RELATIONS AND FUNCTIONS

Relation
If A and B are two non-empty sets, then a relation R from A to B is a
subset of A × B.
If R ⊆ A × B and (a, b)∈ R, then we say that a is related to b by the
relation R, written as aRb.
If R ⊆ A × A, then we simply say R is a relation on A.

Representation of a Relation
(i) Roster form In this form, we represent the relation by the set of all
ordered pairs belongs to R.
e.g. Let R is a relation from set A = { −3, − 2, − 1,1, 2, 3} to set B = {1, 4,
9,10}, defined by aRb ⇔ a2 = b,
Then, (−3)2 = 9, (−2)2 = 4, (−1)2 = 1, (2)2 = 4, (3)2 = 9.
Then, in roster form, 𝑅 can be written as

𝑅 = {(−1,1), (−2,4), (1,1), (2,4), (−3,9), (3,9)}

(ii) Set-builder form In this form, we represent the relation 𝑅 from set 𝐴
to set 𝐵 as
𝑅 = {(𝑎, 𝑏): 𝑎 ∈ 𝐴, 𝑏 ∈ 𝐵 and the rule which relate the elements of 𝐴 and
𝐵}
e.g. Let 𝑅 is a relation from set 𝐴 = {1,2,4,5} to set
1 1 1 1 1 1
𝐵 = {1, , , } such that 𝑅 = {(1,1), (2, ) (4, ) (5, )}
2 4 5 2 4 5
Then, in set-builder form, 𝑅 can be written as
1
𝑅 = {(𝑎, 𝑏): 𝑎 ∈ 𝐴, 𝑏 ∈ 𝐵 and 𝑏 = }
𝑎
Note We cannot write every relation from set 𝐴 to set 𝐵 in set-builder
form.

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Domain, Codomain and Range of a Relation

Let 𝑅 be a relation from a non-empty set 𝐴 to a non-empty set 𝐵. Then, set

of all first components or coordinates of the ordered pairs belonging to 𝑅
is called the domain of 𝑅, while the set of all second components or
coordinates of the ordered pairs belonging to 𝑅 is called the range of 𝑅
Also, the set 𝐵 is called the codomain of relation 𝑅.
Thus, domain of 𝑅 = {𝑎: (𝑎, 𝑏) ∈ 𝑅} and range of 𝑅 = {𝑏: (𝑎, 𝑏) ∈ 𝑅}

Types of Relations

(i) Empty or Void Relation As 𝜙 ⊂ 𝐴 × 𝐴, for any set 𝐴, so 𝜙 is a

relation on 𝐴, called the empty or void relation.
(ii) Universal Relation Since, 𝐴 × 𝐴 ⊆ 𝐴 × 𝐴, so 𝐴 × 𝐴 is a relation on 𝐴,
called the universal relation.
(iii) Identity Relation The relation 𝐼𝐴 = {(𝑎, 𝑎): 𝑎 ∈ 𝐴} is called the
identity relation on 𝐴.
(iv) Reflexive Relation A relation 𝑅 on a set 𝐴 is said to be reflexive
relation, if every element of 𝐴 is related to itself.
Thus, (𝑎, 𝑎) ∈ 𝑅, ∀𝑎 ∈ 𝐴 ⇒ 𝑅 is reflexive.
(v) Symmetric Relation A relation 𝑅 on a set 𝐴 is said to be symmetric
relation iff (𝑎, 𝑏) ∈ 𝑅 ⇒ (𝑏, 𝑎) ∈ 𝑅, ∀𝑎, 𝑏 ∈ 𝐴
i.e. 𝑎𝑅𝑏 ⇒ 𝑏𝑅𝑎, ∀𝑎, 𝑏 ∈ 𝐴
(vi) Transitive Relation A relation 𝑅 on a set 𝐴 is said to be transitive
relation, iff (𝑎, 𝑏) ∈ 𝑅 and (𝑏, 𝑐) ∈ 𝑅
⇒ (𝑎, 𝑐) ∈ 𝑅, ∀𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐 ∈ 𝐴

Equivalence Relation
A relation 𝑅 on a set 𝐴 is said to be an equivalence relation, if it is
simultaneously reflexive, symmetric and transitive on 𝐴.

Equivalence Classes
Let 𝑅 be an equivalence relation on 𝐴(≠ 𝜙). Let 𝛼 ∈ 𝐴.
Then, the equivalence class of 𝑎 denoted by [𝑎] or (𝑎) is defined as the set

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of all those points of 𝐴 which are related to 𝑎 under the relation 𝑅.

Inverse Relation
If 𝐴 and 𝐵 are two non-empty sets and 𝑅 be a relation from 𝐴 to 𝐵, then
the inverse of 𝑅, denoted by 𝑅 −1 , is a relation from 𝐵 to 𝐴 and is defined
by 𝑅 −1 = {(𝑏, 𝑎): (𝑎, 𝑏) ∈ 𝑅}.

Composition of Relation
Let 𝑅 and 𝑆 be two relations from sets 𝐴 to 𝐵 and 𝐵 to 𝐶 respectively, then
we can define relation 𝑆𝑜𝑅 from 𝐴 to 𝐶 such that (𝑎, 𝑐) ∈ So𝑅 ⇔ ∃𝑏 ∈ 𝐵
such that (𝑎, 𝑏) ∈ 𝑅 and (𝑏, 𝑐) ∈ 𝑆.
This relation 𝑆𝑜𝑅 is called the composition of 𝑅 and 𝑆.
(i) 𝑅𝑜𝑆 ≠ 𝑆𝑜𝑅
(ii) (𝑆𝑜𝑅)−1 = 𝑅 −1 𝑜𝑆 −1 known as reversal rule.

Important Results on Relation

(i) If 𝑅 and 𝑆 are two equivalence relations on a set 𝐴, then 𝑅 ∩ 𝑆 is also
an equivalence relation on 𝐴.
(ii) The union of two equivalence relations on a set is not necessarily an
equivalence relation on the set.
(iii) If 𝑅 is an equivalence relation on a set 𝐴, then 𝑅−1 is also an
equivalence relation on 𝐴.
(vi) Let 𝐴 and 𝐵 be two non-empty finite sets consisting of 𝑚 and 𝑛
elements, respectively. Then, 𝐴 × 𝐵 consists of 𝑚𝑛 ordered pairs. So, the
total number of relations from 𝐴 to 𝐵 is 2𝑛𝑚 .
(v) If a set 𝐴 has 𝑛 elements, then number of reflexive relations from 𝐴 to
2
𝐴 is 2𝑛 −𝑛 .

Function
Let 𝐴 and 𝐵 be two non-empty sets, then a function 𝑓 from set 𝐴 to set 𝐵
is a rule which associates each element of 𝐴 to a unique element of 𝐵.
𝑓
It is represented as 𝑓: 𝐴 → 𝐵 or 𝐴 ⟶ 𝐵 and function is also called the
mapping.

Domain, Codomain and Range of a Function

If 𝑓: 𝐴 → 𝐵 is a function from 𝐴 to 𝐵, then

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(i) the set 𝐴 is called the domain of 𝑓(𝑥).
(ii) the set 𝐵 is called the codomain of 𝑓(𝑥).
(iii) the subset of 𝐵 containing only the images of elements of 𝐴 is called
the range of 𝑓(𝑥).

Characteristics of a Function f : A → B
(i) For each element x ∈ A, there is unique element y ∈ B.
(ii) The element y ∈ B is called the image of x under the function f. Also,
y is called the value of function f at x i.e. f(x) = y.
(iii) f : A→ B is not a function, if there is an element in A which has more
than one image in B. But more than one element of A may be associated to
the same element of B.
(iv) f : A→ B is not a function, if an element in A does not have an image
in B.

Identification of a Function from its Graph

Let us draw a vertical line parallel to Y-axis, such that it intersects the
graph of the given expression. If it intersects the graph at more than one
point, then the expression is a relation else, if it intersects at only one
point, then the expression is a function.

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In figure (i), the vertical parallel line intersects the curve at two points,
thus the expression is a relation whereas in figure (ii), the vertical parallel
line intersects the curve at one point. So, the expression is a function.

Types of Functions
1. One-One (or Injective) Function
A mapping f : A → B is a called one-one (or injective) function, if
different elements in A have different images in B, such a mapping
is known as one-one or injective function.
Methods to Test One-One
(i) Analytically If 𝑓(𝑥1 ) = 𝑓(𝑥2 ) ⇒ or
𝑥1 = 𝑥2 equivalently 𝑥1 ≠ 𝑥2

⇒ 𝑓(𝑥1 ) ≠ 𝑓(𝑥2 ), ∀𝑥1 , 𝑥2 ∈ 𝐴, then

the function is one-one.

(ii) Graphically If every line parallel to X-axis cuts the graph of the
function atmost at one point, then the function is one-one.

(iii) Monotonically If the function is increasing or decreasing in whole

domain, then the function is one-one.

Number of One-One Functions

Let 𝐴 and 𝐵 are finite sets having 𝑚 and 𝑛 elements respectively, then
𝑛
𝑃 ,𝑛 ≥ 𝑚
the number of one-one functions from 𝐴 to 𝐵 is { 𝑚
0, 𝑛 < 𝑚
𝑟(𝑛 − 1)(𝑛 − 2) … (𝑛 − (𝑚 − 1)), 𝑛≥𝑚
={
0, 𝑛<𝑚

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2. Many-One Function
A function 𝑓: 𝐴 ⟶ 𝐵 is called many-one function, if two or more
than two different elements in 𝐴 have the same image in 𝐵.
Method to Test Many-One
(i) Analytically If 𝑥1 ≠ 𝑥2 ⇒ 𝑓(𝑥1 ) = 𝑓(𝑥2 ) for some 𝑥1 , 𝑥2 ∈ 𝐴,
then the function is many one.

(ii) Graphically If any line parallel to X-axis cuts the graph of the
function atleast two points, then the function is many-one.

(iii) Monotonically If the function is neither strictly increasing nor

strictly decreasing, then the function is many-one
Number of Many-One Function
Let A and B are finite sets having m and n elements respectively,
then the number of many-one function from A to B is
= Total number of functions − Number of one-one functions
𝑛𝑚 − 𝑛 𝑃𝑚 , if 𝑛 ≥ 𝑚
={
𝑛𝑚 , if 𝑛 < 𝑚
3. Onto (or Surjective) Function
If the function f : A → B is such that each element in B (codomain)
is the image of atleast one element of A, then we say that f is a
function of A onto B. Thus, f : A → B is onto iff f(A) = B.

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 i.e., Range = Codomain
Note Every polynomial function f : R → R of odd degree is onto.
Number of Onto (or Surjective) Functions
Let A and B are finite sets having m and n elements respectively,
then number of onto (or surjective) functions from A to B is
𝑛𝑚 − 𝑛 𝐶1(𝑛 − 1)𝑚 + 𝑛 𝐶2 (𝑛 − 2)𝑚 − 𝑛 𝐶3(𝑛 − 3)𝑚 + ⋯ , 𝑛 < 𝑚
= {𝑛!, 𝑛=𝑚
0, 𝑛>𝑚
4. Into Function If f : A → B is such
that there exists atleast one
element in codomain which is not
the image of any element in
domain, then f is into.
Thus, f : A → B, is into iff f(A) ⊂
B
i.e. Range ⊂ Codomain

Number of Into Function

Let A and B be finite sets having m and n elements respectively, then
number of into functions from A to B is
𝑛
𝐶1(𝑛 − 1)𝑚 − 𝑛 𝐶2 (𝑛 − 2)𝑚 + 𝑛 𝐶3(𝑛 − 3)𝑚 … , 𝑛 ≤ 𝑚
={
𝑛𝑚 , 𝑛>𝑚
5. One-One and Onto Function (or Bijective)
A function f : A→ B is said to be one-one and onto (or bijective), if f
is both one-one and onto.

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 Number of Bijective Functions
Let 𝐴 and 𝐵 are finite sets having 𝑚 and 𝑛 elements respectively,
𝑛! , if 𝑛 = 𝑚
then number of onto functions from 𝐴 to 𝐵 is {
0, if 𝑛 > 𝑚 or 𝑛 < 𝑚
Equal Functions
Two functions 𝑓 and 𝑔 are said to be equal iff
(i) domain of 𝑓 = domain of 𝑔.
(ii) codomain of 𝑓 = codomain of 𝑔.
(iii) 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑔(𝑥) for every 𝑥 belonging to their common domain
and then we write 𝑓 = 𝑔.

Real Valued and Real Functions

A function 𝑓: 𝐴 → 𝐵 is called a real valued function, if 𝐵 ≤ 𝑅 and
it is called a real function if, 𝐴 ≤ 𝑅 and 𝐵 ≤ 𝑅.

1. Domain of Real Functions

The domain of the real function 𝑓(𝑥) is the set of all those real
numbers for which the expression for 𝑓(𝑥) or the formula for 𝑓(𝑥)
assumes real values only.
2. Range of Real Functions
The range of a real function of a real variable is the set of all real
values taken by 𝑓(𝑥) at points of its domain.

Working Rule for Finding Range of Real Functions

Let 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥) be a real function, then for finding the range we may
use the following steps
Step I Find the domain of the function 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥).
Step I Transform the equation 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥) as 𝑥 = 𝑔(𝑦).
i.e. convert 𝑥 in terms of 𝑦.

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 Step III Find the values of 𝑦 from 𝑥 = 𝑔(𝑦) such that the values of
𝑥 are real and lying in the domain of 𝑓.
Step IV The set of values of 𝑦 obtained in step III be the range of
function 𝑓.

Standard Real Functions and their Graphs

1. Constant Function
Let c be a fixed real number. The function which associates each real
number x to this fixed number c, is called a constant function. i.e. y
= f(x) = c for all x ∈ R.

Domain of f(x) = R and Range of f(x) = { c}.

2. Identity Function
The function which associates each real number x to the same
number x, is called the identity function.
i.e. y = f(x) = x,∀x ∈ R.

Domain of f(x) = R and Range of f(x) = R

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3. Linear Function
If a and b are fixed real numbers, then the linear function is defined
as y = f(x) = ax + b. The graph of a linear function is given in the
following diagram, which is a straight line with slope tan α.

Domain of f(x) = R and Range of f(x) = R.

4. Quadratic Function
If a, b and c are fixed real numbers, then the quadratic function is
expressed as
𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑎𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐, 𝑎 ≠ 0
𝑏 2 4𝑎𝑐 − 𝑏 2
𝑦 = 𝑎 (𝑥 + ) +
2𝑎 4𝑎
which represents a downward parabola, if 𝑎 < 0 and upward
𝑏 4𝑎𝑐−𝑏2
parabola, if 𝑎 > 0 and vertex of this parabola is at (− 2𝑎 , ).
4𝑎

Domain of f(x) = R
4𝑎𝑐−𝑏2 4𝑎𝑐−𝑏2
Range of 𝑓(𝑥) is (−∞, ], if 𝑎 < 0 and [ , ∞), if 𝑎 > 0.
4𝑎 4𝑎

5. Power Function
The power function is given by 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 𝑛 , 𝑛 ∈ 𝐼, 𝑛 ≠ 1,0.

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The domain and range of 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥), is depend on 𝑛.
(a) If 𝑛 is positive even integer, i.e. 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 2 , 𝑥 4 , …

Domain of f(x) = R and Range of f(x) = [0, ∞)

(b) If 𝑛 is positive odd integer, i.e. 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 3 , 𝑥 5 , …

Domain of f(x) = R and Range of f(x) = R

(c) If 𝑛 is negative even integer, i.e. 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 −2 , 𝑥 −4 , …

Domain of f(x) = R − { 0} and Range of f(x) = (0, ∞)

(d) If n is negative odd integer, i.e. f(x) = x− 1 , x− 3,…….

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 Domain of f(x) = R − { 0} and Range of f(x) = R − { 0}
6. Square Root Function
Square root function is defined by y = f(x) = √x , x ≥ 0.

Domain of f(x) = [0, ∞) and Range of f(x) = [0, ∞)

7. Modulus (or Absolute Value) Function

Modulus function is given by y = f(x) =|x|, where |x| denotes the
absolute value of x,
𝑥, if 𝑥 ≥ 0
i.e. |𝑥| = {
−𝑥, if 𝑥 < 0

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 Domain of f(x) = R and Range of f(x) = [0, ∞).

8. Signum Function
Signum function is defined as follows
|𝑥| 𝑥
, if 𝑥 ≠ 0 , if 𝑥 ≠ 0
𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥) = { 𝑥 or {|𝑥|
0, if 𝑥 = 0 0, if 𝑥 = 0

Symbolically, signum function is denoted by sgn (x).

Thus, y = f(x) = sgn (x)
−1, if 𝑥 < 0
where, sgn (𝑥) = { 0, if 𝑥 = 0
1, if 𝑥 > 0
Domain of sgn (𝑥) = 𝑅 and Range of sgn (𝑥) = {−1,0,1}

9. Greatest Integer Function/Step Function/ Floor Function

The greatest integer function is defined as y = f(x) = [x]

where, [x] represents the greatest integer less than or equal to x. In

general, if n ≤ x < n + 1 for any integer n, [x] = n.
Thus, [2.304] = 2, [4] = 4 and [– 8.05] = – 9

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 Domain of f(x) = R and Range of f(x) = I, the set of integers.

Properties of Greatest Integer Function

(i) [𝑥 + 𝑛] = 𝑛 + [𝑥], 𝑛 ∈ 𝐼
(ii) [−𝑥] = −[𝑥], 𝑥 ∈ 𝐼
(iii) [−𝑥] = −[𝑥] − 1, 𝑥 ∉ 𝐼
(iv) [𝑥] ≥ 𝑛 ⇒ 𝑥 ≥ 𝑛, 𝑛 ∈ 𝐼
(v) [𝑥] > 𝑛 ⇒ 𝑥 ≥ 𝑛 + 1, 𝑛 ∈ 𝐼
(vi) [𝑥] ≤ 𝑛 ⇒ 𝑥 < 𝑛 + 1, 𝑛 ∈ 𝐼
(vii) [𝑥] < 𝑛 ⇒ 𝑥 < 𝑛, 𝑛 ∈ 𝐼
(viii) [𝑥 + 𝑦] = [𝑥] + [𝑦 + 𝑥 − [𝑥]] for all 𝑥, 𝑦 ∈ 𝑅
(ix) [𝑥 + 𝑦] ≥ [𝑥] + [𝑦]
1 2 𝑛−1
(x) [𝑥] + [𝑥 + ] + [𝑥 + ] + ⋯ + [𝑥 + ] = [𝑛𝑥], 𝑛 ∈ 𝑁.
𝑛 𝑛 𝑛

10. Least Integer Function/Ceiling Function/Smallest Function

The least integer function is defined as y = f(x) = (x), where (x)
represents the least integer greater than or equal to x.

Thus, (3.578) = 4, (0.87) = 1, (4) = 4,(− 8.239) = − 8, (− 0.7) = 0

In general, if n is an integer and x is any real number such that n < x ≤ n
+ 1, then (x) = n + 1

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∴ f(x) = (x) = [x] + 1

Domain of f = R and Range of f = I

11. Fractional Part Function
It is defined as f(x) = { x}, where { x} represents the fractional part
of x,
i.e., if x = n + f, where n ∈ I and 0 ≤ f < 1, then { x} = f
e.g. { 0. 7} = 0.7,{ 3} = 0,{ − 3.6} = 0.4

Properties of Fractional Part Function

(i) {𝑥} = 𝑥 − [𝑥]
(ii) {𝑥} = 𝑥, if 0 ≤ 𝑥 < 1
(iii) {𝑥} = 0, if 𝑥 ∈ 𝐼
(iv) {−𝑥} = 1 − {𝑥}, if 𝑥 ∉ 𝐼

12. Exponential Function

Exponential function is given by 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑎 𝑥 , where 𝑎 > 0, 𝑎 ≠
1.
The graph of the exponential function is as shown, which is
increasing, if 𝑎 > 1 and decreasing, if 0 < 𝑎 < 1.

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 Domain of f(x) = R and Range of f(x) = (0, ∞)

13. Logarithmic Function

A logarithmic function may be given by y = f(x) = log a x, where a >
0, a ≠ 1 and x > 0.
The graph of the function is as shown below, which is increasing, if
a > 1 and decreasing, if 0 < a < 1.

Domain of f(x) = (0, ∞) and Range of f(x) = R

Operations on Real Functions

Let 𝑓: 𝐴 → 𝐵 and 𝑔: 𝐴 ⟶ 𝐵 be two real functions, then

(i) Addition The addition 𝑓 + 𝑔 is defined as 𝑓 + 𝑔: 𝐴 ⟶ 𝐵 such
that (𝑓 + 𝑔)(𝑥) = 𝑓(𝑥) + 𝑔(𝑥).
(ii) Difference The difference 𝑓 − 𝑔 is defined as 𝑓 − 𝑔: 𝐴 → 𝐵
such that (𝑓 − 𝑔)(𝑥) = 𝑓(𝑥) − 𝑔(𝑥).
(iii) Product The product 𝑓𝑔 is defined as
𝑓𝑔: 𝐴 ⟶ 𝐵 such that (𝑓𝑔)(𝑥) = 𝑓(𝑥)𝑔(𝑥).
Clearly, 𝑓 ± 𝑔 and 𝑓𝑔 are defined only, if 𝑓 and 𝑔 have the same
domain. In case, the domain of 𝑓 and 𝑔 are different, then domain of

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𝑓 + 𝑔 or 𝑓𝑔 = domain of 𝑓 ∩ domain of 𝑔.
(iv) Multiplication by a Number (or a Scalar) The function 𝑐𝑓,
where 𝑐 is a real number is defined as

𝑐𝑓: 𝐴 ⟶ 𝐵, such that (𝑐𝑓)(𝑥) = 𝑐𝑓(𝑥).

𝑓 𝑓 𝑓
(v) Quotient The quotient 𝑔 is defined as 𝑔 : 𝐴 → 𝐵 such that 𝑔 (𝑥) =
𝑓(𝑥)
, provided 𝑔(𝑥) ≠ 0.
𝑔(𝑥)

Composition of Two Functions

Let 𝑓: 𝐴 ⟶ 𝐵 and 𝑔: 𝐵 ⟶ 𝐶 be two functions. Then, we define gof
: 𝐴 ⟶ 𝐶, such that

Inverse of a Function
Let 𝑓: 𝐴 ⟶ 𝐵 is a bijective function, i.e. it is one-one and onto
function. Then, we can define a function 𝑔: 𝐵 ⟶ 𝐴, such that
𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑦 ⇒ 𝑔(𝑦) = 𝑥, which is called inverse of 𝑓 and vice-versa.
Symbolically, we write 𝑔 = 𝑓 −1

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A function whose inverse exists, is called an invertible function or
inversible.
(i) Domain (𝑓 −1 ) = Range (𝑓)
(ii) Range (𝑓 −1 ) = Domain (𝑓)
(iii) If 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑦, then 𝑓 −1 (𝑦) = 𝑥 and vice-verse.

Periodic Functions
A function 𝑓(𝑥) is said to be a periodic function of 𝑥, if there exists
a real number 𝑇 > 0, such that

𝑓(𝑇 + 𝑥) = 𝑓(𝑥), ∀𝑥 ∈ Dom (𝑓).

The smallest positive real number 𝑇, satisfying the above condition

is known as the period or the fundamental period of 𝑓(𝑥).

Testing the Periodicity of a Function

(i) Put 𝑓(𝑇 + 𝑥) = 𝑓(𝑥) and solve this equation to find the positive
values of 𝑇 independent of 𝑥.
(ii) If no positive value of 𝑇 independent of 𝑥 is obtained, then 𝑓(𝑥)
is a non-periodic function.
(iii) If positive values of 𝑇 which is independent of 𝑥 are obtained,
then 𝑓(𝑥) is a periodic function and the least positive value of 𝑇 is
the period of the function 𝑓(𝑥).

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Even and Odd Functions

Even Function A real function 𝑓(𝑥) is an even function, if 𝑓(−𝑥) =

𝑓(𝑥). Odd Function A real function 𝑓(𝑥) is an odd function, if
𝑓(−𝑥) = −𝑓(𝑥).

Properties of Even and Odd Functions

(i) Even function ± Even function = Even function.
(ii) Odd function ± Odd function = Odd function.
(iii) Even function × Odd function = Odd function.
(iv) Even function × Even function = Even function.
(v) Odd function × Odd function = Even function.
(vi) gof or fog is even, if both 𝑓 and 𝑔 are even or if 𝑓 is odd and 𝑔
is even or if 𝑓 is even and 𝑔 is odd.
(vii) gof or fog is odd, if both of 𝑓 and 𝑔 are odd.
𝑑
(viii) If 𝑓(𝑥) is an even function, then 𝑑𝑥 𝑓(𝑥) or ∫ 𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥 is an odd

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 𝑑
function and if 𝑓(𝑥) is an odd function, then 𝑓(𝑥) or ∫ 𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥 is
𝑑𝑥
an even function.
(ix) The graph of an even function is symmetrical about 𝑌-axis.
(x) The graph of an odd function is symmetrical about origin or
symmetrical in opposite quadrants.
(xi) An every function can never be one-one, however an odd
function may or may not be one-one.

Binary Operations
Let 𝑆 be a non-empty set. A function * from 𝑆 × 𝑆 to 𝑆 is called a
binary operation on 𝑆 i.e. ∗: 𝑆 × 𝑆 → 𝑆 is a binary operation on set 𝑆.

Note Generally binary operations are represented by the symbols ∗

,⊕, … etc., instead of letters figure etc.

Closure Property
An operation * on a non-empty set 𝑆 is said to satisfy the closure
property, if

𝑎 ∈ 𝑆, 𝑏 ∈ 𝑆 ⇒ 𝑎 ⋆ 𝑏 ∈ 𝑆, ∀𝑎, 𝑏 ∈ 𝑆

Also, in this case we say that 𝑆 is closed under *.

An operation * on a non-empty set 𝑆, satisfying the closure property
is known as a binary operation.

Some Particular Cases

(i) Addition is a binary operation on each one of the sets 𝑁, 𝑍, 𝑄, 𝑅

and 𝐶, i.e. on the set of natural numbers, integers, rationals, real and
complex numbers, respectively. While addition on the set 𝑆 of all
irrationals is not a binary operation.
(ii) Multiplication is a binary operation on each one of the sets 𝑁, 𝑍,
𝑄, 𝑅 and 𝐶, i.e. on the set of natural numbers, integers, rationals, real
and complex numbers, respectively. While multiplication on the set
𝑆 of all irrationals is not a binary operation.
(iii) Subtraction is a binary operation on each one of the sets 𝑍, 𝑄, 𝑅
and 𝐶, i.e. on the set of integers, rationals, real and complex

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numbers, respectively. While subtraction on the set of natural
numbers is not a binary operation.
(iv) Let 𝑆 be a non-empty set and 𝑃(𝑆) be its power set. Then, the
union, intersection and difference of sets, on 𝑃(𝑆) is a binary
operation.
(v) Division is not a binary operation on any of the sets 𝑁, 𝑍, 𝑄, 𝑅
and 𝐶. However, it is a binary operation on the sets of all non-zero
rational (real or complex) numbers.
(vi) Exponential operation (𝑎, 𝑏) → 𝑎𝑏 is a binary operation on set 𝑁
of natural numbers while it is not a binary operation on set 𝑍 of
integers.

Properties of Binary Operations

(i) Commutative Property A binary operation * on a non-empty set
𝑆 is said to be commutative or abelian, if

𝑎 ∗ 𝑏 = 𝑏 ∗ 𝑎, ∀𝑎, 𝑏 ∈ 𝑆.

Addition and multiplication are commutative binary operations on 𝑍

but subtraction is not a commutative binary operation, since 2 − 3 ≠
3 − 2.

Union and intersection are commutative binary operations on the

power set 𝑃(𝑆) of 𝑆. But difference of sets is not a commutative
binary operation on 𝑃(𝑆).
(ii) Associative Property A binary operation * on a non-empty set 𝑆
is said to be associative, if (𝑎 ∗ 𝑏) ∗ 𝑐 = 𝑎 ∗ (𝑏 ∗ 𝑐), ∀𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐 ∈ 𝑆.
Let 𝑅 be the set of real numbers, then addition and multiplication on
𝑅 satisfies the associative property.
(iii) Distributive Property Let * and 𝑜 be two binary operations on
a non-empty sets. We say that * is distributed over 𝑜, if 𝑎 ∗ (𝑏 ∘
𝑐) = (𝑎 ∗ 𝑏)𝑜(𝑎 ∗ 𝑐), ∀𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐 ∈ 𝑆 also (called left distributive law )
and (𝑏𝑜𝑐) ∗ 𝑎 = (𝑏 ∗ 𝑎)𝑜(𝑐 ∗ 𝑎), ∀𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐 ∈ 𝑆 also (called right
distributive law).
Let 𝑅 be the set of all real numbers, then multiplication distributes
over addition on 𝑅.
Since, 𝑎 ⋅ (𝑏 + 𝑐) = 𝑎 ⋅ 𝑏 + 𝑎 ⋅ 𝑐, ∀𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐 ∈ 𝑅.

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Identity Element
Let * be a binary operation on a non-empty set 𝑆. An element 𝑒 ∈ 𝑆,
if it exist, such that 𝑎 ∗ 𝑒 = 𝑒 ∗ 𝑎 = 𝑎, ∀𝑎 ∈ 𝑆, is called an identity
elements of 𝑆, with respect to *.
For addition on 𝑅, zero is the identity element in 𝑅.
Since, 𝑎 + 0 = 0 + 𝑎 = 𝑎, ∀𝑎 ∈ 𝑅

For multiplication on 𝑅, 1 is the identity element in 𝑅.

Since, 𝑎 × 1 = 1 × 𝑎 = 𝑎, ∀𝑎 ∈ 𝑅
Let 𝑃(𝑆) be the power set of a non-empty set 𝑆. Then, 𝜙 is the
identity element for union on 𝑃(𝑆), as 𝐴 ∪ 𝜙 = 𝜙 ∪ 𝐴 = 𝐴, ∀𝐴 ∈
𝑃(𝑆)
Also, 𝑆 is the identity element for intersection on 𝑃(𝑆).
Since, 𝐴 ∩ 𝑆 = 𝐴 ∩ 𝑆 = 𝐴, ∀𝐴 ∈ 𝑃(𝑆).
For addition on 𝑁 the identity element does not exist. But for
multiplication on 𝑁 the identity element is 1 .

Inverse of an Element
Let ∗ be a binary operation on a non-empty set 𝑆 and let 𝑒 be the
identity element.

Suppose 𝑎 ∈ 𝑆, we say that 𝑎 is invertible, if there exists an element

𝑏 ∈ 𝑆 such that 𝑎 ∗ 𝑏 = 𝑏 ∗ 𝑎 = 𝑒
Also, in this case, 𝑏 is called the inverse of 𝑎 and we write, 𝑎−1 = 𝑏
Addition on 𝑁 has no identity element and accordingly 𝑁 has no
invertible element.
Multiplication on 𝑁 has 1 as the identity element and no element
other than 1 is invertible.

Important Points to be Remembered

If 𝑆 be a finite set containing 𝑛 elements, then
2
(i) the total number of binary operations on 𝑆 is 𝑛𝑛 .
(ii) the total number of commutative binary operations' on 𝑆 is
𝑛𝑛(𝑛+1)/2 .

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