings Game, shal not take away any vnmarked
Swan coupled with any other mans Swan, for breaking of the
brood: and when they doe Heirie, the one part of the Cignets to
the King, and the other to the owner of the marked Swanne.
28. Also, any man whatsoever he be, that killeth any Swanne with
dogge, or Spaniels, shall forfeit to the King forty shillings, the
owner of the Dogge to pay it, whether he be there or no. Also, the
Maister of the Swannes, is to have for every White Swanne and
Gray vpping, a penny, and for every Cignet two pence.
29. It is ordained, that if any Heirie be leyed with one Swan, the Swan
and the Cignets shall be seazed for the King, till due proofe be had
whose they are, and whose was the Swan, that is away; Be it
Cobbe or Pen.
30. Lastly, If there be any other misdemeanour, or offence committed
or done by the owner of any Game, Swan-herd, or other person
whatsoeuer, contrary to any law, ancient custome, or vsage
heretofore vsed and allowed, and not before herein particularly
mentioned or expressed, you shal present the same offence, that
reformation may be had, and the offendors punished, according to
the quantitie and qualitie of the seuerall offences.

FINIS.

God Saue the King.

It may be presumed that “the Order for Swannes” fairly illustrates

the origin of the term “swan hopping;” perhaps the “order” itself will
be regarded by some of the readers of the Every-Day Book as “a
singular rarity.”

“SWAN WITH TWO NECKS,”

Lad-lane.
The sign of the “Swan with two necks,” at one of our old city inns,
from whence there are “passengers and parcels booked” to all parts
of the kingdom, is manifestly a corruption. As every swan belonging
to the king was marked, according to the swan laws, with two nicks
or notches; so the old sign of this inn was the royal bird so marked,
that is to say, “the swan with two nicks.” In process of time the “two
nicks” were called “two necks;” an ignorant landlord hoisted the foul
misrepresentation; and, at the present day, “the swan with two
nicks” is commonly called or known by “the name or sign” of “the
swan with two necks.”

“A Southern Tourist,” in the “Gentleman’s Magazine,” for 1793,

giving an account of his summer rambles, which he calls “A
naturalist’s stray in the sultry days of July,” relates that he “put up for
the night at the Bush-inn, by Staines-bridge,” and describes his
sojournment there with such mention of the swans as seems fitting
to extract.
“The Swan at Staines.”
“This inn is beautifully situated: a translucent arm of the Thames
runs close under the windows of the eating-rooms, laving the
drooping streamers of the Babylonian willows that decorate the
garden, and which half conceal the small bridge leading into it. In
these windows we spent the evening in angling gudgeons for our
supper, and in admiring a company of swans that were preening
themselves near an aite in the river. The number of these birds on
the Thames is very considerable, all swimming between Marlow and
London, being protected by the dyers and vintner’s companies,
whose properties they are. These companies annually send to
Marlow six wherries, manned by persons authorized to count and to
mark the swans, who are hence denominated swan-hoppers. The
task assigned them is rather difficult to perform; for, the swans being
exceeding strong, scuffling with them amongst the tangles of the
river is rather dangerous, and recourse is obliged to be had to certain
strong crooks, shaped like those we suppose the Arcadian shepherds
to have used.”
The swan is a royal bird, and often figured in the princely
pleasures of former kings of England.
In Edward the fourth’s time none was permitted to keep swans,
who possessed not a freehold of at least five marks yearly value,
except the king’s son: and by an act of Henry the Seventh, persons
convicted of taking their eggs were liable to a year’s imprisonment,
and a fine at the will of the sovereign.[255]

More anciently, if a swan was stolen in an open and common

river, the same swan or another, according to old usage, was to be
hanged in a house by the beak, and he who stole it was compelled to
give the owner as much corn as would cover the swan, by putting
and turning the corn upon the head of the swan, until the head of
the swan was covered with corn.[256]

In the hard winter of 1726, a swan was killed “at Emsworth,

between Chichester and Portsmouth, lying on a creek of the sea, that
had a ring round its neck, with the king of Denmark’s arms on it.”[257]

For indications of the weather, by the flight of the swans on the

Thames, see vol. i. col. 505.
It is mentioned by the literary lord Northampton, as formerly “a
paradox of simple men to thinke that a swanne cannot hatch without
a cracke of thunder.”[258]

The Swan’s Death Song.

The car of Juno is fabled to have been drawn by swans. They
were dedicated to Venus and Apollo. To the latter, according to
Banier, because they were “reckoned to have by instinct a faculty of
prediction;” but it is possible that they were consecrated to the deity
of music, from their fabled melody at the moment of death.
Buffon says, the ordinary voice of the tame swan is rather low
than canorous. It is a sort of creaking, exactly like what is vulgarly
called the swearing of a cat, and which the ancients denoted by the
imitative word drensare. It would seem to be an accent of menace or
anger; nor does its love appear to have a softer. In the “Mémoires de
l’Académie des Inscriptions” is a dissertation by M. Morin, entitled,
“Why swans, which sung so well formerly, sing so ill now.”
The French naturalist further remarks, that “swans, almost mute,
like ours in the domestic state, could not be those melodious birds
which the ancients have celebrated and extolled. But the wild swan
appears to have better preserved its prerogatives; and with the
sentiment of entire liberty, it has also the tones. The bursts of its
voice form a sort of modulated song.” He then cites the observations
of the abbé Arnaud on the song of two wild swans which settled on
the magnificent pools of Chantilly. “One can hardly say that the
swans of Chantilly sing, they cry; but their cries are truly and
constantly modulated; their voice is not sweet; on the contrary, it is
shrill, piercing, and rather disagreeable; I could compare it to nothing
better than the sound of a clarionet, winded by a person
unacquainted with the instrument. Almost all the melodious birds
answer to the song of man, and especially to the sound of
instruments: I played long on the violin beside our swans, on all the
tones and chords. I even struck unison to their own accents, without
their seeming to pay the smallest attention: but if a goose be thrown
into the basin where they swim with their young, the male, after
emitting some hollow sounds, rushes impetuously upon the goose,
and seizing it by the neck, plunges the head repeatedly under water,
striking it at the same time with his wings; it would be all over with
the goose, if it were not rescued. The swan, with his wings
expanded, his neck stretched, and his head erect, comes to place
himself opposite to his female, and utters a cry, to which the female
replies by another, which is lower by half a tone. The voice of the
male passes from A (la) to B flat (si bémol); that of the female, from
G sharp (sol dièse) to A. The first note is short and transient, and has
the effect of that which our musicians call sensible; so that it is not
detached from the second, but seems to slip into it. Fortunately for
the ear, they do not both sing at once; in fact, if while the male
sounded B flat, the female struck A, or if the male uttered A, while
the female gave G sharp, there would result the harshest and most
insupportable of discords. We may add, that this dialogue is
subjected to a constant and regular rhythm, with the measure of two
times.”

M. Grouvelle observes, that “there is a season when the swans

assemble together, and form a sort of commonwealth; it is during
severe colds. When the frost threatens to usurp their domain, they
congregate and dash the water with all the extent of their wings,
making a noise which is heard very far, and which, whether in the
night or the day, is louder in proportion as it freezes more intensely.
Their efforts are so effectual, that there are few instances of a flock
of swans having quitted the water in the longest frosts, though a
single swan, which has strayed from the general body, has
sometimes been arrested by the ice in the middle of the canals.”

Buffon further remarks, that the shrill and scarcely diversified

notes of the loud clarion sounds, differ widely from the tender
melody, the sweet and brilliant variety of our chanting birds. Yet it
was not enough that the swan sung admirably, the ancients ascribed
to it a prophetic spirit. It alone, of animated beings, which all
shudder at the prospect of destruction, chanted in the moment of its
agony, and with harmonious sounds prepared to breathe the last
sigh. They said that when about to expire, and to bid a sad and
tender adieu to life, the swan poured forth sweet and affecting
accents, which, like a gentle and doleful murmur, with a voice low,
plaintive, and melancholy, formed its funeral song. This tearful music
was heard at the dawn of day, when the winds and the waves were
still: and they have been seen expiring with the notes of their dying
hymn. No fiction of natural history, no fable of antiquity, was ever
more celebrated, oftener repeated, or better received. It occupied
the soft and lively imaginations of the Greeks: poets, orators, even
philosophers adopted it as a truth too pleasing to be doubted. And
well may we excuse such fables; they were amiable and affecting;
they were worth many dull, insipid truths; they were sweet emblems
to feeling minds. The swan, doubtless, chants not its approaching
end; but, in speaking of the last flight, the expiring effort of a fine
genius, we shall ever, with tender melancholy, recal the classical and
pathetic expression, “It is the song of the swan!”
Shakspeare nobly likens our island to the eyrie of the royal bird:—
 ——————I’ the world’s volume
Our Britain seems as of it, but not in it;
In a great pool, a swan’s nest.
Nor can we fail to remember his beautiful allusions to the swan’s
death-song. Portia orders “sweet music” during Bassanio’s deliberation
on the caskets:—
Let music sound while he doth make his choice:
Then if he lose, he makes a swan-like end—
Fading in music.
And after the Moor has slain his innocent bride, Æmilia exclaims
while her heart is breaking, and sings—
Hark, canst thou hear me? I will play the swan,
And die in music—Willow, willow, willow.
After “King John” is poisoned, his son, prince Henry, is told that in
his dying frenzy “he sung,”—the prince answers—
———’Tis strange that death should sing.—
I am the cygnet to this pale faint swan,
Who chants a doleful hymn to his own death;
And from the organ-pipe of frailty, sings
His soul and body to their lasting rest.

The muse of “Paradise” remarks, that

————The swan with arched neck
Between her white wings mantling, proudly rowes
Her state with oary feet: yet oft they quit
The dank, and rising on stiff pennons, tour
The mid æreal sky.

Opportunities for observing the flight of the wild swan are seldom,
and hence it is seldom mentioned by our poets. The migrations of
other aquatic birds are frequent themes of their speculation.
 To a Water-fowl.
Whither, ’midst falling dew,
While glow the heavens with the last steps of day,
Far through their rosy depths, dost thou pursue
Thy solitary way?
Vainly the fowler’s eye
Might mark thy distant flight to do thee wrong.
As darkly painted on the crimson sky
Thy figure floats along.
Seek’st thou the plashy brink
Of weedy lake, or maize of river wide,
Or where the rocky billows rise and sink
On the chafed ocean’s side?
There is a Power whose care
Teaches thy way along that pathless coast,—
The desert and illimitable air,—
Lone wandering, but not lost.
All day thy wings have fann’d,
At that far height, the cold thin atmosphere;
Yet stoop not, weary to the welcome land,
Though the dark night is near.
And soon that toil shall end;
Soon shalt thou find a summer home, and rest,
And scream among thy fellows; reeds shall bend
Soon o’er thy shelter’d nest.
Thou’rt gone, the abyss of heaven
Hath swallow’d up thy form; yet on my heart
Deeply hath sunk the lesson thou hast given,
And shall not soon depart.
He, who from zone to zone
Guides through the boundless sky the certain flight,
In the long way that I must tread alone,
Will lead my steps aright.

NATURALISTS’ CALENDAR.
Mean Temperature 64·02.

[253] Gentleman’s Magazine.

[254] Ibid.
[255] Buffon, note.
 [256] Cowel.
[257] Gentleman’s Magazine.
[258] Brand.

July 13.
The Cornish Falstaff.
For the Every-Day Book.
Anthony Payne, the Falstaff of the sixteenth century, was born in
the manor-house at Stratton, in Cornwall, where he died, and was
buried in the north aisle of Stratton church, the 13th of July, 1691. In
early life he was the humble, but favourite attendant of John, eldest
son of sir Beville Granville, afterwards earl of Bath, whom he
accompanied throughout many of his loyal adventures and campaigns
during the revolution and usurpation of Cromwell. At the age of
twenty he measured the extraordinary height of seven feet two
inches, with limbs and body in proportion, and strength equal to his
bulk and stature. The firmness of his mind, and his uncommon activity
of person, together with a large fund of sarcastic pleasantry, were well
calculated to cheer the spirits of his noble patron during the many sad
reverses and trying occasions which he experienced after the
restoration. His lordship introduced Payne to Charles the Second; “the
merry monarch” appointed him one of the yeomen of his guard. This
office he held during his majesty’s life; and when his lordship was
made governor of the citadel of Plymouth, Payne was placed therein
as a gunner. His picture used to stand in the great hall at Stowe, in the
county of Cornwall, and is now removed to Penheale, another seat of
the Granville family. At his death the floor of the apartment was taken
up in order to remove his enormous remains. As a Cornishman, in
point of size, weight, and strength he has never been equalled.
The nearest to Anthony Payne was Charles Chillcott, of Tintagel,
who measured six feet four inches high, round the breast six feet nine
inches, and weighed four hundred and sixty pounds. He was almost
constantly occupied in smoking—three pounds of tobacco was his
weekly allowance; his pipe two inches long. One of his stockings
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