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 Electrical Engineering

JAIN
Principles of Synchronous

Principles of Synchronous Digital Hierarchy

Digital Hierarchy
“… one of the best books for practicing engineers in the field of

Principles of
OFC-based SDH systems.”
—S.K. Biswas, Chief Communication Engineer, Western Railway, Mumbai, India

If you want to “know” what synchronous digital hierarchy (SDH) is, any book
or tutorial on the Internet will give you a quick overview. However, if you want

Synchronous
to “understand” its importance, you need more. You need a deep knowledge
of the fundamentals of plesiochronous digital hierarchy (PDH), and any book
on SDH that does not include these fundamentals will leave you high and
dry. A comprehensive learning tool, Principles of Synchronous Digital
Hierarchy provides a complete guide for professionals in the field of

Digital
telecommunication transport technologies—the backbone communication.

With clear, concise language and easy-to-understand illustrations, the author

drills down to the basics and makes them accessible, while keeping the
technical level required for advanced practitioners. He covers PDH and

Hierarchy
SDH principles to give you the background needed and presents them in a
logical chronology. He stresses the fundamentals, even at the cost of some
repetition, to develop a strong foundation and deep understanding of the
material. He builds on this with coverage of line coding, clock, PCM, TDM,
signal impairments, synchronization, and PDH principles and O&M, then
introduces analog multiplexing, media for SDH, carrying data over SDH,
and new generation SDH and OTN to impart a clear understanding of
digital multiplexing.

The book’s fundamental and foundational format enhances the learning of

this complex topic from a real-world applicability and practitioner perspec-
tive. Its focus on multiplexing technologies and detailed discussions on how
SDH is implemented and maintained give you the confidence to troubleshoot
issues that occur during the course of operations and maintenance.

K15097
ISBN: 978-1-4665-1726-4
90000

9 781466 517264 R A J E S H K U M A R J A I N

K15097_Cover_mech.indd 1 7/25/12 4:35 PM

Principles of
Synchronous
Digital
Hierarchy
This page intentionally left blank
 Principles of
Synchronous
Digital
Hierarchy

R A J E S H K U M A R J A I N

Boca Raton London New York

CRC Press is an imprint of the

Taylor & Francis Group, an informa business
CRC Press
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© 2013 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

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Version Date: 20120719

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Contents

Preface ................................................................................................................... xix

Author ................................................................................................................. xxiii

1. Introduction .....................................................................................................1
1.1 You and Me ............................................................................................1
1.2 “Mr. Watson, Come Here. I Want to See You.” .................................1
1.3 Technology of the Telephone ...............................................................2
1.3.1 Transmitter ...............................................................................3
1.3.2 Receiver .....................................................................................4
1.3.3 Metallic Wires ..........................................................................4
1.4 Telephone Exchanges............................................................................6
1.4.1 Manual Exchange ....................................................................6
1.4.2 Automatic Exchanges ..............................................................7
1.5 Long-Distance Communication ..........................................................8
1.6 Need for Multiplexing ..........................................................................9
1.7 Techniques of Multiplexing .................................................................9
1.8 Multiplexing Structure of FDM Schemes ........................................ 11
1.9 Capacities of Various Analog (FDM) Multiplexing Systems ........ 13
1.9.1 Copper Wire Pairs.................................................................. 13
1.9.2 Coaxial Cables ........................................................................ 13
1.9.3 Microwave Systems ............................................................... 13
1.10 Digital Multiplexing ........................................................................... 14
1.10.1 Plesiochronous Digital Hierarchy ....................................... 14
1.10.2 Synchronous Digital Hierarchy ........................................... 15
1.10.3 Coarse Wavelength Division Multiplexing ........................ 15
1.10.4 Dense Wavelength Division Multiplexing ......................... 16
1.10.5 Optical Transport Network .................................................. 16
Review Questions .......................................................................................... 16
Critical Thinking Questions......................................................................... 17
Bibliography.................................................................................................... 17

2. Advent of Digital Technology.................................................................... 19

2.1 Analog Communication Systems ..................................................... 19
2.2 Problems in Analog Communication Systems ............................... 20
2.2.1 Attenuation ............................................................................. 21
2.2.2 Noise and Interference ..........................................................22
2.2.2.1 Sources of Noise ..................................................... 23
2.2.2.2 Relevance of Type of Noise ................................... 24
2.2.3 Distortion ................................................................................ 24
2.2.3.1 Amplitude Distortion ............................................ 25

v
vi Contents

2.2.3.2 Phase Distortion or Delay Distortion .................. 26

2.2.3.3 Harmonic Distortion.............................................. 28
2.2.4 Cross-Talk, Echoes, and Singing .......................................... 29
2.3 What Is Done about These Problems ...............................................30
2.4 Digital Advantage ............................................................................... 31
2.5 Digital Signal ....................................................................................... 31
2.6 Processing of Digital Signal............................................................... 32
2.7 Channel Capacity in Digital Technology ........................................34
2.8 Advantages of Digital Technology ................................................... 35
2.8.1 Universality of Components and Media ............................ 35
2.8.2 Cheap and Reliable Storage .................................................. 36
2.8.3 Low Cost of the Equipment .................................................. 36
2.8.4 Ease of Signaling .................................................................... 36
2.8.5 Use of Microprocessor........................................................... 36
2.8.6 Less Precision Required ........................................................ 37
2.9 Disadvantages of Digital Technology .............................................. 37
Review Questions .......................................................................................... 38
Critical Thinking Questions......................................................................... 39
Bibliography.................................................................................................... 39

3. Analog-to-Digital Conversion and TDM Principles ............................. 41

3.1 Analog and Digital Signals................................................................ 41
3.1.1 Continuous Time Analog Signal ......................................... 41
3.1.2 Discrete Time Analog Signal ...............................................42
3.1.3 Digital Signal ..........................................................................42
3.1.4 Digital Signal Processing ......................................................44
3.2 Sampling Theorem.............................................................................. 45
3.3 (Analog) Pulse Modulation ............................................................... 46
3.3.1 Pulse Amplitude Modulation .............................................. 47
3.3.2 Pulse Width Modulation....................................................... 47
3.3.3 Pulse Position Modulation.................................................... 48
3.4 Digital Pulse Code Modulation ........................................................ 49
3.4.1 Sampling ................................................................................. 49
3.4.2 Quantization ........................................................................... 50
3.4.3 Quantization Noise................................................................ 53
3.4.4 Companding ...........................................................................54
3.5 Other Digital Modulations ................................................................ 56
3.5.1 Differential PCM .................................................................... 56
3.5.2 Delta Modulation ................................................................... 57
3.5.3 Adaptive Differential PCM .................................................. 57
3.5.4 Adaptive Delta Modulation .................................................. 57
3.6 A/D and D/A Converters .................................................................. 58
3.6.1 A/D Converter ....................................................................... 58
3.6.2 D/A Converter ........................................................................ 58
3.6.3 Accuracy of A/D and D/A Conversion .............................. 60
Contents vii

3.7 Time Division Multiplexing .............................................................. 61

3.7.1 TDM/PCM ..............................................................................63
Review Questions ..........................................................................................65
Critical Thinking Questions......................................................................... 67
Bibliography.................................................................................................... 67

4. Line Coding and Digital Modulation ...................................................... 69

4.1 Factors Affecting the Choice of Line Code...................................... 70
4.1.1 Timing Content ...................................................................... 70
4.1.2 DC Wander ............................................................................. 73
4.1.3 Bandwidth Requirement....................................................... 73
4.1.4 Power Consumption .............................................................. 75
4.1.5 Performance Monitoring Features ...................................... 76
4.1.6 Error Probability ....................................................................77
4.1.7 Cost .......................................................................................... 79
4.2 Types of Line Codes............................................................................ 79
4.2.1 Unipolar (RZ) Code (On–Off) .............................................. 79
4.2.2 Polar (NRZ) Code .................................................................. 79
4.2.3 Alternate Mark Inversion Code (Bipolar Code) .................80
4.2.4 High Density Bipolar-3 Code ............................................... 81
4.2.5 Coded Mark Inversion Code ................................................ 82
4.2.6 Manchester Code ...................................................................83
4.2.7 Multilevel Line Codes ...........................................................84
4.3 Digital Modulation Techniques ........................................................84
4.3.1 Amplitude Modulation (ASK)..............................................85
4.3.1.1 Demodulation of Amplitude-Modulated
Carrier ......................................................................85
4.3.2 Frequency Shift Keying ........................................................ 86
4.3.2.1 Demodulation of FSK Signals............................... 87
4.3.3 Phase Shift Keying................................................................. 87
4.3.3.1 Demodulation of PSK ............................................ 88
4.3.4 Multiple Phase Shift Keying................................................. 89
4.3.5 Quadrature Amplitude Modulation ...................................90
4.3.6 Digital Modulations for Optical Fiber Transmission ....... 91
4.4 Other Means of Improving the Timing Content ............................ 92
4.4.1 Using Block Coding ............................................................... 92
4.4.2 Using Scrambler ..................................................................... 93
4.4.3 Adding Redundant Bits ........................................................ 98
Review Questions .......................................................................................... 98
Critical Thinking Questions....................................................................... 100
Bibliography.................................................................................................. 100

5. Clock.............................................................................................................. 101
5.1 What Is a Clock? ................................................................................ 101
5.2 Significance of the Clock .................................................................. 102
viii Contents

5.2.1 Triggering the Events .......................................................... 102

5.2.2 Reception of Digital Bit Stream.......................................... 103
5.3 Clock Waveform ................................................................................ 104
5.4 Types of Clocks.................................................................................. 105
5.4.1 Multivibrator Clock ............................................................. 105
5.4.2 Crystal Oscillator Clock ...................................................... 106
5.4.3 Atomic Clocks ...................................................................... 107
5.5 Clock Accuracy Required in Communication Systems .............. 108
Review Questions ........................................................................................ 110
Critical Thinking Questions....................................................................... 111
Bibliography.................................................................................................. 111

6. Signal Impairments, Error Detection, and Correction ....................... 113

6.1 Types of Signal Impairments........................................................... 114
6.2 Attenuation ........................................................................................ 114
6.3 Distortion ........................................................................................... 115
6.4 Intersymbol Interference .................................................................. 116
6.4.1 Effect of Pulse Shape on ISI ................................................ 117
6.5 Jitter and Wander .............................................................................. 120
6.5.1 Control of Jitter and Wander .............................................. 123
6.5.1.1 Phase-Locked Loop.............................................. 125
6.5.1.2 Elastic Store ........................................................... 127
6.6 Eye Diagram ...................................................................................... 129
6.7 Error Detection .................................................................................. 130
6.7.1 Use of Error Detecting Line Codes.................................... 131
6.7.2 Inserting Parity Bits ............................................................. 131
6.7.3 Through CRC........................................................................ 133
6.8 Error Correction ................................................................................ 134
6.8.1 Repetition of Packets Containing Errored Bits
(Automatic Repeat Request) ............................................... 134
6.8.2 Forward Error Correction ................................................... 135
6.9 Link Performance.............................................................................. 137
6.10 Required Link Performance ............................................................ 141
Review Questions ........................................................................................ 142
Critical Thinking Questions....................................................................... 143
Bibliography.................................................................................................. 144

7. Synchronization .......................................................................................... 145

7.1 Synchronization Process .................................................................. 146
7.1.1 Correct Detection of Symbols ............................................ 147
7.1.1.1 Demodulation ....................................................... 147
7.1.1.2 Filtering.................................................................. 149
7.1.1.3 Amplification ........................................................ 149
7.1.1.4 Equalization and Pulse Shaping ........................ 149
7.1.1.5 Decision Making .................................................. 150
Contents ix

7.1.2 Timing Recovery and Clock Synchronization................. 150

7.1.3 Framing ................................................................................. 152
7.1.4 Use of Multiframes .............................................................. 154
7.2 Synchronous vs. Asynchronous Systems ...................................... 155
7.2.1 Asynchronous Systems ....................................................... 155
7.2.2 Synchronous Systems .......................................................... 157
7.3 Synchronous Networks .................................................................... 158
7.4 Plesiochronous Networks ................................................................ 159
7.5 Slips ..................................................................................................... 161
7.6 Elastic Store and Controlled Slips................................................... 162
7.7 Line Synchronization vs. Networks Synchronization ................ 164
7.8 Types of Network Synchronization................................................ 165
7.8.1 Master–Slave Synchronization ......................................... 166
7.8.1.1 Using Primary and Secondary Reference
Clocks ..................................................................... 166
7.8.1.2 By Timing Distribution through GPS ............... 166
7.8.2 Mutual Synchronization ..................................................... 166
7.9 Pseudosynchronization.................................................................... 167
7.9.1 Permitted Number of Slips in
Pseudosynchronization Network ...................................... 168
7.9.2 Slip Rate Calculations.......................................................... 169
7.10 Synchronization Network Engineering (Planning a
Synchronous Network) .................................................................... 170
7.10.1 Network Synchronization Areas ....................................... 171
7.10.2 Synchronization Chain ....................................................... 171
7.10.3 Master Clock SSUs and SECs ............................................. 171
7.10.3.1 Master Clock (PRC) .............................................. 171
7.10.3.2 Synchronization Supply Unit ............................. 173
7.10.3.3 SDH Equipment Slave Clocks............................. 175
7.10.4 Typical Synchronous Network........................................... 175
7.10.5 Synchronization Principles and Timing Loops............... 177
7.10.5.1 Timing Loops ........................................................ 178
7.10.6 Synchronization Status Message ....................................... 179
Review Questions ........................................................................................ 180
Critical Thinking Questions....................................................................... 183
Bibliography.................................................................................................. 183

8. Plesiochronous Digital Hierarchy........................................................... 185

8.1 Pulse Code Modulation.................................................................... 186
8.1.1 Multiplexer ............................................................................ 187
8.1.2 PCM/E1/2MB Multiplexing Structure ............................. 188
8.1.3 Time Slot 0............................................................................. 189
8.1.4 Multiframe ............................................................................ 190
8.1.4.1 Time Slot 0 Details ............................................... 190
8.1.5 Time Slot 16 ........................................................................... 191
x Contents

8.2 Higher-Order Multiplexing/Hierarchical Multiplexing ............. 193

8.2.1 E2 Multiplexing .................................................................... 194
8.2.2 E1 Bit Rate Variation ............................................................ 196
8.2.3 Justification or Bit Stuffing ................................................. 196
8.2.4 Number of Justification Bits ............................................... 198
8.2.5 Justification Control ............................................................. 199
8.2.6 E2 Frame Structure .............................................................. 201
8.2.6.1 Set I ......................................................................... 202
8.2.6.2 Sets II and III ......................................................... 203
8.2.6.3 Set IV ...................................................................... 204
8.2.7 E2 Bit Rate and Bit Rate Adaptation of E1s ...................... 205
8.2.8 Bit Rate Adaptation .............................................................. 207
8.2.9 Positive/Negative Justification ........................................... 207
8.2.10 Variable Bit Rates of E2........................................................ 207
8.3 E3 Multiplexing ................................................................................. 208
8.3.1 E3 Frame Structure .............................................................. 209
8.3.1.1 Set I ......................................................................... 209
8.3.1.2 Sets II and III ......................................................... 209
8.3.1.3 Set IV ...................................................................... 209
8.3.2 Bit Rate Adaptation in E3 .................................................... 211
8.4 E4 Multiplexing ................................................................................. 211
8.4.1 E4 Frame Structure .............................................................. 212
8.4.1.1 Set I ......................................................................... 212
8.4.1.2 Bit 13 ....................................................................... 213
8.4.1.3 Bits 14 to 16 ............................................................ 213
8.4.1.4 Bits 17 to 488 .......................................................... 213
8.4.1.5 Set II to Set V ......................................................... 213
8.4.1.6 Set VI ...................................................................... 214
8.4.2 Bit Rate Adaptation in E4 .................................................... 215
8.5 Higher Bit Rates................................................................................. 217
8.6 Framing Stages, Tributary Data, Overhead, and Payload Bits ... 217
8.7 North American PDH Hierarchy .................................................... 218
8.8 Types of Line Codes used in PDH .................................................. 219
8.9 Synchronization in PDH .................................................................. 219
8.9.1 Using Master–Slave Synchronization ............................... 221
8.9.2 Using High-Accuracy Clocks .............................................222
8.9.3 Clock Accuracy and Number of Slips in PDH Systems ....223
8.9.4 Current Trends ..................................................................... 224
8.9.5 E1 Synchronization through Plesiochronous Network .225
8.10 Asynchronous vs. Synchronous Multiplexing ............................. 226
8.11 Skip Multiplexers .............................................................................. 227
Review Questions ........................................................................................ 228
Critical Thinking Questions....................................................................... 231
Bibliography.................................................................................................. 231
Contents xi

9. Plesiochronous Digital Hierarchy Maintenance Alarms ................... 233

9.1 Types of Alarms ................................................................................234
9.2 Loss of Signal .....................................................................................234
9.3 Loss of Framing ................................................................................. 235
9.4 Alarm Indication Signal ................................................................... 237
9.5 Remote Defect Indication ................................................................. 238
9.6 Determination of Fault Location ..................................................... 239
9.7 Loss of Multiframe Alignment ....................................................... 240
9.8 Multiframe Alignment AIS ............................................................. 241
9.9 Multiframe Alignment ..................................................................... 241
Review Questions ........................................................................................ 247
Critical Thinking Questions....................................................................... 248
Bibliography.................................................................................................. 248

10. Synchronous Digital Hierarchy............................................................... 249

10.1 Evolution of Synchronous Digital Hierarchy ................................ 249
10.2 Advantages of SDH ........................................................................... 252
10.2.1 Data Rates ............................................................................. 252
10.2.2 Direct Drop/Insert of Tributaries ...................................... 253
10.2.3 Automatic Protection Switching/Self-Healing................ 253
10.2.4 Compatibility with the Prevailing Standards ................. 253
10.2.5 Vendor Compatibility ..........................................................254
10.2.6 Compatibility with Data Communication Protocols ......254
10.2.7 Excellent Operations, Administration, and
Management ......................................................................... 255
10.3 Price to Be Paid for the Advantages ............................................... 255
10.3.1 Establishing Timing Distribution throughout the
Network................................................................................. 255
10.3.2 Added Jitter Due to Pointer Adjustment .......................... 255
10.3.3 Poorer Framing Efficiency .................................................. 256
10.3.4 Virus Threat .......................................................................... 256
10.4 Synchronous Transport Module ..................................................... 256
10.5 Formation of STM-1 .......................................................................... 258
10.5.1 Justification of E1 Tributaries ............................................. 259
10.5.2 Frame Rate of STM-1 ........................................................... 259
10.6 Container ............................................................................................ 262
10.7 Mapping ............................................................................................. 264
10.8 Virtual Containers ............................................................................ 266
10.8.1 Data Rates ............................................................................. 266
10.9 Path and Section ................................................................................ 268
10.9.1 Regenerator Section Overhead........................................... 270
10.9.2 Multiplex Section Overhead ............................................... 270
10.9.3 Section Overhead ................................................................. 270
10.9.4 Path Overhead ...................................................................... 270
xii Contents

10.10 SDH Layers ........................................................................................ 271

10.11 Tributary Unit .................................................................................... 272
10.12 Further Multiplexing ........................................................................ 274
10.12.1 Bit Rates ................................................................................. 274
10.12.2 Tributary Unit Groups......................................................... 275
10.12.3 KLM Numbering ................................................................. 276
10.12.4 Administrative Unit ............................................................ 277
10.13 Multiplexing of Higher-Order PDH Tributaries .......................... 280
10.13.1 Multiplexing Structure of E4 .............................................. 280
10.13.2 Multiplexing of E2 Rate (8.448 Mbps) ............................... 282
10.13.3 Multiplexing Routes ............................................................ 282
10.13.4 Significance of AUG............................................................. 283
10.14 Complete SDH Multiplexing Structure ......................................... 283
10.14.1 STM-O ...................................................................................284
10.15 Frame Structure of STM-1 ................................................................ 286
10.16 Pointer ................................................................................................. 288
10.16.1 AU Pointer ............................................................................. 288
10.16.1.1 Floating Frames .................................................... 292
10.16.2 TU Pointer ............................................................................. 295
10.16.2.1 Functioning and Purpose ................................... 296
10.16.3 Summary of Pointer Advantages ...................................... 297
10.16.4 Disadvantages of Pointer .................................................... 298
10.16.5 AU-4 Pointer Details ............................................................ 299
10.16.5.1 Justifications and Pointer Adjustment............... 301
10.16.5.2 New Data Flag ...................................................... 303
10.16.6 Bit Rate Adjustment Range of Pointer ..............................304
10.16.7 AU-3 Pointer .........................................................................305
10.16.8 Details of TU Pointer ...........................................................306
10.17 Formation of Higher-Order STMs ..................................................308
10.17.1 AUG Level Multiplexing .....................................................308
10.17.2 STM-1 Level Multiplexing ..................................................309
10.18 Frame Structure of Higher-Order STMs ....................................... 310
Review Questions ........................................................................................ 311
Critical Thinking Questions....................................................................... 314
Bibliography.................................................................................................. 315

11. Operations and Maintenance in SDH .................................................... 317

11.1 Performance Monitoring .................................................................. 318
11.1.1 Systems Out-of-Service Performance Monitoring .......... 318
11.1.2 In-Circuit Performance Monitoring .................................. 319
11.1.2.1 Parity Check .......................................................... 321
11.1.2.2 Indications Generated by Parity Bytes .............. 324
11.2 Fault Diagnostics and Restoration .................................................. 327
11.2.1 Loss of Signal........................................................................ 327
11.2.2 Loss of Framing.................................................................... 327
Contents xiii

11.2.3 Alarm Indication Signal...................................................... 328

11.2.4 Remote Defect Indication ................................................... 329
11.2.4.1 Higher-Order Path Remote Defect Indication..... 329
11.2.5 Further Transmission of AIS to AU + TU Levels ............ 330
11.2.6 Multiplex Section Excessive Errors ................................... 331
11.2.7 Loss of Pointer (AU-LOP and TU-LOP) ............................ 332
11.2.8 Higher-Order Path Unequipped and Lower-Order
Path Unequipped ................................................................. 333
11.2.9 Trace Identifier Mismatch ................................................... 333
11.2.10 Signal Label Mismatch ........................................................334
11.2.11 Tributary Unit Loss of Multiframe ....................................334
11.3 Summary of SDH Alarms and Indication .....................................334
11.3.1 SDH Performance Indicators ..............................................334
11.3.1.1 Anomaly ................................................................ 337
11.3.1.2 Defect ..................................................................... 337
11.3.1.3 Failure .................................................................... 337
11.4 Performance Monitoring Parameters ............................................. 337
11.4.1 Error Performance Objectives ............................................ 339
11.5 Roles of Other Overhead Bytes .......................................................340
11.5.1 SOH Bytes .............................................................................340
11.5.1.1 Bytes E1 (RSOH) and E2 (MSOH) ......................340
11.5.1.2 Byte F1 (User Channel) (RSOH) ......................... 341
11.5.1.3 Bytes K1 and K2 (MSOH).................................... 341
11.5.1.4 Byte S1 (Synchronization Status Message
Byte) ........................................................................ 341
11.5.1.5 Δ Bytes (RSOH): Media-Dependent Byte .........342
11.5.1.6 Bytes X (Reserved for National Use) .................342
11.5.1.7 Bytes D1 to D12: Data Communication
(DCC) Bytes ...........................................................342
11.5.1.8 Unmarked Bytes ...................................................342
11.6 Overhead Bytes Summary ...............................................................342
11.6.1 Regenerator Section Overhead...........................................343
11.6.2 Multiplex Section Overhead ...............................................344
11.6.3 Higher-Order Path Overhead ............................................344
11.6.4 Lower-Order Path Overhead..............................................346
11.7 Network Management in SDH........................................................346
11.7.1 Network Management System ........................................... 347
11.7.1.1 Distributed Control .............................................. 347
11.7.1.2 Distributed Authorization ..................................348
11.7.1.3 Customer-Managed Links .................................. 349
11.7.2 Complete Telecommunications Network Management .... 349
11.7.3 NMS Activities ..................................................................... 349
11.7.3.1 Configuration ........................................................ 350
11.7.3.2 Provisioning .......................................................... 351
11.7.3.3 Performance Monitoring ..................................... 352
xiv Contents

11.7.3.4 Fault Diagnostics and Management Alarms ..... 353

11.7.3.5 Security .................................................................. 353
11.7.3.6 Timing Management ...........................................354
11.7.3.7 Maintenance Operations .....................................354
Review Questions ........................................................................................ 355
Critical Thinking Questions....................................................................... 357
Bibliography.................................................................................................. 358

12. SDH Architecture and Protection Mechanism .................................... 359

12.1 SDH Network Elements ................................................................... 360
12.1.1 Terminal Multiplexer........................................................... 360
12.1.2 Regenerator ........................................................................... 361
12.1.3 Add/Drop Multiplexer........................................................ 361
12.1.4 Digital Cross Connect ......................................................... 362
12.1.4.1 Higher-Order Cross Connect ............................. 362
12.1.4.2 Lower-Order Cross Connect............................... 362
12.2 SDH Network Topologies ................................................................ 363
12.3 Work and Protect Paths .................................................................... 365
12.4 Advantage of a Ring ......................................................................... 366
12.5 Protection Switching Schemes ........................................................ 367
12.5.1 1 + 1 Protection Scheme ...................................................... 367
12.5.2 1:1 Protection Scheme .......................................................... 369
12.5.3 1:N Protection Scheme ........................................................ 369
12.6 Self-Healing Rings ............................................................................ 371
12.7 Types of Automatic Protection Switching ..................................... 371
12.8 MS Dedicated Ring Protection ........................................................ 372
12.9 MS Shared Ring Protection ............................................................. 373
12.9.1.1 Principles of Working .......................................... 374
12.9.1.2 Switching Mechanism ......................................... 377
12.9.2 Commands for Protection Switching................................ 382
12.9.2.1 Commands Activated through K1 Byte ............ 382
12.9.2.2 Commands Activated through K2 Byte............ 385
12.10 Other Important Features of Protection Switching ..................... 386
12.10.1 Switching Time .................................................................... 386
12.10.2 Switching Initiation Time ................................................... 387
12.10.3 Operation Mode ................................................................... 387
12.10.4 Switching Protocol ............................................................... 387
12.10.5 Manual Controls .................................................................. 387
12.10.6 Misconnection ...................................................................... 388
12.10.7 Squelching ............................................................................ 388
12.10.8 Nonpreemptible Unprotected Traffic (NUT) ................... 388
12.10.9 DXC Byte Commands.......................................................... 389
12.11 Subnetwork Connection Protection ............................................... 389
12.11.1 Principles of Working .......................................................... 390
12.11.2 Switching Mechanism ......................................................... 390
Contents xv

12.11.3 Other Important Features ................................................... 392

12.12 Comparison of Various Protection Schemes ................................. 392
12.13 Deployment of Protection in a Network........................................ 393
Review Questions ........................................................................................ 395
Critical Thinking Questions....................................................................... 397
Bibliography.................................................................................................. 397

13. Data Over SDH ........................................................................................... 399

13.1 Problems in Interfacing Data and SDH ......................................... 401
13.1.1 Difference in the Bit-Stream Structure ............................. 401
13.1.2 Difference in Signaling (Protocol) ..................................... 401
13.1.3 Difference in Throughput Rate .......................................... 402
13.2 Data as Payload ................................................................................. 402
13.3 Concatenation .................................................................................... 403
13.4 Contiguous Concatenation ..............................................................405
13.5 Mapping of ATM Frames ................................................................. 407
13.5.1 ATM Mapping in VC-4........................................................408
13.5.2 ATM Mapping in VC-2 ........................................................ 409
13.6 Mapping of HDLC, PPP, Ethernet, IP, and LAPS.......................... 410
13.7 Shortcomings of Data over SDH ..................................................... 411
13.7.1 Requirement of Concatenation Feature ............................ 411
13.7.2 Inefficient Capacity Utilization .......................................... 412
13.7.3 Stuffing Bytes Requirement ............................................... 412
13.7.4 Handling of Multiple Protocols ......................................... 412
Review Questions ........................................................................................ 412
Critical Thinking Questions....................................................................... 413
Bibliography.................................................................................................. 414

14. Emerging Systems and the Future of SDH ........................................... 415

14.1 Case for Ethernet Backbone ............................................................. 416
14.2 SDH’s Fight ......................................................................................... 418
14.3 Next-Generation SDH....................................................................... 418
14.3.1 Virtual Concatenation ......................................................... 419
14.3.1.1 V-CAT Procedure ................................................. 419
14.3.1.2 Mapping of 10-Mbps Ethernet............................ 420
14.3.1.3 Efficiencies of Other Services ............................. 421
14.3.1.4 Resilience through V-CAT ..................................423
14.3.1.5 Payload Identification and Realignment...........423
14.3.1.6 Payload Identification and Realignment in
LO-V-CAT .............................................................. 427
14.3.2 Link Capacity Adjustment Scheme ................................... 428
14.3.2.1 Improving the Link Reliability (Resilience) ..... 429
14.3.2.2 Automatic Removal of Failed Members............ 429
14.3.2.3 In-Service Resizing of Bandwidth .....................430
14.3.2.4 Provisioning of Asymmetric Bandwidth.......... 431
xvi Contents

14.3.2.5 Working with Non-LCAS Nodes ....................... 431

14.3.2.6 LCAS Operation (Higher Order) ........................ 431
14.3.2.7 Lower-Order LCAS ..............................................433
14.3.3 Generic Framing Procedure ...............................................434
14.3.3.1 What Is GFP?......................................................... 435
14.3.3.2 Advantages of GFP............................................... 436
14.3.3.3 GFP Frame Structure ........................................... 438
14.3.3.4 GFP Mapping ........................................................ 439
14.3.3.5 Frame-Mapped GFP ............................................. 439
14.3.3.6 Transparent Mapped GFP ...................................440
14.3.3.7 Comparison of GFP(F) and GFP(T) ................... 441
14.4 Resilient Packet Ring ........................................................................442
14.4.1 Classes of Service in RPR ...................................................443
14.4.2 Fairness Control ...................................................................444
14.4.3 Protection in RPR .................................................................444
14.4.4 RPR Management ................................................................444
14.5 New-Generation Network Elements ..............................................445
14.5.1 Multiservice Provisioning Platform ..................................445
14.5.2 Multiservice Switching Platform .......................................445
14.5.3 Multiservice Transport Node .............................................445
14.5.4 Wave Length Division Multiplexing .................................445
14.5.5 Optical Transport Network ................................................445
14.5.6 Carrier Ethernet ...................................................................445
14.6 What Is the Future, SDH or Packet Networks? .............................446
Review Questions ........................................................................................448
Critical Thinking Questions....................................................................... 450
Bibliography.................................................................................................. 450

15. Transmission Media for PDH/SDH and OFC Technology ................ 453
15.1 Types of Media for PDH/SDH Transmission ............................... 453
15.1.1 Copper Wire Pair ................................................................. 453
15.1.2 Coaxial Cables ...................................................................... 455
15.1.3 Microwave Radios ............................................................... 456
15.1.4 Free Space Optics (Air Fiber) .............................................. 457
15.1.5 Optical Fiber Cable .............................................................. 458
15.2 Optical Fiber Communication Technology ................................... 459
15.2.1 Principles of OFC ................................................................. 459
15.2.2 Optical Frequency/Wavelength Used .............................. 461
15.2.3 Types of Optical Fibers........................................................463
15.2.3.1 Plastic Fiber ...........................................................463
15.2.3.2 Glass Fibers ...........................................................464
15.2.3.3 Multimode Fiber ...................................................464
15.2.3.4 Single Mode Fiber................................................. 465
15.2.3.5 Dispersion-Shifted Fibers.................................... 465
15.2.3.6 Step Index Fiber .................................................... 466
Contents xvii

15.2.3.7 Graded Index Fibers............................................. 466

15.2.4 OFC System Components ................................................... 467
15.2.4.1 Optical Source....................................................... 467
15.2.4.2 Photo Detector ...................................................... 469
15.3 All Optical Networks ....................................................................... 471
15.3.1 Optical Amplifiers ............................................................... 471
15.3.2 Wavelength Division Multiplexing ................................... 472
15.3.3 Optical Cross Connect ........................................................ 474
15.3.4 Optical Add-Drop Multiplexer .......................................... 474
15.4 OFC Link Budget............................................................................... 475
15.4.1 Loss Margin .......................................................................... 477
15.4.2 Dispersion Limit .................................................................. 477
Review Questions ........................................................................................ 478
Critical Thinking Questions.......................................................................480
Bibliography.................................................................................................. 481

16. Introduction to Optical Transport Networks .......................................483

16.1 OTH Principles .................................................................................. 485
16.2 Multiplexing Structure of OTN ...................................................... 485
16.2.1 Optical Payload Unit ........................................................... 487
16.2.2 Optical Data Unit ................................................................. 487
16.2.3 Optical Transport Unit ........................................................ 487
16.2.4 Optical Channel ................................................................... 487
16.2.5 Optical Channel Carrier ..................................................... 487
16.2.6 Optical Channel Group....................................................... 487
16.2.7 Optical Transport Module .................................................. 488
16.2.8 Optical Multiplex Section ................................................... 488
16.2.9 Optical Transmission Section ............................................ 488
16.3 Multiplexing Hierarchy of OTN ..................................................... 488
16.4 OTN Layers ........................................................................................ 492
16.5 OTN Domain Interfaces ................................................................... 493
16.5.1 Intradomain Interface.......................................................... 493
16.5.2 Interdomain Interface .......................................................... 493
16.6 Advantages of OTN .......................................................................... 494
16.6.1 Very High Link Capacity .................................................... 494
16.6.2 Forward Error Corrections ................................................. 494
16.6.3 Backward Compatibility with Existing Protocols........... 494
16.6.4 Improved Efficiency for Data Traffic ................................. 494
16.6.5 Reduced Number of Regenerators .................................... 495
16.6.6 Strong Management and Protection ................................. 495
16.6.7 Quick Localization of Faults .............................................. 495
16.7 Frame Structure of OTN .................................................................. 496
16.7.1 Framing Bytes....................................................................... 497
16.7.2 OTU Overhead ..................................................................... 497
16.7.3 ODU Overhead ..................................................................... 499
xviii Contents

16.7.4 OPU Overhead ..................................................................... 502

16.8 Forward Error Correction ................................................................ 503
16.9 Operations and Maintenance in OTN ........................................... 506
16.9.1 Forward Defect Indication.................................................. 506
16.9.2 Open Connections Indication ............................................ 506
16.9.3 Locked ................................................................................... 506
16.9.4 Payload Missing Indications .............................................. 506
16.10 Future of OTN ................................................................................... 507
Review Questions ........................................................................................508
Critical Thinking Questions....................................................................... 510
Bibliography.................................................................................................. 510
Index ..................................................................................................................... 511
Preface

Dear friends,
I am an engineer by qualification and a signaling and telecommunication
professional by occupation. I work in the Signaling and Telecommunication
Department of the Indian Railways. Our job is to install and maintain vari-
ous signaling and telecommunication equipment required for railway oper-
ations. We have a phenomenal variety of signaling equipment with us, from
the oldest semaphore signaling systems to the latest electronic interlocking
systems and a variety of traffic control, management, protection, and data
logging systems. On the telecommunication front, we are engaged in the
installation, operation, and maintenance of many types of equipment in
most of the segments of popular telecommunication technologies. We have
telephone exchanges, omnibus control circuits, microwave radio links, opti-
cal fiber cables carrying long-distance synchronous digital hierarchy (SDH)
links, data communication networks running critical applications, ISM band
wireless links including short-distance DSSS and long-distance OFDM links,
GSM/R (GSM/R is a variation of GSM technology especially suited to rail-
way applications) for mobile communication between the running train and
the ground administration, and so forth.
There is no doubt that it is beyond the capabilities of a normal human
being to keep track of the fine details of all the signaling and telecommunica-
tion technologies, current and upcoming, in the current scenario of superfast
technological developments.
A few years back in my career, destiny threw me to a posting in Railtel
Corporation of India Ltd. (RCIL), a public-sector company under the Ministry
of Railways of the Government of India. Although RCIL was engaged in many
types of telecommunication businesses, its main revenue stream was the tele-
communication bandwidth across the country. Their network was built on rail-
ways’ optical fiber cable by deploying SDH/WDM systems. It was a sudden
jolt to my ego of technical competence when I could not tackle the nuts and
bolts of the SDH technology. Until then, I had been engaged in the installation,
operations, and maintenance of many types of signaling and telecommunica-
tion systems, and the telecommunication systems included mainly electronic
exchanges, microwave radio links, and data communication networks, aside
from other minor variations. I had some exposure to the OFC systems and car-
rier technologies, but what was expected of me was a thorough knowledge of
the SDH technology and associated systems and the ability to manage the sys-
tems and services effectively. Despite striving hard to understand the subject,
I found myself nowhere near the competency level that I would generally like
to have had. I continued to discharge my duties and did it quite well, somehow
managing with a makeshift knowledge of the SDH systems, which I gathered

xix
xx Preface

from various training programs and through whatever literature I could

get hold of from the bookshops or the Internet. However, despite my best
efforts, I could not get good literature on the subject that could explain the
concepts aside from providing functional details. The many training pro-
grams proved inadequate as well, as the trainers themselves were not very
competent.
It was a boon to my desire to learn when I was sent on forced leave for a
period of seven months because of my promotion without a post being avail-
able in the higher grade. After passing the initial few months in reading fiction,
which I always wanted to read but could never do as I was always hard-pressed
for time throughout my career, the idea of strengthening my understanding of
SDH struck me. I again started searching for good literature on SDH, but I
could not find any book on the subject that could impart the necessary under-
standing. I needed some support on the fundamentals of telecommunication
technologies as well—after years of being away from fine details of many tech-
nologies, a kind of refresher course was required, besides the knowledge of
fundamentals of new technologies. I started gathering all the training mate-
rials on the subject, visited bookshops on all available opportunities, bought
many books, and gathered as much of related information as I could. Referring
to the books on fundamentals side by side with the training materials, white
papers, and tutorials available on the Internet, the concepts started taking
shape in my mind. Encouraged, I started going deeper into the subject until I
finally found myself confident in not only discussions on the subject but also
in handling the equipments.
Thus, I decided to properly organize my learning and put it in the form of
notes, which could be used by our training institutes to impart knowledge to
people who desired to learn. While preparing the notes, I was reminded of
the difficulties that I had had to face in understanding the particular subject.
This led me to include the fundamentals of the underlying technology to
enable the reader to understand the subject without having to worry about
knowing these fundamentals. The process went on with every subject, and
I found that the volume of notes was growing with every topic. This was
the time when the idea of converting the whole text into a book struck me.
I started working toward it and found that I had to include more details
on the fundamentals of underlying telecommunication technologies to
make it a self-contained text on the subject of SDH for telecommunication
professionals.
The first lesson I learned was that it was impossible to understand SDH
if your PDH fundamentals are weak. Thus, I included a detailed chapter on
PDH. To understand PDH, one has to know such things as HDB-3, clock,
time division multiplexing, pulse code modulation, etc. Hence, I included
chapters on line coding, clock, PCM, and TDM to provide ready reference to
the fundamentals. Bit errors are a measure of the quality of digital signal. To
appreciate what bit errors are and their causes, one has to know the properties
of transmission media and their effect on the quality of digital signal. One
Preface xxi

chapter has therefore been dedicated to signal impairments caused by trans-

mission media. Although it is expected that telecommunication professionals
would never really forget the concepts of analog-to-digital conversion and vice
versa, a chapter has been included to provide a quick refresher. The subject of
digital multiplexing cannot be appreciated well in the absence of the concepts
of the first multiplexing technique, which was analog frequency division mul-
tiplexing (FDM); hence, the introductory chapter is dedicated to multiplexing
and analog multiplexing basics. How and why digital technology established
itself, completely wiping out analog technology, have also been addressed
in brief to help maintain the flow of concepts. Operations and maintenance
features are among the most important features of digital communication
systems. These features of PDH and SDH have been dealt with in separate
chapters. In fact, the OM features of the PDH systems are the foundation of
SDH. SDH is, in fact, far ahead of its predecessors in terms of capacity, flex-
ibility, and management capabilities. Many types of topologies are possible in
SDH, and these have been explained in brief aside from the protection switch-
ing features. (The protection switching feature of SDH facilitates automatic
and instantaneous traffic restoration in case of a breakdown.)
The phenomenal growth of data traffic in the recent years has forced SDH
to develop features for efficient transport of data communication traffic. One
chapter has been devoted to the data-carrying capabilities of SDH and these
new improvements. The transmission media deserve a little discussion as well
to refresh the fundamentals and provide a glimpse of new technologies, and
accordingly, a chapter has been devoted to it. Although the subject of the work
was primarily SDH, to cover all the variations of digital multiplexing, I also
included a chapter on optical transport networks (OTN), the latest transport
platform.
I have thus attempted to present a comprehensive learning tool to pro-
fessionals in the field of telecommunication transport technologies. A tele-
communication engineer who left college years back should not need any
reference other than this to develop a strong understanding of digital multi-
plexing and transport technologies.
The book has been written in a very simple language and with easy to
understand illustrations. In fact, in many instances, the illustrations appear
to be too simple and repetitive, which may not appeal to a learned reader.
However, my earnest request to such readers is to bear with me in the interest
of the persons who do not have an equally strong foundation. In any case, the
repetitive illustrations will only make your concepts more deeply ingrained.
I have taken the utmost care that all the material and facts presented are
correct and authentic and that editing and typing mistakes have been elimi-
nated, and I highly regret any lapse. I will be grateful if you can give me
feedback on this.
I wish you all happy reading.
This page intentionally left blank
Author

Rajesh Kumar Jain is chief signal engineer in the Signaling and Tele­
communication Department of Indian Railways. He did his engineering in
electronics and telecommunication from Government Engineering College
Jabalpur (India) in 1979. The institute is a pioneer in engineering education
in the field of electronics and telecommunication in India, being the first col­
lege to offer this course since 1948. He worked in DRDO (Defense Research
and Development Organization) as a scientist, where he was involved in
the development of RADAR systems. He joined Indian Railways Services
of Signal Engineers (IRSSE) in 1984. Since then, he has worked in various
capacities as a maintenance and project engineer, leading a team of a few
hundred technical staff to ensure efficient and reliable operations and main­
tenance of the signaling and telecommunication systems of Indian Railways.
Throughout his career he was posted on the most challenging positions. His
approach toward work has always been a problem­solving approach that led
to innovation and implementation of many improvements in the design and
maintenance practices of signal and telecommunication systems of Indian
Railways. Jain handled the toughest and heaviest traffic section of Indian
Railways, i.e., the Mumbai Suburban section for a period of eight years at
a stretch. He innovated, developed and implemented a number of modifi­
cations of the signaling systems that ensured safe and efficient running of
more than 1500 trains in the Mumbai–Kalyan section every day. He has to
his credit a number of honors bestowed upon him by Indian Railways. Jain
won the most coveted Minister’s award in the year 2001 for his contribu­
tions to the organization. He has presented many papers in various technical
forums on the subjects relating to signaling, telecommunication and light­
ning protection systems, and all of them were highly applauded.
The author can be contacted through e­mail at rajeshjain2001@indiatimes
.com.

xxiii
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1
Introduction

As far as the landline telephone is concerned, the world of a telephone sub-

scriber has not changed much from the day the first telephone service was
introduced. The technology of the service, however, has undergone phenom-
enal changes. From the simple battery and telephone set, we have moved to
complex switching, multiplexing, and transport technologies. This chapter
will demonstrate where we began and where we are today.

1.1 You and Me

When it comes to telecommunication, I am always reminded of the game
we used to play as little children. In those days, there were telephones, but
in very limited numbers, and we were not allowed to touch them, for fear
that we would drop and break them. So we used to develop our own tele-
phone by connecting two empty cans with a long cotton thread, by drilling
tiny holes in them. We would then move apart, each holding a can, until the
thread tightened. Then one of us would speak into the can while the other
held theirs close to his/her ear (Figure 1.1).
We could never be sure whether what we heard was the result of transmis-
sion of sound waves via the thread or of direct shouting. However, the tin
boxes did vibrate a little and certainly made some sounds.
The fascination with the telephone has increased exponentially through-
out the world. Let us briefly review how the telephone was developed and
what was its fundamental technology.

1.2 “Mr. Watson, Come Here. I Want to See You.”

These were the words of Alexander Graham Bell to his assistant Mr. Watson
that made history on March 10, 1876 on his invention of the telephone. Mr.
Watson was in the next room.

1
2 Principles of Synchronous Digital Hierarchy

Figure 1.1
Children’s communication through cotton thread.

Although the invention of the telephone by Alexander Graham Bell and

Elisha Gray was almost simultaneous, Bell won the patent rights after a long
legal battle and is now accepted as its inventor.

1.3 Technology of the Telephone

Although the materials of the basic components have changed, the technol-
ogy used by Bell in his first telephone is still in use today.
The three basic components of a telephone are

(i) Transmitter or microphone

(ii) Receiver or earpiece
(iii) Metallic wire

Figure 1.2 shows the principle.

Let us have a brief look at how these components function.

Receivers

Transmitters

Metallic wire pair

Figure 1.2
The basic telephone technology. (If you are wondering why there is only one pair of wires, and
why only transmitters are connected to each other and not the receivers, here is the answer.
Although there is only one pair of wires connecting the two telephones, the transmitted voice
is separated from the received voice by means of a circuit called “Hybrid.” When the voice is
received by the telephone, Hybrid directs it to the receiver (or earpiece), and when the person
speaks, the voice is guided to the transmitter by the Hybrid circuit.)
Introduction 3

1.3.1 Transmitter
The principle of operation of the transmitter is illustrated in Figure 1.3.
Fine carbon granules are filled between two carbon electrodes. One of the
carbon electrodes is fixed, while the other is movable. An aluminum dia-
phragm is attached with the help of a soft rubber to the movable electrode.
The movable electrode is suspended on thin mica flanges with the transmit-
ter body. DC voltage is applied between the electrodes, which results in the
flow of a DC current.
When a person speaks in front of the diaphragm, the sound waves gener-
ated by the pressure of the voice move the diaphragm to and fro. The dis-
placement of the diaphragm is proportionate to the pressure of the sound
waves. The diaphragm in turn moves the movable electrode. The movement
of the electrode causes the pressure on the carbon granules to increase or
decrease in accordance with the sound pressure. This causes the resistance
between the two electrodes to vary, which in turn causes the current flow-
ing through the circuit to vary in accordance with the incident sound pres-
sure. Thus, the speech of the person is converted into electrical current
variations. When this current is applied to a receiver (depicted in the figure
as resistance R), which can convert the electrical variations back into voice,
the conversation is achieved. Since these electrical variations could be car-
ried on metallic wires to long distances (a few miles), the telephone became
feasible.
The present-day transmitter is very different from that described above in
the construction details and the materials used, but the basic principles of
operation remain the same.

Movable carbon
electrode

Fixed carbon
Aluminum diaphragm electrode

Carbon granules

V R (receiver)
(Battery)

Figure 1.3
The principles of functioning of a transmitter (or microphone).
4 Principles of Synchronous Digital Hierarchy

Diaphragm

Permanent
magnet Coils on magnetic poles

Figure 1.4
The principle of operation of a telephone receiver.

1.3.2 receiver
The principle of operation of the receiver is just the opposite of the transmit-
ter. Figure 1.4 illustrates this.
A permanent magnet is fixed with two poles that carry copper wire coils
with a high number of turns. A diaphragm is attached to the assembly by
means of soft rubber. The current received from the transmitter is fed to the
coil.
The magnet normally exerts a pull on the diaphragm. When current
received from the transmitter is fed to the coils, this current produces elec-
tromagnetic flux. This flux also causes a pull on the diaphragm. Since the
flux created by electromagnetic coils varies in accordance with the variations
in the incoming current, the pull on the diaphragm also varies in accordance
with the current received from the transmitter. This variation in the pull on
the diaphragm produces sound waves, which reproduce the speech of the
person speaking into the transmitter.
Again, the modern receiver has undergone substantial changes in the con-
struction details and the material used; but the basic principles of operation
remain the same.

1.3.3 Metallic Wires

To connect the transmitter to the receiver requires a pair of metallic wires.
Although any metal can be used for this purpose, copper is the most appro-
priate one, due to its low resistance. In the early days, overhead wires of gal-
vanized iron and aluminum were also used, but underground copper cable
became the standard medium. Low resistance allows long distances to be
covered with a given amount of transmitted power or current.
Figure 1.5 shows the arrangement where a person “A” is speaking
(transmitting) and a person “B” is listening (receiving) from a distance. How-
ever, in a practical situation, these roles need to be reversible. The arrange-
ment with involvement of both the persons “A” and “B” is as shown in
Figure 1.6. Thus, the use of a single pair of copper wires was standardized
for a telephone conversation between two persons.
Introduction 5

Copper wires

Transmitter Receiver

(Battery)
“A” “B”

Figure 1.5
Person “A” is transmitting (speaking) while person “B” is receiving (listening).

Transmitter Tx Rx

Copper wires Batteries

Receiver Rx Tx

“A” “B”

Figure 1.6
Person “A” and “B” both are transmitting (speaking) and receiving (listening).

Copper wire is the most expensive of the three components. Long dis-
tances were involved, and it was expensive to bury the wires: they had to
be bunched in a strong cable, trenches dug, and roads cut. Thus, it was felt
necessary to reduce this cost as much as possible. One way to achieve this
was to use only a single pair of copper wires instead of two. By means of a
circuit called “Hybrid,” a single pair of copper wires carries the voice signals
from both directions. The Hybrid directs the received signal to the receiver
and sends the transmitted signals on the single pair. Figure 1.7 illustrates

Single pair
copper wire
Tx Tx

Hybrid Hybrid

Rx Battery Rx

“A” “B”

Figure 1.7
Use of a single pair for telephonic communication between two persons, with the help of the
“Hybrid” circuit.
6 Principles of Synchronous Digital Hierarchy

the concept. (The description of the device called Hybrid is quite interesting
but is out of the scope of this text. The readers who are interested in reading
further about it may refer to any basic text on telephony.)

1.4 Telephone Exchanges

After the telephone was invented, with its establishment came the need for
a telephone exchange. As the name suggests, “telephone exchange” was a
facility that could connect a person’s telephone to different persons at differ-
ent times. Of course, all those who could be connected had to have a pair of
wires leading from their home or office to the telephone exchange.
Initially, the exchanges were manual, where an operator received the call
from the calling person (the “calling party” or subscriber) and connected
him to the desired person (the “called party”). As the number of subscrib-
ers grew, it became impossible to manage manual interconnection, and the
“automatic exchange” was born.

1.4.1 Manual exchange

To facilitate the interconnectivity between all the subscribers of the telephone
service, a pair of copper wires was provided between the exchange and the
home/office of each subscriber. Each subscriber was provided with a tele-
phone set consisting of a transmitter and a receiver. The telephone set was
also provided with a switch that operated when the handset was picked up
from the “base unit,” sending a signal to the operator in the exchange, call-
ing for his attention. The operator would ask the calling party for the name
of the desired called party and then connect both parties to each other with
the help of “cords” fitted with “plugs,” which were inserted in the respective
“jacks.” Before connecting to the called party, the operator would signal him
with a ring, talk to the person, inform him about the calling party, and then
connect them. Figure 1.8 shows the general layout of a manual exchange in
a locality.
Inside the exchange facility, all the cables/wires (pairs) of the subscrib-
ers were terminated on boards fitted with jacks. Each subscriber was con-
nected to a separate jack. The jacks were fitted with brass connectors, which
provided a connection to the subscriber. A plug would be inserted into one
of the jacks, which also carried brass contacts. The subscriber’s wire con-
nection was thus extended from jacks to the plugs. The plugs on the other
side of the board were connected with a cord. The cord, a few meters long,
consisted of a number of wires, with a second plug connected at the other
end.
Introduction 7

A B
Subscribers

Manual
F exchange C

Wire pairs

E D

Figure 1.8
General layout of a manual exchange.

Thus, to establish a connection between two subscribers, the two plugs

of a cord were inserted in the jacks pertaining to the interested (calling and
called) subscribers.
Additional connections on the jacks, plugs, and cords enabled calling sig-
nals from the calling party, ringing signals to the called party, call monitor-
ing, disconnection of the parties when the conversation was over, and billing.
This, in brief, demonstrates the fundamentals of telephones and telephone
systems.

1.4.2 Automatic exchanges

As the number of telephone subscribers grew, it became impossible to man-
age the calls with manual exchanges. The size of the jack panel became
unmanageable, with dozens of operators moving from one end to the other
with long cords in their hands, criss-crossing each other. The only solution
was an automatic exchange. The need gave rise to the invention, and the
automatic exchange was born.
The general layout of an automatic exchange is the same as that of a man-
ual exchange (Figure 1.8). The difference is the machinery inside.
The automatic connection between the calling and the called party was
established by using electromagnetic devices. The first such equipment that
remained in use until recently was called “Strowger exchange,” after the
name of the inventor, Almon B. Strowger.
Strowger exchanges were able to handle between 4000 and 5000 subscrib-
ers. As the demand grew, the “crossbar” type of exchange was developed,
which could handle greater capacity, and required more complicated devices.
The real breakthrough came after the invention of semiconductor switch-
ing devices, which gave birth to the solid-state exchanges (as the name
8 Principles of Synchronous Digital Hierarchy

suggests, there were no moving parts in these types of exchanges, in contrast

to the electromechanical Strowger and crossbar exchanges). These solid-state
exchanges provided a much larger density of population of subscribers and
greater ease of operation.
The present technology is, however, many steps ahead of the early solid-state
exchanges. Today’s exchanges are also “solid state,” as they too do not have any
moving parts, but they differ in the method of processing and use of devices.
Microprocessors are used to process and establish the connections. No physical
connection is established, but the subscribers talk through the processor. Other
items such as signaling, billing, etc. are also microprocessor-controlled. These
exchanges are called “stored program-controlled” digital electronic exchanges.
The latest technology is again a completely new concept. With VOIP (voice
over Internet protocol), the voice is digitized and processed as data. This pro-
cess allows the advantages of “data communication” technology to be passed
on to voice telephony.
Description of how exchanges function is beyond the scope of this text, as this
work is intended to explain digital multiplexing technologies. The brief discus-
sion above serves as an introduction to this closely related subject of telephony.

1.5 Long-Distance Communication

As subscribers to the local telephone service increased, it was a logical devel-
opment to expand the service further.
In long-distance telecommunication, the basic principles remain the same.
The only difference is in the amount of signal loss and signal distortion
in the communication link (or so-called channel). The shorter the link, the
fewer the losses, the longer the link, the higher the losses. One way to make
up for the losses is to increase the transmitted power, but there are techno-
logical constraints to arbitrarily increasing the transmitted power. Hence,
a second option of using a low-loss “medium of transmission” (known as
“media”) is also explored. In practice, a combination of both, i.e., a higher
transmitted power and a low loss media, is adopted.
The best low-loss media available in the early days of telephone develop-
ment was copper wire, but thick wires of copper were very costly, and their
high value made them prone to theft. Initially, another low loss media, alu-
minum, was tried, but it was not as effective as copper as far as losses were
concerned. It was a better conductor than metals such as iron and was less
costly than copper. The aluminum wires were suspended on poles between
cities, but as aluminum lacked sufficient tensile strength, a steel conductor
was used in the center, surrounded by aluminum wires. This was called
ACSR wire (aluminum conductor steel reinforced).
Introduction 9

Subsequently however, the ACSR wire with its limited capacity gave way
to copper coaxial cables and microwave radios, etc. (This will be amplified
in subsequent sections.)

1.6 Need for Multiplexing

We have seen in the previous sections that various methods were in use for
long-distance communication. They remained very costly, however, because
of the great distances involved. Creation of this infrastructure involved huge
costs. It became apparent that it was not economically viable to use the entire
“intercity” infrastructure of ACSR wires, or any other media, for only a sin-
gle telephone call at a time.
Means were therefore developed to carry a large number of simultane-
ous telephone conversations on a single pair of wires. The technique evolved
for achieving multiple simultaneous communications on a single physical
media is called multiplexing.

1.7 Techniques of Multiplexing

The need for multiplexing required analysis of the frequency spectrum of
speech. It was found that most components of speech are within a frequency
band of 0 Hz to 4 kHz. Although the range of frequencies audible to humans
is from 20 Hz to 23 kHz, frequencies higher than 4 kHz consist mostly of
musical notes and other high-pitched sounds. On further analysis, it was
established that if the frequencies in the range of 0.3 to 3.4 kHz are picked up
from the human voice, speech of a perfectly acceptable quality can be faith-
fully reconstructed.
A means was developed of stacking many such frequency bands, one
above the other, and transmitting them as a single block on a single media.
Speech channels were stacked one above the other with the support of carrier
frequencies, which were nearly 4 kHz apart from each other. At the receiving
end they were separated. Multiple, simultaneous communication—multi-
plexing—was achieved. Figure 1.9 gives a schematic depiction of the concept.
As Figure 1.9 shows, there are four channels multiplexed together to form
a single combined channel. Each channel of bandwidth 0.3 to 3.4 kHz rides
on a specific frequency, which is called a “carrier frequency,” because it actu-
ally “carries” that channel. The voice frequency band of 0.3 to 3.4 kHz is
called the “base-band.”
10 Principles of Synchronous Digital Hierarchy

Multiplexer

4 kHz signal
generation Modulator
Ch-1 (0.3 to 3.4 kHz)

8 kHz signal
generation 4 to 20 kHz signal
Modulator

Combiner
Ch-2 (0.3 to 3.4 kHz)

12 kHz signal
generation Modulator
Ch-3 (0.3 to 3.4 kHz)

16 kHz signal
generation Modulator
Ch-4 (0.3 to 3.4 kHz)

Figure 1.9
Multiplexing of four channels with the support of carrier frequencies.

A signal of the desired frequency, say 4 kHz, is generated by an oscillator.

It is then fed to an amplifier whose gain is controlled by the base-band sig-
nal of 0.3 to 3.4 kHz. The result is a signal whose frequency is 4 kHz and its
amplitude varies according to the base-band signal. The “carrier frequency”
or simply “carrier” is then said to have been “modulated,” and the process is
called “amplitude modulation.”
Thus the four carrier frequencies carry four individual channels at fre-
quencies of 4, 8, 12, and 16 kHz. All these signals are fed to a combiner cir-
cuit. The combined output is a multiplexed signal of frequency range 4 to
20 kHz (each carrier frequency with 4-kHz bandwidth).
This process of multiplexing is called “frequency division multiplexing,”
or FDM, because channels are multiplexed by dividing the frequency band
into small segments.
When this multiplexed signal is received at the other end in the receiver, it
is passed through band pass filters to separate the 4-kHz wide bands, and a
detector circuit removes the carrier frequency from the signal to retrieve the
original base-band signal separately for each channel. Figure 1.10 illustrates
the concept.
Although the frequency band of 0.3 to 3.4 kHz is actually only 3.1 kHz, not
4 kHz, and 3.1-kHz bandwidth is enough to carry the desired voice signals,
some margin is allowed to accommodate the spreading of the bandwidth of
Introduction 11

Band pass filters

4−8 kHz Detector 0.3 to 3.4 kHz (Ch-1)

Received signal
4 to 20 kHz
0.3 to 3.4 kHz (Ch-2)
8−12 kHz Detector

0.3 to 3.4 kHz (Ch-3)

12−16 kHz Detector

16−20 kHz Detector 0.3 to 3.4 kHz (Ch-4)

De-multiplexer

Figure 1.10
De-multiplexing of channels at the receiver.

individual channels in the transmission media. Thus, a flat 4-kHz band-

width is used for each channel.

1.8 Multiplexing Structure of FDM Schemes

In the previous section, we have seen the conceptual design of a four-channel
multiplexer. In practice the minimum number of channels defined for a mul-
tiplexer is 12. This group of 12 channels is called a “basic group” and is of
12 × 4 = 48-kHz bandwidth. The basic group’s frequency range is defined
as 60 to 108 kHz (and not 4 to 52 kHz), and the first channel is on the top
frequency, as per the standards defining body in telecommunication, the
International Telecommunication Union, Telecom Standards group (ITU-T).
This basic group is called first basic group. The second, third, fourth, and
fifth basic groups combine with it to form a “super group.” The grouping
structure is shown in Figure 1.11.
The basic group supplies 12 channels, the super group combines 5 basic
groups to give 60 channels, and if more channels were required to be mul-
tiplexed on the same pairs of wires, a “basic master group” was formed by
combining 5 super groups to provide 300 channels. The multiplexing contin-
ued to form higher-order groups. Systems were developed and deployed for
multiplexing up to 10,800 channels.
 12
Channel no. 12 11 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1

60 64 68 72 76 80 84 88 92 96 100 104 108

Frequency
in kHz
(a) Basic group of 12 channels

Basic group no. 1 2 3 4 5

Freq in

Principles of Synchronous Digital Hierarchy

312 360 408 456 504 552
kHz

(b) Super group of 5 basic groups

Super 1 2 3 4 5
group no.

Freq in
kHz 812 1052 1060 1300 1308 1548 1556 1796 1804 2044
(With a gap called a guard band of 8 kHz in between each super group)

(c) Basic master group made of 5 super groups

Figure 1.11
Multiplexing structure of FDM schemes.
Introduction 13

1.9 Capacities of Various Analog (FDM) Multiplexing Systems

The analog or the FDM systems were developed in a number of catego-
ries, primarily depending upon the type of media used. The systems and
their capacities differ according to the types of media, copper wires, coaxial
cables, and wireless. (The wireless systems were mostly in the microwave’s
range, and were known as Microwave or MW systems.)

1.9.1 Copper Wire Pairs

Underground copper wires in two pairs (one pair for transmission and one
pair for reception) were used to deploy a 12-channel system. The diameter
of the copper conductor was normally kept at 0.9 mm. As many systems as
the number of quads (a quad is a set of two pairs of wires) could be deployed
in a cable. The systems needed repeaters at every 6 km or so. Higher dis-
tances were always a problem due to increased noise levels with each added
repeater. The overall reliability was very poor as a large number of repeaters
was required to cover the long distances involved.

1.9.2 Coaxial Cables

The advent of coaxial cables provided a considerable relief in accommodating a
higher number of channels because of their ability to carry much higher band-
widths. The coaxial cable remained the predominant communication media
until the advent and deployment of digital systems. Coaxial cables could carry
up to 10,800 channels, but they too needed a large number of repeaters, and the
larger the number of channels the system carried, the greater was the number
of repeaters required. A system carrying 2700 channels required repeaters at
every 4.5 km, whereas a system carrying 10,800 channels required repeaters at
every 1.5 km. The problems of noise addition at every repeater and poor reliabil-
ity due to the large number of repeaters continued to be the nightmare of tele-
com engineers. A 1000-km-long system carrying 10,800 channels would have
630 repeaters. Some respite, however, was offered by the microwave systems.

1.9.3 Microwave Systems

The wireless or radio systems (generally known as microwave systems, as
they operated mostly in the microwave range of frequencies) reduced the num-
ber of repeaters required and thus the amount of noise in the long-distance
links systems were developed to carry up to 6000 channels. With 100-m towers,
many located on hills, it was possible to reduce repeater spacing to between
50 and 100 km. Other problems of the terrestrial links (coaxial cables, etc.) were
avoided, such as damage by civil works agencies and extreme weather. This
led to a great improvement in the communication quality.
14 Principles of Synchronous Digital Hierarchy

With the advent of digital technology, all these problems of analog systems
were thrown into sharp focus. It became apparent that the analog systems
had no future, and by now they have been completely replaced by digital
systems.

1.10 Digital Multiplexing

The digital technology has revolutionized the telecommunication scenario.
The two main advantages of the digital systems are

(i) Repetition of signal without adding any noise, and

(ii) Time division multiplexing has been made possible

Although there are several other advantages of the digital systems, these
two advantages far outweigh all others. They have led to the possibilities
of adding large numbers of repeaters through noiseless regeneration, and
accommodating a very large number of channels in a single transmission
link through the method of time division multiplexing. These subjects are
dealt with in detail in subsequent chapters, and only a brief description of
the prevailing technologies follows here.
The digital multiplexing technologies are plesiochronous digital hierarchy
(PDH), synchronous digital hierarchy (SDH), coarse wavelength division
multiplexing (CWDM), dense wavelength division multiplexing (DWDM),
and optical transport network (OTN).

1.10.1 Plesiochronous Digital Hierarchy

This technology was the first to come into practice with the advent of digiti-
zation of the voice. The initial systems were called “pulse code modulation”
(PCM, so named because of the modulation technique used). PCM was a
24-channel system and required repeaters every 2 km or so. The systems
were further developed up to PDH level 4, aggregating capacities of up to
1920 channels.
Soon, these capacities started to fall short as demand grew and the network
management and synchronization issues added to the need for development
of new systems. Finally, a new system SDH was developed with much better
management features, automatic route protection, and much larger capaci-
ties in terms of channels.
PDH systems are now confined to the customer access points. For back-
bone carrier networks, they are no more being deployed or manufactured,
and the systems that are still in operation are being phased out.
Introduction 15

No. of
speech
Sr. No. SDH Module No. of E1s channels
1 STM-1 63 1890
2 STM-4 252 7560
3 STM-16 1008 30,240
4 STM-64 4024 120,960

Figure 1.12
Channel capacities of various levels of SDH.

1.10.2 Synchronous Digital Hierarchy

As digital technology developed further and the transmission medium
changed to optical fiber, more efficient multiplexing technology became pos-
sible. The new systems were envisaged to have a much larger channel capac-
ity, automatic protection of circuits against interruptions in any path, and
a host of improved management features. (The system was first developed
in North America with the name synchronous optical networks, or SONET.
Subsequently, ITU-T defined its standards in the name of SDH. Currently,
North America and Japan are using SONET standards whereas the rest of
the world uses SDH standards.)
The basic SDH system is STM-1 (synchronous transport module 1), which
carries 63 E1s (One E1 is equal to 30 speech channels). The next SDH level
is STM-4, which is four times the STM-1 in capacity. Similarly, STM-16 and
STM-64 have 16 and 64 times the capacity of STM-1. The numbers of chan-
nels they carry are given in Figure 1.12.
The standards for STM-256 have also been defined, but so far, systems up
to STM-64 only are more popular. To date, the need for higher versions of
STMs is not great, as the availability of CWDM/DWDM multiplies capacity.

1.10.3 Coarse Wavelength Division Multiplexing

This multiplexing technology is applicable only to optical fiber based sys-
tems. Normally, in optical fiber cable (OFC) transmission, only one wave-
length is used to carry signals from STM-1 to STM-256, but CWDM systems
can use more than one wavelength.
A few wavelengths, say 2, 4, or 10, are transmitted together, carrying dif-
ferent STM streams. These wavelengths are multiplexed together by the
CWDM multiplexer. This is nothing but the analog FDM with the differ-
ence that here it is called wavelength instead of frequency. The frequencies
are very high, being in the “near-infrared” spectrum. It is called “coarse”
because of the use of a limited number of wavelengths, as against “dense”
(DWDM), which uses a much higher number of channels.
16 Principles of Synchronous Digital Hierarchy

1.10.4 Dense Wavelength Division Multiplexing

The philosophy, principles, and advantages of DWDM are the same as those
mentioned above for CWDM, with the difference that DWDM packs many
more wavelengths, typically 80 and higher, with the present systems being
available up to 160 wavelengths.
The DWDM technology has once again revolutionized the telecom sce-
nario, and it would not be an exaggeration to say that it has revolutionized
the SDH revolution. Apart from improving their quality and reliability, the
OFC, SDH, and DWDM are the technologies responsible for the very inex-
pensive rates of telephony and data services.

1.10.5 Optical Transport Network

A new telecommunication platform recommended by ITU-T, which has
recently begun manufacture and deployment, is OTN. OTN has been
designed to optimize the transport of SDH-based services along with data
communication and DWDM services. The advantages of all the transport
systems such as SDH, data communication, and DWDM have been exploited
to develop this new unified transport platform.

Review Questions

1. Who invented the telephone and when?

2. Describe the basic concept of voice transmission and reception in a
telephone.
3. What is the role of various components in a transmitter and a
receiver?
4. How many wires are required for a telephone communication to
take place? Explain why.
5. What is a “Hybrid” and what is its application?
6. List the main differences between manual and automatic exchanges.
What is meant by “Strowger?”
7. How does long-distance communication differ from local area com-
munication through telephone exchanges and what is meant by
multiplexing?
8. Describe the principles of analog multiplexing technology. What
was the significance of carrier frequency?
Introduction 17

9. Why is the frequency band of 0.3 to 3.4 kHz chosen for voice
channels?
10. What are the main components of analog multiplexing and de-
multiplexing systems?
11. How is grouping of channels done in FDM and why? What is the
need of a guard band?
12. Up to how many channels could be multiplexed in an FDM system?
13. Make a table comparing the number of channels and repeater spac-
ing in various analog systems.
14. Compare the advantages and disadvantages of copper wire, coaxial
cable, and microwave systems.
15. What are the developments in digital multiplexing technologies and
how do they score over analog multiplexing technologies?

Critical Thinking Questions

1. Is it possible to achieve telephone communication using only one

wire? If yes, how?
2. What is meant by an “exchange?” Make a layout of an exchange that
is different from the one given in this chapter.
3. Try to work out an automatic exchange of four lines using any elec-
tronic or electromagnetic devices that you know of.
4. Give an example of multiplexing in a field other than telecommunication.
5. Out of the two technologies, SDH and WDM, which one is better
and why? Are they complementary to each other, and if so, why?

Bibliography
1. L.E. Frenzel, Principles of Electronic Communication Systems, Tata McGraw-Hill,
India, 2008.
2. S. Ramo, J.R. Whinnery, and T. Van Duzer, Fields and Waves in Communication
Electronics, John Wiley and Sons, 1994.
3. J.D. Ryder, Network Lines and Fields, Prentice-Hall, 1975.
4. J.C. Bellamy, Digital Telephony, John Wiley and Sons, Singapore, 2003.
18 Principles of Synchronous Digital Hierarchy

5. T. Vishwanathan, Telecommunication Switching Systems and Networks, Prentice-

Hall India, New Delhi, 2001.
6. F.E. Terman, Electronic and Radio Engineering, Fourth Edition, McGraw-Hill
Kogakusha, Tokyo, Japan, 1955.
7. ITU-T Recommendation G.322, General Characteristics Recommended for Systems
on Symmetric Pair Cables, International Telecommunication Union, Geneva,
Switzerland.
8. ITU-T Recommendation G.334, 18 MHz Systems on Standardized 2.6/ 9.5 mm Coaxial
Cable Pairs, International Telecommunication Union, Geneva, Switzerland.
9. A.F. Molisch, Wireless Communications, John Wiley and Sons, UK, 2005.
10. B.P. Lathi, Modern Digital and Analog Communication Systems, Oxford University
Press, 1998.
11. P.V. Shreekanth, Digital Microwave Communication Systems with Selected Topics in
Mobile Communications, University Press, 2003.
12. P.N. Das, An Introduction to Automatic Telephony, Modern Book Agency, Calcutta,
India, 1975.
13. B. Govindarajalu, Computer Architecture and Organization, Tata McGraw-Hill,
India, 2006.
2
Advent of Digital Technology

In the previous chapter, we have seen how telecommunication began, the

basic components of a telecommunication system, how the need for expan-
sion of telecom services drove the world to develop manual and automatic
exchanges, and how they worked. Further proliferation of services led to the
development of long-distance telephony for intercity, interstate, and finally
international calls. The various media used for long-distance communica-
tion, the need for multiplexing, analog multiplexing principles and applica-
tions, and modern digital multiplexing technologies were discussed.
This chapter concerns the problems and limitations associated with ana-
log systems. What led to the development of digital technology? How were
the problems of analog systems overcome by digital technology? What are
the other advantages of digital technology, and what are the limitations and
disadvantages of digital technology?

2.1 Analog Communication Systems

The analog communication system is the natural communication system.
We perform all our actions in analog form, i.e., continuous form. As speech
continuously varies in intensity (except the pauses), vision and hearing are
continuous. By contrast, an electrical switch has only two possible functions
or states, “on” or “off,” and as such can be treated as having a discrete (or
digital) function, and the device, the electrical switch, can be regarded as a
digital device.
In the process of the development of telecommunication, it was obvious to
use the voice signal “as it was,” and establish a communication between two
interested parties using suitable devices such as a microphone, telephone
line, receiver, and amplifier. Early communication systems were estab-
lished this way, and they worked well for decades. However, with increased
demand and the need for longer distances to be covered, the poor quality of
received speech became a serious issue and the subject of considerable effort
on the part of the telephone engineers.
The major factors leading to speech quality deterioration were noise, dis-
tortion, attenuation (reduction in signal strength with distance), cross talk
(one call partially coupled to another in progress on another pair of wires in

19
20 Principles of Synchronous Digital Hierarchy

the cable), and interference. The shortcomings of the equipment, the amplifi-
ers, filters, transducers, etc., and the transmission media, were the main con-
tributing factors. A number of techniques were developed to overcome the
adverse effects of these factors on the quality of speech. However, apart from
quality issues, the capacity of analog communication systems were starting
to show signs of saturation.

2.2 Problems in Analog Communication Systems

To appreciate and understand the problems and issues related to analog sys-
tems, it is helpful to consider the very basic analog system consisting of a
microphone, an amplifier, a channel consisting of a pair of copper wires,
and a receiver. Although the systems developed for multi-channel capacities
and long-distance capabilities were much more complex, involving many
types of media such as coaxial cables, microwave, etc., and complex mul-
tiplexing technologies including sophisticated repeaters, the problems and
their effects can be best understood by this basic model. (In fact the only part
of the transmission network which remains without an amplifier is the one
between the subscriber’s telephone and the local exchange.)
A basic analog communication model using base-band, i.e., 0.3 to 3.4 kHz
audio frequency transmission on a copper pair, is shown in Figure 2.1. Only
one-way communication has been shown for the purpose of simplicity. The
microphone gives the voice input to the amplifier, which is transmitted on
the transmission line after amplification. The receiver tries to filter out the
corruptions of the signal caused by the amplifier and the channel.
Now let us examine the various sources of corruption of the signal while it
makes its journey from the microphone at one station to the loudspeaker at
the other station, with reference to Figure 2.1.

Transmission line
copper pair

Microphone

Amplifier Receiver

Loudspeaker
or
earphone

Figure 2.1
Basic analog communication model using base-band (audio frequency) transmission on a cop-
per wire pair.
Advent of Digital Technology 21

2.2.1 Attenuation
As the voice signal traverses the channel (transmission line), it loses strength
due to ohmic loss in the channel caused by the resistance of the copper wire.
This is the reason for deployment of an amplifier at the transmitting end,
to boost the signal sufficiently, such that the received signal, after suffering
losses due to attenuation, is still within the threshold limit of the receiver.
The amplifier solves one problem but adds many more, such as distortion
and noise, which is the cost to be paid for the gain. Nevertheless the use of
the amplifier is a must (we will see about the problems added by the ampli-
fier later in this chapter). Figure 2.2 illustrates the attenuation phenomenon.
The signal shown in Figure 2.2 is a sinusoidal signal. In reality the speech
signal, or any other natural signal for that matter, is never a perfect sinusoid.
However, the sinusoidal representation of signals facilitates an easy under-
standing, and modeling using it is perfectly applicable on actual natural sig-
nals of speech/video and others. The voice signal may look something close
to what is shown in Figure 2.3.
The attenuation is measured in decibels per kilometer. (A decibel is a mea-
surement unit universally adopted for attenuation. For a detailed discussion

Medium/transmission
line
Transmitted signal Received signal

Station “A” Station “B”

Figure 2.2
Signal attenuation due to losses in the channel.

Amplitude

Time

Figure 2.3
Actual speech signal representation.
22 Principles of Synchronous Digital Hierarchy

of decibel, see Section 6.9.) With the use of an amplifier, the attenuation per-
mitted depends upon the signal-to-noise ratio required by the receiver along
with the sensitivity threshold of the receiver. Without the use of an ampli-
fier, a loss of up to nearly 8 db is permissible between the talker and the
listener in the speech signal in the medium, while retaining a good quality
of audibility.
Attenuation would have been less of a problem if the amplifier did not
“add” problems such as distortion and noise, which is multiplied many times
by a large number of repeaters (each repeater has an amplifier) in a long
communication link. We will examine this aspect in detail in subsequent
sections.

2.2.2 Noise and interference

Noise has probably always been the single most bothersome factor for the
design and maintenance engineers of telecommunication systems, and it
continues to be so today.
Noise is defined as “unwanted electrical interference” with the telecom-
munication signal.
Referring to Figure 2.1 again, in our basic communication model (the terms
telecommunication and communication are used synonymously in this text),
the noise is generated in each and every part of the link, be it microphone,
channel, receiver (the receiver has an amplifier in addition to other process-
ing circuitry), or the loudspeaker. Let us see the effect of noise on the signal.
Figure 2.4 above shows the input-output relationship of a device with
respect to an analog signal. The input analog signal is absolutely clean
(assumed to be a sine wave for simplicity of expression) but the output signal
is corrupted by the noise generated by the device.
Now imagine a situation where a piece of equipment, such as an amplifier
or receiver, is made up of a large number of such devices. The noise gener-
ated by all such devices accumulates at the output of each such piece. The
trouble multiplies in a long communication link where many such pieces of

Noise signal being generated

by the device

Input signal Output signal

(clean) (noisy)
Device

Device = resistor, transistor, etc.

Figure 2.4
Corruption of an analog signal caused by the noise generated in a device.
Advent of Digital Technology 23

Output signal
Output signal after “n”
after amplifier repeaters

Receiver
Amplifier and Receiver
Input signal transmitter
(clean)

Repeater “n”
Repeater “1”

Figure 2.5
The noise multiplication effect in a long communication link with “n” repeaters.

equipment come into play. Moreover, all the amplifiers keep on amplifying
the noise along with the signal amplification. Figure 2.5 depicts the situation.
Figure 2.5 depicts a long communication link, having a large number of
repeaters. (The signal strength goes down with distance due to attenuation
and is boosted by amplification at the repeater.) Finally the noise becomes
so much that the link cannot be extended any further, depending upon the
acceptable quality of the audio. Thus, a practical limit is reached in the length
of the communication link.
All noise reduction measures extend the limit, but a “limit” as such remains.

2.2.2.1 Sources of Noise

The type of noise we have just seen in Figure 2.4 is generated by each and
every device, equipment, or channel through their resistive components. It
is generated by the random motion of electrons and atoms inside the com-
ponents, due to heat. The higher the temperature the more is the noise, and
the lower the temperature the less is the noise. This type of noise, is called
“thermal noise.” Since ohmic resistance is present in all devices and in metal-
lic wire channels, this noise is generated by every component of the link. It
is completely random in nature, and no correlation can be established in the
noise values at any two instants of time. Thermal noise is evenly distrib-
uted throughout the frequency band beginning with a few hertz to several
Gigahertz. Due to this more or less constant amplitude throughout the fre-
quency spectrum, it is also called “white noise.” The white light is composed
of all the frequencies of the visible light spectrum, which gives white noise
its name.
Other sources of noise include almost everything that can generate electro-
magnetic waves. Noise is created by atmospheric activities such as lightning
24 Principles of Synchronous Digital Hierarchy

discharges and thunderstorms. Solar and cosmic radiation also create noise.
However, the second biggest source of noise is industrial activity, which
may include the ignition of automobile engines, aircraft, switching surges of
motors and power transmission grids, and leakages from high voltage lines.

2.2.2.2 Relevance of Type of Noise

As mentioned above, white noise and industrial noise are the major contrib-
utors to the noise activities as far as communication systems are concerned.
While the noise generated by electronic devices is generally a white noise
which is of low power but high band width, and is always present, the indus-
trial noise is generally of impulse type, inducing impulses of various magni-
tudes and durations, occasionally interferes with the communication signal.
The white noise is of prime importance in analog communication, as
impulses occur only for short duration during speech, which can be tolerated
without any significant loss of information and without much discomfort to
the conversing parties. However, in the case of data communication, whether
it is purely a digital signal or data over analog lines through modems, the
impulse noise is of prime importance as it can change the very meaning of
the data by simply altering a few bits.
Noise implications are generally quantified in terms of signal-to-noise
ratio. The signal-to-noise ratio, S/N, is defined as the ratio of signal power to
noise power.

Signal-to-noise ratio SNR = signal power/noise power = S/N

A signal-to-noise ratio of 40 to 45 db is generally acceptable for speech circuits.

However, in pure speech circuits, the signal-to-noise ratio may not rep-
resent the actual annoyance level of the listener because the same level of
noise, which may be tolerable during conversation when the speech levels
are high, may become very annoying during low speech levels and during
pauses when the speech level is very low or zero. Thus, actual noise assess-
ment in speech circuits is checked by “test tone” to noise ratio at a particular
frequency with constant amplitude of test tone.

2.2.3 Distortion
As the meaning of the word goes, the shape of the signal changes with respect
to the original signal during transmission, and since this change is not a
welcome change, it is called distortion. It is caused by the amplifier as well
as by the channel and by the receiver equipment. If equipment or a channel
introduces a change in amplitude and a constant delay, there is no distortion
because the shape of the transmitted signal is preserved. Distortion occurs
when, with or without the amplitude change, the shape of the signal changes,
and moreover, the delay is not constant for all frequencies. The distortion
Advent of Digital Technology 25

falls into two categories, “amplitude distortion” and “phase or delay distor-
tion.” Let us look at them in a little more detail.

2.2.3.1 Amplitude Distortion

Amplitude distortion is encountered by a signal when the frequency
response of the system components (e.g., transmitter equipment or channel)
is not constant for all the frequencies.
In the case of an amplifier, the inductance and capacitance associated
with the active components, or those otherwise used discretely in the cir-
cuit, make the response (amplification or gain) sensitive to frequency. This is
because the impedance of inductors and capacitors is highly dependent on
frequency. The impedance of an inductor is proportional to the frequency,
and that of the capacitor is inversely proportional to the frequency. Different
frequencies are amplified to different magnitudes. Figure 2.6 shows the typi-
cal frequency response of an audio amplifier and the amplitude distortion
of the signal.
As can be seen in Figure 2.6a, the gain of the amplifier is more at cen-
tral frequencies and less at low and high frequencies. Figure 2.6b shows the
input signal having medium and high frequency components. The high fre-
quency in this case is falling at the knee (A) of the frequency response curve.
High frequency component
Frequency = “A”
Medium frequency component

Frequency “A”

Amplifier Input signal

gain (b)
High frequency component
Frequency = “A”

Frequency
x x – ∆x
(a)

Output signal
(c)

Figure 2.6
Amplitude distortion in an amplifier. (a) Amplifier’s frequency response characteristic; (b)
typical audio signal with varying frequency contents; and (c) distorted output signal when the
audio signal of (a) is applied at the input of the amplifier.
 Another Random Document on
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The Project Gutenberg eBook of The Gentle
Shepherd: A Pastoral Comedy
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Title: The Gentle Shepherd: A Pastoral Comedy

Author: Allan Ramsay

Release date: September 1, 2012 [eBook #40639]

Most recently updated: October 23, 2024

Language: English

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*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE GENTLE

SHEPHERD: A PASTORAL COMEDY ***
 Eng'd by H.B. Hall. N.Y.

ALLAN RAMSAY.

THE

GENTLE SHEPHERD.
 A Pastoral Comedy.
BY

A L L A N R A M S A Y.

WITH A LIFE OF THE AUTHOR,

AND THE OPINIONS OF VARIOUS EMINENT MEN ON THE WORK.

TO WHICH IS ADDED,

A GREATLY IMPROVED GLOSSARY,

A N D A C ATA L O G U E O F T H E S C OTT I S H P O E T S .

"Away sic fears! Gae spread my fame,

And fix me an immortal name;
Ages to come shall thee revive,
And gar thee with new honours live;
The future critics, I foresee,
Shall have their notes on notes on thee;
The wits unborn shall beauties find,
That never entered in my mind."

Allan Ramsay to his Book.

"The Gentle Shepherd has exhibited rusticity without vulgarity, and
elegant sentiment without
affectation. Like the heroes of Homer, the characters of this piece
can engage in the humblest occupation
without degradation. Its verses have passed into proverbs, and it
continues to be the
delight and solace of the peasantry whom it
describes." W. Roscoe.

NEW YORK:
WILLIAM GOWANS.

1852.

Entered, according to Act of Congress, in the year 1852,

By William Gowans,
In the Clerk's Office of the District Court of the United States for the
Southern District
of New York.
 CONTENTS.
page
Preface, v
Life of Allan Ramsay, by William Tennant, xi
Remarks on the Writings of Ramsay, by Wm. Tennant, xxv
Essay on Ramsay's Gentle Shepherd, by Lord Woodhouselee, xxxi
Opinions and Remarks on the Gentle Shepherd, By Various
lxi
Authors,
John Aikin, LL. D., ib.
James Beattie, LL. D., ib.
William Tytler, lxii
Hugh Blair, D. D., lxiii
John Pinkerton, lxiv
Joseph Ritson, lxvi
William Roscoe, lxvi
Thomas Campbell, lxvii
Leigh Hunt, lxviii
Anecdote of Lady Strange, lxxiii
List of Allan Ramsay's Works, lxxiv
Dedication to the Countess of Eglintoun, by Ramsay, i
Dedication to the Countess of Eglintoun, by Wm. Hamilton, of
iv
Bangour,
Epistle to Josiah Burchett, ix
The Gentle Shepherd, 1
Notes, 89
Glossary, 95
 PREFACE.
The Publisher being desirous to present the American public with a
correct edition of the "Gentle Shepherd," considerable pains have
been taken to ascertain the best or standard text. Fortunately, there
were, within reach, several of the best editions, as well as others of
inferior character. A careful examination of these satisfied us, that,
the subscription edition in quarto, printed for the Author by Thomas
Ruddiman, in 1728, has higher claims to be considered the standard
one, than any other within our knowledge.
For this conclusion, perhaps it might be a sufficient reason to state,
that, it was so considered by Andrew Foulis, of Glasgow, who
reprinted it in David Allan's celebrated quarto of 1788, undoubtedly
the most sumptuous edition of the "Gentle Shepherd" ever
published.[1] From the well-known intelligence and proverbial
accuracy of the Foulis', and from the fact that the same house
reprinted the 10th edition of the Pastoral in 1750, (about eight years
before the Author's death,) there can be very little doubt that
Andrew Foulis possessed both the means and the inclination to
ascertain which was the genuine text, and did so accordingly. But,
besides this, the publishers of the octavo of 1798, who seem to have
taken unusual pains to give a correct text, have adopted the same
edition as the standard, and have given a reprint, still more literal
than that of Foulis. Moreover, the same text has been selected for
the very elaborate edition of 1808, in two volumes, royal octavo; as
well as for the royal quarto, printed by Ballantyne in the same year.
It is true the orthography of both these editions of 1808 is altered;
that of the octavo being considerably Anglicised; while that of the
quarto is changed throughout to the mode of spelling adopted by
Burns. The verbal changes, however, are very few.
The text of the editions of 1761, 1800, and 1850, differs, in several
places, from that of the editions before-mentioned. A list of the
principal variations, with some further remarks, will be found in the
Notes to the present edition. We have searched diligently for an
explanation of the origin of these variations, but without success.
They may belong either to the first edition, or, to some one
subsequent to 1728. But, be this as it may, we cannot look upon
them as improvements.
Neither have we been able to see any warrant for changes in
orthography, such as those we have alluded to: we have rather
supposed that readers generally, and especially the admirers of
Ramsay, would prefer to see his best poem in precisely the same
dress in which he ushered it into the world when his poetical powers
were in their prime.
In accordance with these views, we have adopted, as the standard
text, the quarto of 1728; of which the present edition is nearly a
literal reprint. Some obvious typographical errors we have corrected,
and a very few changes in orthography have been made; all of
which, with one exception, are authorized by the editions of 1788
and 1798. Some what greater liberties have been taken with the
punctuation, but in this also, we have been guided by the same
editions, with the aid of the octavo of 1808.
Of the "Songs," the 9th, 11th, and 21st, with the verse at page 57,
are the only ones that appear in the quarto of 1728, or in the
preceding editions: the remaining eighteen were added, probably, in
1729. In Foulis' edition of 1788, these additional songs are excluded
from the body of the poem; but are given, with the music, at the
end. Every other edition, that we have seen, contains the whole
twenty-one songs inserted in their proper places, as in the present
edition. Another song (of which the last verse occurs at page 57)
was added subsequently, probably after 1750, for it is not to be
found among the other songs belonging to the "Gentle Shepherd,"
published in that year in the "Tea-table Miscellany."[2] It occurs in
the edition of 1761, but it is not in those of 1788 and 1798. We have
given it complete in the Notes at page 90. In a foot-note to the
"Life" at page xviii, will be found a statement, explanatory of the
causes why these additional songs were inserted. We quite agree
with the writer of that Note, that they mar the beauty of the poem;
and, in this edition, we would have preferred to follow the example
of David Allan and Foulis in that of 1788; but, it being the opinion of
the Publisher, that the Pastoral, in such a form, would be generally
considered incomplete, they have been inserted in the usual manner.
For these eighteen extra songs we have not had what we can
consider a standard text: they have been printed from the edition of
1798, collated with those of 1788 and 1808. We also compared them
with those in the "Tea-table Miscellany" of 1733, the oldest copy in
our possession, and found no difference of any consequence.
The Glossaries heretofore appended to the "Gentle Shepherd" have
been, usually, reprints of that given by Ramsay in the quarto of
1728, which was prepared for his Poems, complete: that in the
edition of 1800 being considerably enlarged. In the present edition
the Glossary has been restricted chiefly to those words and phrases
which occur in the Pastoral; of which, upwards of a hundred and fifty
have been omitted in every former edition that we have seen: those
are now added, with explanations. The rest of the Glossary has been
carefully examined, and some corrections made.
In the "Life of Ramsay, by Tennant," we have made one or two
corrections; and some additions, derived from various sources, have
been inserted. These are distinguished by being enclosed in
brackets.
The elaborate Essay by Lord Woodhouselee "on the Genius and
Writings of Allan Ramsay," so far as it refers to the "Gentle
Shepherd," we have given complete, excepting a few quotations in
Italian. To this have been added, opinions and criticisms on the
Pastoral, by various celebrated authors. These are not entirely
confined to expressions of approbation; that of Pinkerton being quite
the reverse, although, as we think, singularly unjust.
The Portrait prefixed to this edition is a careful and accurate copy of
the print given by Cadell and Davies, in their edition of 1800;
respecting which they make the following statement:—"there is
prefixed a portrait of the author, which has been finely engraved by
Mr. Ryder, from a drawing which was made by Allan Ramsay, the
poet's son; the original of which is now in the possession of A. F.
Tytler, Esq., of Edinburgh."
In order that we may not be charged with negligence, we subjoin a
list of all the editions of the "Gentle Shepherd" to which we have had
access during the preparation of the present edition; with a few
slight remarks as to the character of these editions.

Poems:—"Printed for the Author at the Mercury, opposite,

to Niddry's Wynd;" 1 vol. medium 8vo. Edinburgh,
1720-1.
This is, perhaps, the first collected edition. It contains
exactly the same poems (though differently arranged)
and glossary, as the subscription 4to. of 1721. It has
the first scene of the Pastoral, and the 11th Song.

Poems:—"Printed by Mr. Thomas Ruddiman, for the

Author." 2 vols. 4to. Edinburgh, 1721-28.
This is the subscription and, probably, the "best
edition." The 1st volume has the first scene of the
Pastoral, and the 11th Song: the 2d volume has the
Pastoral complete.

*Poems:—Millar, Rivington, and others; 2 vols. 12mo.

London, 1761.
A neat edition, containing exactly the same poems as
that of 1721-28.

*Poems:—Phorson; cheap edition; 2 vols. 12mo. Berwick,

1793.
*Poems:—Cadell and Davies; 2 vols. 8vo. London, 1800.
This edition is well printed, on good paper: it is
commonly called the "best edition;" but, so far as the
"Gentle Shepherd" is concerned, it is not so.

Poems and Proverbs:—Oliver and Co.; 3 vols. 18mo.

Edinburgh, no date.
Neat edition, with plates, and music to the Songs in
the "Gentle Shepherd."

Poems and Proverbs:—Chapman; 2 vols. 8vo. Philadelphia,

1813.

Poems:—Fairbairn and Anderson; 1 vol. 24mo. Edinburgh,

1819.
Neat but abridged edition; with Life of Ramsay by
Wm. Tennant, author of "Anster fair."

*Poems:—Fullarton and Co.; 3 vols. 12mo. London, 1850.

A very neat edition; a reprint of that of 1800, with
additions; appendix, &c.

Gentle Shepherd:—Printed by A. Foulis; 4to. Glasgow,

1788.
An elegant and correct edition, with David Allan's
plates, and the songs set to music.

Gentle Shepherd:—Geo. Reid and Co.; 8vo. Edinburgh,

1798.
A very accurate edition, with 5 plates.

Gentle Shepherd:—A. Constable and Co., and others:

printed by Abernethy and Walker; 2 vols. roy. 8vo.
Edinburgh, 1808.
One of the best editions, with many plates and an
elaborate dissertation on the scenery, &c. Understood
to have been edited by Robert Brown, Esq., advocate.
 Gentle Shepherd:—Watt and Baillie, Leith: Printed by Jas.
Ballantyne and Co.; Edinburgh. roy. 4to. 1808.
A good edition, (with copies of David Allan's plates,)
but the orthography much changed.

Gentle Shepherd:—Griffin and Co.; 32mo. Glasgow, 1828.

In all the above editions, with the exception of those

of 1788 and 1798, the orthography of the "Gentle
Shepherd" is more or less changed from that of the
original quarto of 1728.

The editions marked thus (*) follow a different text of

the "Gentle Shepherd" from that of the present
edition. See the Notes.

THE LIFE

OF

A L L A N R A M S A Y.

Born 1686.—Died 1758.

Allan Ramsay, the restorer of Scottish Poetry, was born on the 15th
day of October, 1686, at Leadhills, in the parish of Crawfordmoor, in
Lanarkshire. His father, John Ramsay, superintended Lord
Hopetoun's lead mines at that place; and his grandfather, Robert
Ramsay, a writer or attorney in Edinburgh, had possessed the same
appointment: his great-grandfather, Captain John Ramsay, was the
son of Ramsay of Cockpen in Mid-Lothian, who was brother of
Ramsay of Dalhousie. His mother, Alice Bower, was daughter of Allan
Bower, a gentleman of Derbyshire, whom Lord Hopetoun had
brought to Scotland to instruct and superintend his miners. His
grandmother, Janet Douglas, was daughter of Douglas of Muthil. In
his lineage, therefore, our Poet had something to boast of, and,
though born to nae lairdship, he fails not to congratulate himself on
being sprung from the loins of a Douglas. He did not long enjoy the
blessing of paternal care and instruction; for, shortly after his birth,
his father died, leaving the widow and family in a condition rather
destitute. His mother soon after married a Mr. Crichton, a petty
landholder of the same county, by whom she had several children.
Under these unfortunate circumstances, young Allan entered upon
the career of life; and, for fourteen years he remained in the house
of his stepfather, with no other education than was supplied by the
school of the parish. Here, surrounded by wild and mountainous
scenery, and amid an artless and secluded people, whose manners
and language were of patriarchal simplicity, his childhood received
those pastoral and Arcadian impressions, which were too lively to be
effaced by future habits, however uncongenial, and of which he in
his manhood, amid all the artificial life of the city, made so lively and
fascinating a transcription.
Of his progress and attainments at school, we have no record. It
does not appear that he read much poetry prior to his twentieth
year; and his emulation, and ambitious thoughts, of which he says
he had some, seem to have slumbered in inactivity, till they were
awakened to unceasing exercise by the society and the excitements
of Edinburgh.
To Edinburgh he was sent in his fifteenth year, when the felicity of
his boyhood had been broken by the death of his mother. We have
the assurance of undoubted testimony, that at that early age, when
his mind was beginning to search about for the choice of a
profession, his wishes were to be a painter; a circumstance too little
known, and too little noticed by his biographers, but strongly
indicative, in our opinion, of the aspirations of his youthful
disposition. While yet in the country, he had been in the practice of
amusing himself with copying such prints as he found in the books
of his mother's house. This early predilection for an art kindred to
that wherein he afterwards excelled, very likely followed bins
through life, and led him to devote his son to that favourite study,
from which he himself was so harshly precluded. For his stepfather,
little consulting the inclination of young Allan, and wishing as soon
as possible, and at any rate, to disencumber himself of the charge of
his support, bound this nursling of the Muses apprentice to a wig-
maker. Lowly as this profession is, it has been vindicated by one of
Ramsay's biographers into comparative dignity, by separating it from
the kindred business of barber, with which it is vulgarly, and too
frequently confounded. Ramsay was never, it seems, a barber; his
enemies never blotted him with that ignominy; his calling of "scull-
thacker," as he himself ludicrously terms it, was too dignified to be
let down into an equality with the men of the razor.
Thus from the beginning his business was with the heads of men.
We know not on what authority it is asserted by some of his
biographers, that he abandoned this profession on finishing his
apprenticeship: he is called wig-maker in the parish record down to
the year 1716; and we suspect he continued so till the year 1718, or
1719, for in one of Hamilton's letters to him, dated 24th of July,
1719, mention is made of his "new profession."
He was in 1712 induced, as one of his biographers observes, by the
example of other citizens, to enter into the state of marriage. His
wife's name was Christian Ross, daughter of a writer in Edinburgh,
who brought him, year after year, a numerous family of three sons
and five daughters. Of this family, Allan, the eldest, and the only son
who survived him, inherited the genius of his father, and, having
received a liberal education, became afterwards conspicuous as a
scholar, and a painter.[3]
About the year 1711 or 1712 our Poet seems first to have ventured
into the regions of rhyme. The clubs and societies of Edinburgh had
provoked in him this new passion, and his earliest effort, so far as is
known, is an Address, supplicatory of admission, "To the most happy
members of the Easy Club," a production bearing every mark of
unskilfulness and juvenility. Of this club he was afterwards appointed
poet-laureate, in which capacity he was wont to recite to that jolly
fraternity his successive productions, for their criticisms and their
applause.
Many of these poems were published in a detached form at a penny
a-piece, and his name became by this means celebrated in the city.
About the year 1716, and ere he relinquished his avocation of wig-
maker, he published an edition of the excellent old poem of "Christ's
Kirk on the Green," with a second canto by himself. Having thus
associated himself in the walks of humour with the King of Scotland,
he was induced, by the approbation which he gained, and the rapid
sale of the book, to "keep a little more company with these comical
characters," and to complete the story, by adding afterwards a third
canto. This attempt was crowned with all the success he anticipated,
and numerous editions of the work afforded him satisfactory proof,
that, in the public opinion, he had not unworthily put himself into
partnership with the royal humourist.[4]
Elevated by the distinction his productions had now procured him,
and losing at last all liking to a business which was at utter variance
with his ambition and darling amusements; he commenced
bookseller, most probably in the year 1718, when he was in the
thirty-second year of his age. This was a trade at once more
congenial to his habits, and more likely to be lucrative, on account of
his being already recommended by his authorship to the buyers of
books. His first shop as a bookseller was in the High-street opposite
to Niddry's-wynd, with the figure of Mercury for his sign. From this
shop proceeded, in 1721, a collection of his various poems in one
quarto volume, published by subscription, which contained every
eminent name in Scotland. It was thus advertised in the Edinburgh
Evening Courant: "The poems of Allan Ramsay, in a large quarto
volume, fairly printed, with notes, and a complete glossary (as
promised to the subscribers), being now finished; all who have
generously contributed to carrying on of the design, may call for
their copies as soon as they please, from the author, at the Mercury,
opposite to Niddry's-wynd, Edinburgh."
From the sale of this volume he realized 400 guineas, which was in
those days a very considerable profit on a book of Scottish poetry. In
1722 he gave to the world his Fables and Tales; in the same year his
tale of The Three Bonnets; and in 1724 his poem on Health. In
January, 1724, he published the first volume of the Tea-table
Miscellany, being a collection of Scottish and English songs; this
volume was speedily followed by a second; [in 1727] by a third;
[and some years afterwards by a fourth; all] under the same title.
Hamilton of Bangour, and Mallet, assisted him by their lyrical
contributions. Encouraged by the popularity of these books, he
published, in October, 1724, the Evergreen, "a collection of Scots
poems written by the ingenious before 1600." For the duties of an
editor of such a work, it is generally agreed that Ramsay was not
well fitted. For, neither had he a complete knowledge of the ancient
Scottish language, nor was his literary conscience sufficiently tender
and scrupulous to that fidelity, which is required by the office of
editor. He abridged, he varied, modernized, and superadded. In that
collection first appeared under a feigned signature his Vision, a
poem, full of genius, and rich with Jacobitism, but disguising the
author and his principles under the thin concealment of antique
orthography.
At length appeared in 1725 his master-work, the Gentle Shepherd,
of which two scenes had been previously printed, [the first] in 1721,
under the title of Patie and Roger, and [the second] in 1723, under
that of Jenny and Meggy. [In the quarto of 1721, there is likewise to
be found (Sang XI.) the dialogue song between Patie and Peggy,
afterwards introduced into the second act.] The reputation he had
obtained by these detached scenes, and the admonitions of his
friends, who perceived how easily and how happily they could be
connected, induced him to re-model and embody them into a regular
pastoral drama. Its success corresponded to his own hopes, and to
his friends' anticipations. [In the following letter, (published for the
first time by R. Chambers in his Scottish Biographical Dictionary,
1835,) it will be seen that he was engaged on this task in spring,
1724.

Allan Ramsay to William Ramsay, of Templehall, Esq.

"Edinburgh, April 8th, 1724.
"Sir,—These come to bear you my very heartyest and grateful
wishes. May you long enjoy your Marlefield, see many a
returning spring pregnant with new beautys; may everything
that's excellent in its kind continue to fill your extended soul
with pleasure. Rejoyce in the beneficence of heaven, and let all
about ye rejoyce—whilst we, alake, the laborious insects of a
smoaky city, hurry about from place to place in one eternal
maze of fatiguing cares, to secure this day our daylie bread—
and something till't. For me, I have almost forgot how springs
gush from the earth. Once, I had a notion how fragrant the
fields were after a soft shower; and often, time out of mind! the
glowing blushes of the morning have fired my breast with
raptures. Then it was that the mixture of rural music echo'd
agreeable from the surrounding hills, and all nature appear'd in
gayety.
"However, what is wanting to me of rural sweets I endeavour to
make up by being continually at the acting of some new farce,
for I'm grown, I know not how, so very wise, or at least think so
(which is much about one), that the mob of mankind afford me
a continual diversion; and this place, tho' little, is crowded with
merry-andrews, fools, and fops, of all sizes, [who] intermix'd
with a few that can think, compose the comical medley of
actors.
"Receive a sang made on the marriage of my young chief.—I
am, this vacation, going through with a Dramatick Pastoral,
 which I design to carry the length of five acts, in verse a' the
gate, and if I succeed according to my plan, I hope to tope[5]
with the authors of Pastor Fido and Aminta.
"God take care of you and yours, is the constant prayer of, sir,
your faithful humble servant,
"ALLAN RAMSAY."

A second edition followed next year, and numerous impressions

spread his fame, not only through Scotland, but through the united
kingdom, and the colonies. His name became known, principally
through this drama, to the wits of England, and Pope took delight in
reading his pastoral, the obscurer phraseology of which was
interpreted to him by Gay, who, during his residence in Scotland,
had been careful to instruct himself in its dialect, that he might act
as interpreter to the poet of Twickenham.
In 1726 our Poet, now a thriving bookseller, removed from his
original dwelling at the Mercury opposite Niddry's-wynd, to a shop in
the east end of the Luckenbooths, which was afterwards occupied by
the late Mr. Creech, (whose Fugitive Pieces are well known), and,
after his death, by his successor Mr. Fairbairn. With his shop he
changed his sign, and leaving Mercury, under the protection of
whose witty godship he had so flourished, he set up the friendly
heads of Ben Jonson and Drummond of Hawthornden. Here he sold
books, and established a circulating library, the first institution of
that kind, not only in Scotland, but we believe in Great Britain.[6]
The situation being near the Cross, and commanding a full view of
the High-street, his shop became the resort of all the wits of the
city; and here Gay, who is described by Mr. Tytler, as "a little
pleasant-looking man, with a tyewig," used to look out upon the
population of Edinburgh, while Ramsay pointed out to him the
principal characters as they passed. Of this house no vestiges now
remain, for as the beauty and magnificence of the High-street had
been long disfigured by the cumbrous and gloomy buildings called
the Luckenbooths, they were, a few years ago, completely removed,
and the street cleared of that misplaced mass of deformity.
In 1728 he printed in quarto a second volume, containing, [his
portrait by Smibert, and,] with other poems, a Masque on the
Marriage of the Duke of Hamilton, one of his most ingenious
productions; [also the Gentle Shepherd, complete.[7]] Of this quarto
an octavo edition followed next year; and so extended was now the
circle of his reputation, and so universal the demand for his poems,
that the London booksellers published an edition of his Works in
1731, and two years after an edition also appeared at Dublin. His
collection of thirty Fables appeared in 1730, when he was in his 45th
year, after which period the public received nothing from his pen. "I
e'en gave o'er in good time," he says, in his letter to Smibert, "ere
the coolness of fancy attending advanced years made me risk the
reputation I had acquired."
[The following letter was first published in the Scots Magazine,
August, 1784: we give it verbatim et literatim.

Allan Ramsay To Mr. John Smibert,[8] in Boston, New England.

"Edinburgh, May 10, 1736.
"My dear old friend, your health and happiness are ever ane
addition to my satisfaction. God make your life ever easy and
pleasant—half a century of years have now row'd o'er my pow;
yes, row'd o'er my pow, that begins now to be lyart; yet, thanks
to my Author, I eat, drink, and sleep as sound as I did twenty
years syne; yes, I laugh heartily too, and find as many subjects
to employ that faculty upon as ever: fools, fops, and knaves,
grow as rank as formerly; yet here and there are to be found
good and worthy men, who are an honour to human life. We
have medium hopes of seeing you again in our old world; then
let us be virtuous, and hope to meet in heaven.—My good auld
wife is still my bedfellow: my son, Allan, has been pursuing your
science since he was a dozen years auld—was with Mr. Hyssing,
at London, for some time, about two years ago; has been since
 at home, painting here like a Raphael—sets out for the seat of
the Beast, beyond the Alps, within a month hence—to be away
about two years.—I'm sweer[9] to part with him, but canna stem
the current which flows from the advice of his patrons and his
own inclinations.—I have three daughters, one of seventeen,
one of sixteen, one of twelve years old, and no waly-dragle[10]
among them, all fine girls. These six or seven years past, I have
not wrote a line of poetry; I e'en gave o'er in good time, before
the coolness of fancy that attends advanced years should make
me risk the reputation I had acquired.

"Frae twenty-five to five-and-forty,

My Muse was nowther sweer[11] nor dorty;
My Pegasus wad break his tether,
E'en at the shakking[12] of a feather,
And through ideas scour like drift,
Streaking[13] his wings up to the lift:
Then, then my saul was in a low,
That gart my numbers safely row;
But eild and judgment 'gin to say,
Let be your sangs, and learn to pray.
"I am, sir, your friend and servant,
"ALLAN RAMSAY."]
He now therefore intermeddled no longer with the anxieties of
authorship, but sat down in the easy chair of his celebrity to enjoy
his laurels and his profits. After a lapse of six years of silence, and of
happiness, his ardour for dramatic exhibitions involved him in some
circumstances of perplexity, attended, it is believed, with pecuniary
loss. As Edinburgh possessed as yet no fixed place for the exhibition
of the drama, he endeavoured to supply that deficiency to the
citizens, by building, at his own expense a theatre in Carrubber's-
close. Shortly after, the Act for licensing the stage was passed, which
at once blasted all his hopes of pleasure and advantage; for, the
Magistrates availing themselves of the power entrusted to them by
the Act, shewed no indulgence to the author of the Gentle
Shepherd, but, in the true spirit of that puritanism which reckons as
ungodly all jollity of heart, and relaxation of countenance, they shut
up his theatre, leaving the citizens without exhilaration, and our poet
without redress. This was not all; he was assailed with the satirical
mockery of his laughter-hating enemies, who turned against him his
own weapons of poetical raillery. Pamphlets appeared, entitled, "The
flight of religious piety from Scotland, upon the account of Ramsay's
lewd books, and the hell-bred playhouse comedians, who debauch
all the faculties of the soul of our rising generation;"—"A looking-
glass for Allan Ramsay;"—"The dying words of Allan Ramsay." These
maligners, in the bitterness of their sanctimonious resentments,
reproached him with "having acquired wealth,"—with "possessing a
fine house,"—with "having raised his kin to high degree;" all which
vilifications must have carried along with them some secret and
sweet consolations into the bosom of our bard. Amid the perplexities
caused by the suppression of his theatre, he applied by a poetical
petition to his friend the Honourable Duncan Forbes, then Lord
President of the Court of Session, in order that he might obtain
some compensation for his expenses; but with what success is not
recorded by any of his biographers.
His theatrical adventure being thus unexpectedly crushed, he
devoted himself to the duties of his shop, and the education of his
children. He sent in 1736 his son Allan to Rome, there to study that
art by which he rose to such eminence. In the year 1743 he lost his
wife, who was buried on the 28th of March in the cemetery of the
Greyfriars. He built, probably about this time, a whimsical house of
an octagon form, on the north side of the Castle-hill, where his
residence is still known by the name of Ramsay-Garden. [The site of
this house was selected with the taste of a poet and the judgment of
a painter. It commanded a reach of scenery probably not surpassed
in Europe, extending from the mouth of the Forth on the east to the
Grampians on the west, and stretching far across the green hills of
Fife to the north; embracing in the including space every variety of
beauty, of elegance, and of grandeur.[14]] This house he deemed a
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