.

Physical Quantity: A measurable property of a physical system, described by a

number and a unit. Examples include mass (e.g., 5 kg), length (e.g., 10 meters),
and time (e.g., 2 seconds).

Scalar quantity: A type of physical quantity that only has magnitude

Vector quantity: A type of physical quantity that has magnitude and direction

Displacement: The shortest straight-line distance between an object's initial

and final positions, including direction. For example, if you move 3 meters east,
then 4m west, your displacement is 1 meter west.
Distance: The total path length traveled by an object, regardless of direction.
For example, if you walk 3 meters east, then 4 meters west, your total distance is
7 meters.

Speed: Rate at which an object covers distance

Formula: Distance/time
Unit : m/s or km/h

Conversion:
Km/h = 1000m / 3600s = 5m / 18s

m/s = 18 / 5 km/h

The conversion between km/h and m/s happens because 1 km equals 1000
meters, and 1 hour equals 3600 seconds. Dividing 1000 by 3600 simplifies to
5/18, so 1 km/h equals 5/18 m/s. This conversion helps in finding speed in meters
per second, which is often more practical for physics problems involving motion
and kinematics.

Instantaneous speed vs average speed:

Instantaneous: The speed of an object at a specific moment in time in

motion
Average: The average of all instantaneous speeds; found simply by total
distance/ total time

Velocity: The rate at which an object changes its position

Average velocity: (Final position – initial position) / time

= Displacement / time
Acceleration: The rate at which an object changes velocity over time.

It changes how fast an object is moving

Change in velocity = change in acceleration

Velocity’s constant acceleration = 0

Formula: ( Change in velocity) / time taken

= ( Final velocity – Initial velocity) / time taken

Equations of motion:

The three main equations of motion describe the relationship between

displacement, velocity, acceleration, and time for objects moving with uniform
acceleration.
In physics, a reference point is a fixed point or location that we use to
determine the position of other object in motion, helping us describe how objects
move in relation to one another
Characteristics of a Reference Point:
1. Stationary or Arbitrarily Chosen: A reference point can either be fixed
(like the surface of the Earth) or arbitrarily chosen (such as a moving car).
2. Position Measurement: It allows you to measure the distance and
direction of an object relative to the reference point.
3. Relative Nature: The reference point is not universal; different observers
can have different reference points, making measurements relative to
where they are observing from.
4. Affects Perception of Motion: Whether an object is moving or
stationary depends on the chosen reference point. For example, a person
sitting inside a moving bus is stationary relative to the bus but moving
relative to the road.
Frame of Reference:
A frame of reference is a system that includes both a reference point and a
coordinate system (such as axes to measure position, velocity, and acceleration).
It helps in analyzing the motion of objects.
Types of Frame of Reference:
1. Inertial Frame of Reference:
o This is a frame of reference where Newton's laws of motion hold
true without the need for any corrections.
o In an inertial frame, an object at rest remains at rest, and an object
in uniform motion continues in a straight line unless acted upon by
a force (as per Newton’s first law).
o Example: A stationary car on a flat road or a spacecraft moving at
a constant speed in deep space.
o Characteristics:

 No external force or acceleration is acting on the frame.

 Forces are balanced unless an unbalanced force causes
acceleration.
2. Non-Inertial Frame of Reference:
o In this frame of reference, Newton’s laws of motion do not apply
directly because the frame itself is accelerating.
o To apply Newton’s laws, fictitious forces (like the centrifugal force or
Coriolis force) need to be introduced to account for the observed
motion.
o Example: A car taking a sharp turn or an accelerating elevator.
 o Characteristics:

 The frame experiences acceleration.

 Fictitious forces need to be considered to explain the motion.
Key Differences Between Inertial and Non-Inertial Frames:
 Inertial Frame: No acceleration, forces are balanced, and no fictitious
forces.
 Non-Inertial Frame: The frame itself accelerates, and fictitious forces
must be included to explain the motion.
In summary, understanding the reference point and the frame of reference is
essential to analyze and describe motion in physics, with the frame of reference
being either inertial or non-inertial depending on whether it is stationary or
accelerating.

Stopping distance
It is the total distance a vehicle travels from the moment a driver spots a hazard
and decides to stop until the vehicle comes to a complete halt. It is made up of
two main components:
1. Thinking Distance: The distance the vehicle travels while the driver
reacts and decides to apply the brakes.
2. Braking Distance: The distance the vehicle travels after the brakes are
applied until it fully stops.
Formula for Stopping Distance:
Stopping Distance = Thinking Distance + Braking Distance
Braking Distance Formula:
The braking distance depends on several factors, including the vehicle's speed
and the conditions of the road. The formula is:
Braking Distance= v^2 = u^2 +2as
0 = u^2 + 2as
-u^2 = 2as
Key Factors Affecting Stopping Distance:
1. Speed: The faster the vehicle is moving, the greater both the thinking and
braking distances.
2. Reaction Time: The driver’s response time affects the thinking distance.
 3. Road Conditions: Wet, icy, or uneven surfaces reduce tire friction,
increasing braking distance.
4. Tire Condition: Worn tires with less grip also increase braking distance.
5. Vehicle Condition: Well-maintained brakes reduce stopping distance,
while poor brakes increase it.
Practical Example:
If a car is traveling at a higher speed, the braking distance increases
quadratically, meaning doubling the speed will quadruple the braking distance.

Motion Graphs:
They are graphical representations of an object’s motion, showing its
position,velocity, and acceleration over time

Three main types of motion graphs:

Position time graph
Speed/velocity – time graphs
Acceleration time graphs

Position-time:

It is a graph that shows the position of an object with respect to time. It is plotted
with the position of an object on y-axis, and time on x axis

Two types of position-time graphs:

Distance – time graphs
Displacement – time graphs
In this graph, the slope helps us find out speed/velocity

Formula: (x2 – x1) / (y2 – y1)

Velocity-time graphs :

Shows how the velocity changes over time

Velocity is plotted on y-axis, and time on x axis

The slope of velocity time graph resembles acceleration of graph

If slope Is positive, object accelerates

If slope is negative, object decelerates
If slope = 0, the object is moving at constant velocity (no acceleration)
Force:
Force is a push or pull on an object that causes it to change its velocity (speed or
direction). It can be classified into Contact Forces and Non-Contact Forces.

Contact Forces:
These forces require physical contact between objects. Here are the types:
1. Normal (Reaction) Force:
 o This force acts perpendicular to the surface when an object is in
contact with it.
o Example: A book resting on a table experiences a normal force from
the table.
2. Tension Force:
o This force is transmitted through a string, rope, or cable when it is
pulled tight by forces acting from opposite ends.
o Example: A rope in a tug-of-war game experiences tension.

3. Friction Force:
o This force opposes the relative motion of two surfaces in contact.

o Example: When you slide a book on a table, friction slows it down.

4. Tension Force:
What it is:
Tension force is the force exerted by a string, rope, or cable when
it's pulled tight.
How it works: Imagine you’re pulling on a rope tied to a heavy object.
The force that keeps the rope tight, resisting being pulled apart, is
called tension.
Example: If you’re hanging a picture on the wall with a string, the string
is under tension because it's holding the picture up.
Think of tension as the force that keeps something stretched or
pulled tight.

5. Spring Force:
What it is: Spring force is the force exerted by a spring when it is
either compressed (squished) or stretched.
How it works: When you push down on a spring or pull it apart, it
pushes or pulls back. The more you compress or stretch the spring,
the stronger the force.
Example: When you press down on a spring-loaded toy, it pushes
back against your hand. Once you let go, the spring returns to its
original shape.

It's a "restoring force" that always tries to bring the spring back
to its normal shape.
 6. Buoyant Force:
o The upward force exerted by a fluid on a submerged or floating
object.
o Example: A boat floats on water due to buoyant force.

7. Fluid Resistance / Air resistance (Drag):

 What it is: This is the force that opposes an object’s motion
through a fluid (like air or water).
 How it works: When an object moves through a fluid, the fluid
particles collide with it, slowing it down. The faster you go, the
more resistance you feel.
 Example: When you stick your hand out of a car window, the air
pushes against it, creating resistance. This is air resistance. The
same happens when you swim; water pushes back against you,
slowing you down.
Fluid resistance is like friction but in fluids (air or water), and it tries to
slow down moving objects.

Non-Contact Forces:
These forces act on objects without any physical contact. They include:
1. Gravitational Force:
o The attractive force between two masses. It pulls objects toward
each other.
o Example: The Earth's gravity pulls objects toward the ground.

2. Magnetic Force:
o The force exerted by magnets on magnetic materials or other
magnets.
o Example: The attraction between a magnet and a steel object.

3. Electrostatic Force:
o The force between charged objects, either attracting or repelling
them depending on their charges.
o Example: A balloon rubbed against your hair sticks to a wall due to
electrostatic forces.

Free body Diagram

A Free Body Diagram (FBD) is a simplified representation used to
visualize the forces acting on a single object. It’s an essential tool in
physics and engineering, especially when analyzing the forces and their
effects on an object's motion.
Here’s a detailed breakdown:
1. Purpose of an FBD
An FBD helps isolate a body from its surroundings and shows all the
external forces acting on it, without depicting the environment or other
objects that are interacting with the object. It helps you focus on the
forces to calculate net force, equilibrium, or acceleration.
2. Steps to Draw an FBD
 Step 1: Isolate the Object Start by identifying the object you are
analyzing. This can be anything—a car, a block on a ramp, or a
person standing on the ground.
 Step 2: Represent the Object Draw a simple shape (like a box, dot,
or circle) to represent the object. For example, if you are
analyzing a block, just draw a rectangle.
 Step 3: Identify the Forces List all the external forces acting on
the object. These can include:
o Gravitational Force (Weight): This force always acts
downward due to the object's mass.
o Normal Force: The force exerted by a surface perpendicular
to the object, usually opposing gravity.
o Friction Force: If the object is in contact with a surface and
is moving (or trying to move), friction opposes the motion.
o Tension Force: If the object is attached to a rope or string,
tension pulls on the object.
o Applied Force: Any external push or pull exerted on the
object by another object or person.
o Air Resistance: For objects moving through air, there might
be resistance acting opposite to the motion.
 Step 4: Draw Force Vectors For each force identified, draw an
arrow starting from the object (or center of mass). The arrow
points in the direction of the force and its length represents the
magnitude (or relative size) of the force. Label each force with its
name or symbol
3. Types of Forces in an FBD
 Gravitational Force (Fg) : Always acts downward towards the
center of the Earth. Fg =mg, where m is the mass and g is the
acceleration due to gravity.
  Normal Force (Fn) A force exerted by a surface perpendicular to
the object. It opposes the object's weight when it rests on a
horizontal surface.
 Frictional Force (Ff) Opposes motion, acts parallel to the surface in
contact.
 Tension Force (T): Acts along the length of a rope or cable pulling
the object.
 Applied Force (Fa) A force exerted externally by another object or
person. It can act in any direction.
 Air Resistance: A force that opposes the motion of objects
through air, typically relevant at high speeds.

4. Example of a Free Body Diagram

Consider a block resting on an inclined plane:
 Draw a rectangle to represent the block.
 Forces acting:
o Gravity (Weight): Acts straight down (mg).

o Normal Force: Acts perpendicular to the surface of the

incline.
o Friction: Opposes the motion of the block along the surface
of the incline.
o If an external force is applied to push/pull the block, it
would be shown as an additional vector.

5. Using FBD for Problem-Solving

After drawing the FBD, you can apply Newton’s laws of motion. For
example:
 If the object is at rest or moving at constant velocity, the forces
are balanced (net force = 0).
 If the object is accelerating, use Fnet = ma where a is the
acceleration and Fnet is the sum of all forces acting on the object.

6. Equilibrium and FBD

In situations where the object is in equilibrium (no acceleration), all
forces balance each other out:
 For horizontal equilibrium: Fa= Ff
 For vertical equilibrium: Fn = Fg
In summary, an FBD simplifies the analysis of forces acting on an
object, making it easier to solve for unknown forces or predict motion
based on the applied forces.

Momentum:
Momentum and Force
Factors Affecting Force
The force applied by an object depends on two main factors:
 Mass: The amount of matter in an object. A heavier object will
apply a greater force.
 Velocity: The speed of an object in a specific direction. A faster-
moving object will apply a greater force.
The Concept of Momentum
Momentum is the product of an object's mass and velocity. It gives us a
better idea about the force applied by an object.
The momentum of an object is denoted by the letter p and is calculated
as:
p = mv

p = momentum
m = mass
v = velocity

Object Mass (m) Velocity (v) Momentum

Rock Large Low Large

Marble Small High Large

Real-World Applications of Momentum

Momentum is used in various sports to achieve better results:’
 Cricket: Fast bowlers take a long run-up to gain velocity and
momentum, allowing them to bowl faster.
 Javelin Throw: Athletes take a run-up to gain momentum, enabling
them to throw the javelin farther.
Key Takeaways
 Force applied by an object depends on its mass and velocity.
 Momentum is the product of an object's mass and velocity (p =
mv).
 Momentum is used in various sports to achieve better results.

Difference of momentum and force:

Momentum is the quantity of motion an object has, calculated as mass
times velocity (p = mv), describing its motion persistence. Force is a
push or pull that changes an object's momentum, defined as F = ma.
Force is the rate of change of momentum over time

Impulse:
In physics, impulse refers to the change in momentum of an object
when a force is applied over a period of time. It is given by the product
of force (F) and the time duration (Δt) for which the force is applied.
The formula is:
Impulse (J) = F × Δt = Δp (change in momentum)
The triangle (Δ) means "change." So, Δt is change in time, Δp is change
in momentum. Force changes momentum over time.

Impulse has the same units as momentum (Newton-seconds or kg·m/s)

and describes how a force influences an object's motion over time.
Car safety devices work on principles of physics, particularly Newton's
Laws of Motion, impulse, momentum, and energy absorption. Here’s a
breakdown of how some key safety devices function:

1. Seatbelts:
 Physics Concept: Newton's First Law (Inertia)
 How it Works: Seatbelts help to stop your body from continuing to move
forward during a sudden stop or collision. Without the seatbelt, your body
would continue moving at the car's speed. The seatbelt applies a force
over a longer time to decelerate your body, spreading the impact across
stronger areas, like your chest and pelvis, reducing injuries.

2. Airbags:
 Physics Concept: Impulse and momentum
 How it Works: Airbags work by inflating instantly in a crash, creating a
cushion that slows down your forward motion more gradually than if you
hit the steering wheel or dashboard directly. This increases the time over
which your momentum changes, reducing the force exerted on your body.

3. Crumple Zones:
 Physics Concept: Kinetic Energy and Energy Absorption
 How it Works: Crumple zones are designed to absorb the energy from a
collision by deforming. This process converts kinetic energy into
deformation energy, which reduces the energy that would otherwise be
transferred to passengers. This allows the vehicle to absorb much of the
crash impact, keeping occupants safer.

4. Anti-lock Braking System (ABS):

 Physics Concept: Friction and control
 How it Works: ABS prevents the wheels from locking up during hard
braking by rapidly pulsing the brakes. This maintains friction between the
tires and the road, allowing the driver to maintain control and steer, which
reduces stopping distance and the risk of skidding.

5. Traction Control System (TCS):

  Physics Concept: Friction and Newton's Second Law (Force = Mass ×
Acceleration)
 How it Works: TCS helps prevent wheel slip during acceleration by
adjusting power to the wheels. By ensuring the tires maintain optimal
friction with the road, TCS helps to maintain control, especially on slippery
surfaces, reducing the likelihood of losing control of the vehicle.

6. Engine Control Unit (ECU):

 Physics Concept: Sensors and control systems
 How it Works: The ECU is the brain of the car, managing systems like
ABS, TCS, and stability control. It gathers data from sensors throughout
the vehicle and adjusts things like throttle, brakes, and engine power in
real-time to optimize safety. By controlling the car's behavior, it ensures
that forces (like acceleration and friction) are managed safely to prevent
accidents.

7. Headrest:
 Physics Concept: Newton’s Third Law (Action and Reaction)
 How it Works: In a rear-end collision, your body is thrown backward due
to inertia. Without a headrest, your head would move backward sharply,
causing neck injuries like whiplash. The headrest acts as a barrier to stop
your head’s backward motion, providing a force that counters the
backward force, reducing the risk of neck injury by limiting the sudden
movement of your head and neck.
These devices, from seatbelts to the ECU, are all engineered to manage forces in
a way that reduces injury, ensuring that energy is absorbed or redirected and
passengers remain in control and protected during different types of collisions.

General practice:
½(mv^2)

1. What is a Moment?
A moment is the turning effect of a force around a fixed point (called
the pivot or fulcrum).
Formula:
Moment = Force × Perpendicular distance from pivot
(Unit: Newton-meter, Nm)

2. Principle of Moments (Law)

If an object is in equilibrium (not rotating):
Total clockwise moment = Total counterclockwise moment
This is known as the Principle of Moments.

3. Clockwise and Counterclockwise Moments

 A clockwise moment turns an object like the hands of a clock.
 A counterclockwise moment turns it in the opposite direction.
You can use your hand to push and imagine the direction the object
would turn.

4. Example:
A seesaw has:
 A 20 N child 2 m on the left → 20 × 2 = 40 Nm (CCW)
 A 40 N child 1 m on the right → 40 × 1 = 40 Nm (CW)
They balance each other because both moments are equal.

5. Applications:
 Door handles are placed far from the hinge to increase the
moment and make it easier to open.
 Spanners and wrenches use long handles to increase the turning
effect with less force.