IBRO Neuroscience Reports 15 (2023) 348–354

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IBRO Neuroscience Reports

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Research paper

Neuroscience literacy in educators’ training programs in Asia: A call

to action
Astrid Schmied a, *, Azilawati Jamaludin a, b
a
Science of Learning in Education Centre, Office of Education Research, National Institute of Education, Nanyang Technological University, Singapore
b
Learning Sciences and Assessment Academic Group, National Institute of Education, Nanyang Technological University, Singapore

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Keywords: The center of learning is the brain and the disciplinary science that examines its structure and functioning, and
Educational neuroscience the nervous system as a whole, is called neuroscience. The assimilation of essential neuroscience-related content
Mind, brain, and education by educational systems has gained global interest, given the relevance of learning to education. Recognizing the
Teaching and learning
significance of frontline workers, several governmental agencies and educational institutions have launched
Teacher education
initiatives to foster the inclusion of neuroscience literacy in educators’ training programs. Their success, how­
Neuroscience literacy
Science of learning ever, has depended on collaborative efforts among educators, researchers, and other educational stakeholders,
and the process has involved considerable debate. Here, we aim to articulate a rationale to promote neuroscience
literacy for educators. In doing so, we revisit prior arguments on the importance of training educators and build
up on other reasons to advocate for this kind of endeavor considering cutting-edge research. Following this, we
discuss critical elements to advance neuroscience literacy for educators and examine the most important chal­
lenges to execute successful initiatives. Finally, we appraise the significance for Asia, reviewing the scholarly
literature on educators’ prior experiences, and highlight the case of Singapore as an exemplar initiative that
catalizes human capital, infrastructure, and strategies to advance neuroscience literacy. We conclude by arguing
that governmental agencies and educational institutions should strengthen their efforts to accommodate their
programmatic plans and agendas to embrace neuroscience literacy in educators’ training programs. This global
trend has arrived to stay.

1. Introduction 2. Why is neuroscience literacy in educators’ training

important?
In 2002, the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Develop­
ment (OECD) published the book ‘Understanding the Brain’ to increase 2.1. The center of learning: the brain
awareness among the public and political sectors on how our ever-
increasing understanding of brain functioning could benefit educa­ Neuroscience—a basic science—deals with brain function and
tional systems implement more effective programs, practices, and pol­ structure, including learning; education—a social and more applied
icies for teaching and learning through research-based evidence (OECD, science—refers to the process of teaching and learning, which in turns
2002). Twenty years later, we revise some of the arguments raised by the shapes brain function and structure. Neuroscience and education have
OECD considering cutting-edge research and examine other reasons that always been naturally intertwined through learning, but it was not until
have emerged during the last two decades to advocate for neuroscience the emergence of the field of educational neuroscience that a more direct
literacy in educators’ training programs. dialogue between these two disciplines intensified (Thomas et al.,
2019). Before that, it was predominantly psychology—another social
and more applied science involving the study of the mind—the disci­
pline that for many years served the education sector on teaching and
learning matters (Walberg and Haertel, 1992).

* Correspondence to: Science of Learning in Education Centre, Office of Education Research, National Institute of Education, Nanyang Technological University,
NIE5-03-57E, 1 Nanyang Walk, 637616, Singapore.
E-mail address: [email protected] (A. Schmied).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ibneur.2023.10.006
Received 29 November 2022; Accepted 17 October 2023
Available online 21 October 2023
2667-2421/© 2023 The Authors. Published by Elsevier Ltd on behalf of International Brain Research Organization. This is an open access article under the CC
BY-NC-ND license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/).
A. Schmied and A. Jamaludin IBRO Neuroscience Reports 15 (2023) 348–354

The advent of educational neuroscience makes the connection be­ necessarily imply deficits in teaching effectiveness (Horvath et al.,
tween brain functioning and pedagogy more visible and provides 2018). This, however, does not prevent their use in classrooms, which
genuine opportunities to directly interrogate the neurobiology of could be problematic. Educators who believe that “differences in
learning, examine the teaching and learning process, hypothesize about hemispheric dominance (right brain, left brain) can help explain indi­
human potential, and translate findings into practice and policy. Equally vidual differences amongst learners,” for instance, may adopt
important, the field offers possibilities to foster neuroscience literacy as misleading practices (https://www.oecd.org/education/ceri/neuro
it provides a platform for educators, researchers, and other educational myth6.htm). They may rely on drawings to stimulate students’ crea­
stakeholders (e.g., students, parents, and policymakers) to come tive and emotional abilities (allegedly connected to the right brain) and
together and learn collaboratively. on problem solving assignments in mathematics to develop students’
Educators are curious about brain functioning, and there is now an analytic and logical competencies (supposedly attributed to the left
extensive literature demonstrating that this knowledge can indeed help brain). Educators may even believe that students with damage on either
them make theoretical connections with pedagogy, improve their the left or right hemisphere are incapable of acquiring the skills incor­
instructional practices, and enhance students’ learning (Dubinsky et al., rectly assigned to these parts of the brain. Yet, there are reported cases of
2019; Hook and Farah, 2013a; MacNabb et al., 2006; Privitera, 2021; hemispherectomized children whose brain compensated for cognitive
Serpati and Loughan, 2012; Tan et al., 2019). The data illustrate that, for skills to surprising levels (for example, Immordino-Yang, 2007, 2008).
example, educators exposed to neuroscience literacy optimized lessons’ Neuroscience literacy can help educators to deal with false assumptions
planning and delivery and attempted new teaching strategies (Chang on brain structure and functioning. Converging evidence indicate that,
et al., 2021; Schwartz et al., 2019; Tan et al., 2019), moved away from while not entirely, neuroscience literacy reduces educators’ beliefs in
direct instruction to implement more student-centered activities neuromyths (Im et al., 2018; Macdonald et al., 2017; McMahon et al.,
(Anderson et al., 2018; Roehrig et al., 2012), improved classrooms’ 2019).
climate and students’ engagement and motivation (Roehrig et al., 2012), The belief in neuromyths can also persuade school leaders and ed­
became more aware of students’ needs and negative behavior (Bana and ucators to utilize products in their classrooms with insufficient or
Cranmore, 2019; Chang et al., 2021; Hook and Farah, 2013a), were complete lack of scientific evidence. A typical example constitutes the
better able to design instruction that aligned with principles of brain so-called ‘Brain gym’ programs that prescribe a series of simple exercises
functioning (Tan et al., 2019), applied neuroscience concepts in their “to integrate all areas of the brain to enhance learning” (e.g., https://
classrooms and developed better relationships with students (Hachem integratedlearningacademy.com/brain-gym/). The data, however,
et al., 2022), and changed their understandings on the utility of scien­ have failed to validate such claim (Hyatt, 2007; Spaulding et al., 2010),
tific concepts on learning (A. Howard-Jones et al., 2020). Moreover, meaning that these are ineffective interventions for learning. Preventing
educators have manifested greater professional satisfaction and counterproductive actions in curricula innovations is critical. Further­
self-image after being exposed to neuroscience literacy (Hook and Farah, more, neuromyths may also be deep-rooted in large scale educational
2013a). policies. In the United States, for instance, future educators from several
There is also evidence indicating that educators’ exposure to states need to pass licensing exams based on state-provided study ma­
neuroscience literacy can impact students’ achievement. For instance, terials that incorporate the neuromyth of learning styles (Furey, 2020).
several studies have shown that students of neuroscience-trained edu­ Neuroscience literacy can also assist school leaders and educators
cators, when compared with those of untrained ones, have improved become critical consumers of research to better allocate their resources
their competencies in reading, mathematics, and empathy (Caballero and capacities on trainings and practices that truly enrich learning
and Llorent, 2022), and neuroscience (Ellingson et al., 2021; Hachem experiences.
et al., 2022). Similarly, students’ opinions about mathematics and Educational systems regularly introduce curriculum reforms to ach­
respective test scores have improved (Anderson et al., 2018). ieve students’ intended learning outcomes. These reforms depend on
The effectiveness of neuroscience-based training for educators has several factors, including short- and long-term programmatic plans,
been evidenced in several studies. Neuroscience literacy can empower local priorities, budget cuts, standardized tests performance, and inter­
educators holistically, complementing or supplementing their under­ national recommendations. Deciding what to cut, what to keep, and
standing of the teaching and learning process and own performance. what to adapt is a challenging process in curricula design that may not
Crucially, all these findings have emerged from short-term continuing always align with research-based evidence. During the last decades, for
professional initiatives, suggesting that more sustained, long-term instance, students’ exposure to music (Aróstegui, 2016) and art (Helton,
training (e.g., bachelors, master’s and doctorate’s programs) may lead 2021) has been progressively reduced or eliminated. However, these
to overall better outcomes. reforms are counterproductive because there is an extensive body of
research linking these subjects to numerous aspects of cognitive devel­
2.2. Neuromyths in education, curricula design, and other educational opment. They favor students’ learning trajectories by promoting moti­
policies vation, attention, memory, and many other cognitive domains
(Gazzaniga, 2008). Greater exposure to neuroscience literacy can
The OECD defined the term neuromyth as “a misconception generated empower educators to intervene in curricula design to ensure that these
by a misunderstanding, a misreading or a misquoting of facts scientifi­ meet the criteria of scientific validity and practical relevance for
cally established (by brain research) to make a case for the use of brain learning.
research in education and other contexts” (OECD, 2002, p.111). The list Finally, it is becoming increasingly possible to apply neuroscience-
of neuromyths circulating these days that are taken for granted in so­ related innovations in education. While these innovations have mainly
ciety is extensive: “We use 10% of our brain,” “When we sleep, the brain involved drugs (e.g., Adderall), there are other approaches, such as brain
shuts down,” and so forth. imaging techniques and brain stimulation procedures, that are being
Over the past years, several studies have consistently reported a high developed and show great potential for describing, measuring, modu­
prevalence of neuromyths among pre-service and in-service educators, lating, and/or predicting learning (Schmied, 2017). The use of these
including developed and developing countries across the five con­ innovations in education raises a range of ethical concerns, given that
tinents—America, Europe, Asia, and Australia (Torrijos-Muelas et al., academic performance can or could be enhanced (Lalancette and
2021) and Africa (Janati Idrissi et al., 2020). Currently, there is lack of Campbell, 2012). In the future, educational systems will need to deter­
research assessing the direct impact of beliefs in neuromyths on edu­ mine what innovations to incorporate, as well as when, how, for how
cators’ teaching practices and students’ learning (Hughes et al., 2022; long, and under what circumstances to use these. Educators will play a
Rousseau, 2021). Endorsing neuromyths, for example, may not key role in integrating and deciding their potential application on all

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students or only on those that present academic disadvantages, either psychological phenomena via text, instead of brain images. Participants’
due to low performance or learning difficulty, and their rationale may be satisfaction increased after reading explanations with neuroscience in­
more prudent with regards to researchers’ judgements (Schmied et al., formation, versus those without it, which presented irrelevant context.
2021). Neuroscience literacy can prepare educators to appraise the ad­ Thus, neuroscience information has the potential to interfere with the
vantages and disadvantages, risks, and impact regarding the use of these public’s critical thinking capabilities when it comes to evaluating ex­
neuroscience-related innovations to make informed decisions. planations logically. While some studies have failed to replicate some of
In recent years, several innovations on neuroscience literacy for these results (e.g., Gruber and Dickerson, 2012; Hook and Farah, 2013b;
educators, school staff, and educational policymakers have been Michael et al., 2013), others continue to point to the seductive allure of
developed, spanning from multi-year programs, such as BrainU neuroscience information (Rhodes et al., 2014; Weisberg et al., 2015).
(Dubinsky et al., 2019) to specialized conferences (Learning & the Brain, Exposure to neuroscience literacy can provide educators with the
http://www.learningandthebrain.com/), and scientific societies (e.g., knowledge to refrain from adding extra value to irrelevant information,
the International Mind, Brain and Education Society, https://imbes. interpret scientific information properly, and avoid the compelling ef­
org/). All these efforts have surfaced the need to debunk neuromyths in fect neuroscience-related content may have on judgements.
education and align curricula design and other educational practices and
policies with evidence-based research. 3. What is needed to advance neuroscience literacy for
educators?
2.3. Media coverage of neuroscience information
Implementing pre- and in-service educators’ training pro­
Successful dissemination strategies involve reducing complexity in grams—both short- and long-term—in neuroscience-related contents
scientific explanations while preserving accuracy when mobilizing across all educational levels, from K-12 to tertiary, is key. By promoting
certain knowledge (Ravinetto and Singh, 2022). Referencing all sup­ the incorporation of core courses in pre-service education curriculum,
porting research, recognizing the respective limitations, issues, and certain standards in terms of knowledge and skills can be achieved since
gaps, is also required. The number of neuroscience articles published in early stages in educators’ professional careers. Establishing continuing
the popular press has increased during the last years (O’Connor et al., professional development training for in-service educators is particu­
2012). Several reports indicate that, when covering larly relevant for those who were never exposed to neuroscience-related
neuroscience-related research, journalists often face difficulties when content during their formation. While short-term continuing profes­
translating the scientific and technical aspects in a comprehensive sional initiatives are beneficial for educators who prefer a relatively
manner. Racine et al. (2006) evaluated the media coverage of a brain quick training given time, monetary, and other constraints, long-term
imaging technique (functional magnetic resonance imaging) that regu­ trainings (e.g., bachelors, master’s and doctorate’s programs) are suit­
larly appears in dissemination pieces intended for the general public, able for those who hope to become experts.
and found an overly enthusiastic tone and lack of technical explanations Not only educators’ training is needed to advance neuroscience lit­
in most articles. When conducting similar analysis on other common eracy, however. It is also essential to promote more context- and
neuroscience-related technologies (e.g., electroencephalography and audience-dependent research on the impact of neuroscience literacy on
neurostimulation), the authors observed similar results (Racine et al., educators’ training and practices and students’ learning through alli­
2010). After evaluating the types of explanations and the tone in several ances among different educational stakeholders, such as educators, re­
articles, they noted that—irrespective of the technology—the charac­ searchers, school staff, students, and ministries of education.
teristics and limitations were rarely or poorly explained, and the tone
was predominantly uncritical. While accuracy in translational research 4. What are some of the challenges in advancing neuroscience
is generally a flaw, it also varies depending on publication tendencies, literacy for educators?
neuroscience theme, and newspaper type (Van Atteveldt et al., 2014).
The media coverage commonly fails to ponder important factors, such as Overall, stronger infrastructure for introducing neuroscience literacy
sample size, population, and context for generalizability, and even alters and related research needs to be created. Sufficient human capital to
explanations provided by researchers (O’Connell et al., 2011). Omis­ drive growth and innovation is what, today, remains as perhaps the most
sions of critical information and potential reductionism represent un­ challenging aspect to advance this endeavor. Not too long ago, Sheridan
successful research translation. Among the adverse consequences of et al. (2004) envisioned a new profession— known as ‘Neuro­
neuroscience-related misinformation, there is an audience whose per­ educators’— who, after mastering the fields of neuroscience and edu­
ceptions might be influenced to raise unrealistic expectations and create cation, should be equipped to critically and ethically mobilize
overenthusiasm. During the last decades, there has been a rise of words knowledge between disciplines. While there has been good progress in
using the “neuro-” prefix, which may be decontextualized (Muzur and formation, the limited number of these experts (also called “educational
Rincic, 2013). Educators are active media consumers; neuroscience lit­ engineers” by Fischer et al., 2010) and others, including neuroscientists
eracy can equip them with sufficient knowledge to evaluate the accuracy familiarized with educational systems, practices, and issues, is still a
and interpretations of knowledge that is translated through the popular flaw.
press. To advocate for neuroscience literacy for educators, implementing
inter- or transdisciplinary training programs and establishing partner­
2.4. Seductive allure of neuroscience information ships among different educational stakeholders (such as policymakers
and school administrators) are needed actions. These, however, repre­
Neuroscience-related information seems to be particularly appealing sent a challenge for faculties, departments, or institutes of education as
to the public (Beck, 2010). McCabe and Castel (2008) assessed partici­ they need to introduce important modifications to their traditional
pants’ credibility on neuroscience research while presenting the infor­ administration systems and ways of design, development, and delivery
mation through different formats. They noticed that disseminating of instructional materials (Mcgregor and Volckmann, 2013), as well as
research with brain images resulted in higher ratings than either only emphasize research translation (Aymerich et al., 2014). The introduc­
texts (no images), bar graphs or topographical maps of brain activation. tion of ‘Research Schools’ as models, where practice, research, and
The sole presence of brain images, therefore, resulted more influential policy coexist, has been argued to be an example of infrastructure that
on participants’ credibility than plain text and other kinds of diagrams, promotes neuroscience literacy for educators and supports sustainable
even if these were pointless in terms of content. Similar results were and lasting collaborations among different educational sectors (Hinton
observed by Weisberg et al. (2008) when using explanations of and Fischer, 2008). Examples of successful initiatives include the

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Brainwave Learning Center, which is a research-practice partnership academic performance, at the expense of children’s adequate sleep and
between Stanford University and Synapse School (https://www.synap­ well-being development. Fundamentally, in an Asian parental context
seschool.org/innovation/blc) and the fellowship program within the where children are driven hard to academically succeed against a cul­
Institute’s Center for Innovation and Leadership in Special Education at ture of high-stake assessments, such scientific understandings of the
the pediatric hospital Kennedy Krieger Institute, where fellow educators neuroscience of learning can afford a tempering of parental expectations
are trained on neurodevelopmental disabilities by clinical faculty (Carey and practices on fervid meritocracy.
et al., 2020). Additionally, against a backdrop of Asian individualistic culture in
Moreover, changes in educational systems are largely determined by schools, scientific insights into the neuroscience can inform the kinds of
politics and policymaking. These changes are continuously shaped by social interactions that can catalyse learning, including the implications
the needs and demands of contemporary society and normally respond on our major learning organ, the brain. Social encounters, for instance,
to practical problems that are essentially context- and audience- can affect the activation of a network of subcortical (amygdala, hippo­
dependent. The implementation of continuous examinations of stu­ campus, striatum) and cortical (insula, cingulate) limbic areas (Vrtička
dents’ achievement in preparation for standardized testing is a systemic and Vuilleumier, 2012).
priority in many countries, for example, and the value and implications Fundamentally, given that the brain is key for learning, neurosci­
of ‘Neuroeducators’ training may not be part of their culture and entific evidence can address contextual learning challenges, unique to
mindset yet. For progress to be made, financial resources need to be Asian contexts, in more targeted ways. For it is when educators are
secured and properly allocated across educational systems, from pre- equipped with neuroscience literacy and understand key concepts on the
schools to ministries. neurobiology of learning, such as neuroplasticity and neurodiversity,
coupled with understandings of cultural nuances, are they then
5. Why is neuroscience literacy relevant for educators in Asia? empowered to design the most effective settings and lessons for their
students to learn (Jamaludin, Wei Loong, et al., 2019).
Salient differences in education contexts in Asia and the West arise
from varying cultural, economic, and political contexts that influence 6. Neuroscience literacy: what do educators in Asia think?
the educational systems and their goals. Studies (e.g., Dahlin and Wat­
kins, 2000; Kim et al., 1999; Muench et al., 2022) have found that Asian In Asia, few studies have focused on understanding the implications
countries, such as China, Japan, and Korea, place emphasis on memo­ of neuroscience literacy in educators’ training programs. In South Korea,
rization and repetition as the primary means of learning. This can be for instance, Im et al. (2018) evaluated the impact of an educational
attributed to a number of factors, including the desire for academic psychology course on pre-service educators’ neuroscience literacy (N =
excellence and the large class sizes that make it difficult for educators to 59) through a pre- and post-testing. After the course, educators scored
provide individualized attention to students. In contrast, the Western comparatively higher than a control group on items that addressed brain
approach to education emphasizes critical thinking, creativity, and function, development, and structure, neuroimaging, and applications
problem-solving skills. of neuroscience. The belief in neuromyths, however, remained un­
The extent of parental involvement in Asian and Western countries changed. In Singapore, Tham et al. (2019) conducted focus group dis­
differ significantly too. In many Asian countries, parents are highly cussions on eight primary school educators—who had varying teaching
involved in their children’s education, often attending parent-teacher experience in different subjects—to ponder their opinions on reading
conferences and monitoring their progress closely. This is partly due tasks that contained translated abstracts of neuroscience research. On
to the importance placed on education in Asian cultures, as well as the the one hand, educators manifested enthusiasm in knowledge about
belief that parental involvement is essential for academic success. In the learning disorders, classroom applications (e.g., teaching strategies),
West, while parental involvement is still important, it tends to be less and straightforward information with relevant content. On the other
intensive and focused more on providing emotional support to children hand, educators expressed disinterest in learning general and technical
(Chan et al., 2009). information, as well as neuroscience knowledge in excess. Lastly in
Moreover, as Asian and Western cultural values place more impor­ Hong-Kong, Ching et al. (2020) studied pre-service educators’ percep­
tance on conformity and discipline versus individuality and creativity tions (N = 968) towards applying neuroscience-related content in a
respectively, prevalent teaching methods and assessments are observed range of educational activities by using survey items. From consider­
to be enacted differently (Chao, 1994, 2001). In Asian contexts, exams ations for ‘the design of educational programs’ to ‘the role of the teacher
are often the primary mode of assessments, with students expected to in student learning,’ the majority of educators rated this kind of content
perform well on standardized tests. This reflects the emphasis on aca­ as highly important across the various educational activities. When
demic achievement and the competition for limited spaces in asked to assess different issues in applying such content, however, most
high-ranking educational institutions in many Asian countries. In the of them also rated as highly important items such as ‘information is
West, prevalent modes of teaching and learning include formative easily accessible to educators’ and ‘avoiding misinterpretation of sci­
assessment, and critical, collaborative and problem-solving skills ence.’ While limited, all these findings mirror data collected in other
developed through project-based assessments rather than standardized countries outside Asia (Bana and Cranmore, 2019; Hook and Farah,
tests. Importantly, these differences reflect the cultural, economic, and 2013a; Serpati and Loughan, 2012).
political contexts in which the educational systems operate, as well as
the goals and priorities of the respective societies (Bell, 2020). 7. Advancing neuroscience literacy in educators in Asia: the
Given the unique education phenomena in East Asian contexts, it is case of Singapore
envisaged that predominant challenges, such as culture of high stakes
assessments, fear of academic failure, and fervid meritocracy (Avvisati In recent years, there has been increased efforts to acquaint educa­
et al., 2019; OECD, 2019), can be optimally addressed through scien­ tors around the world with neuroscience literacy (Privitera, 2021). In
tifically validated evidence. For example, in thinking about maximizing Singapore, the National Institute of Education launched the Science of
learning, educators and parents can benefit from scientific insights on Learning in Education Centre (SoLEC) in 2021. While it is not a new
the combination of good cognitive and socio-emotional development concept, the science of learning is fundamentally oriented towards
coupled with optimal lifestyles, including appropriate sleep, diet, and integrating evidence from scientific findings, in domains such as
exercise. Specifically, while these three factors have been evidenced to neuroscience, psychology, and technology into education (Horvath and
impact the structure and function of the brain (Wickham et al., 2020), it Lodge, 2016). Specifically, the center seeks to identify, investigate, and
is uncommon to witness Asian parents placing high priorities on cohere scientific education. Through effective interventions and

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pedagogical innovations, the aim is not only to study students’ indi­ understanding of neuroscience in relation to education, and vice versa.
vidual differences, but to also provide scientific explanations for why To advance neuroscience literacy, collaborative efforts among edu­
some learning strategies work better for some, while worse for others cators, researchers, and other educational stakeholders become
(Jamaludin and So, 2021). Strategically, SoLEC also initiated different increasingly vital to shape practices for teaching and learning that are
alternatives to promote neuroscience literacy for educators. Currently, it not only informed by rigorous scientific research, but are also compas­
offers a minor (undergraduate) and master program in science of sionate, inclusive, and attuned to individual differences. Maximizing
learning. every student’s potential must remain as the only actionable goal of this
At the broader national level, the Singapore government has also endeavor, regardless of life-course trajectories and societal distinctive­
included science of learning research as one of the strategic areas for ness. These collaborations hold the promise of transforming education
Research, Innovation and Enterprise 2021 – 2025 (RIE2025) under the into a more empowering and enriching experience, setting the stage for
human health and potential ambit. About 1% of Singapore’s Gross Do­ a brighter and more intellectually enriched society.
mestic Product (~SGD25B) is allocated for RIE2025, where research
funding is made available towards advancing related initiatives and
neurocognitive science research to support programs that improve Conflicts of interest
learning outcomes for students and re-skilling in adult workers (National
Research Foundation, 2020). The authors declare that there is no conflict of interest.

8. Discussion Acknowledgements

Twenty years ago, the OECD published the book ‘Understanding the This work was supported by the International Brain Research Orga­
Brain’ (OECD, 2002). Since then, neuroscience literacy has gradually nization and the Dana Foundation.
joined the conversation at the intersection of education, mental health,
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