Computer Systems And Networks Barry Blundell

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 Computer Systems
and Networks

Copyright 2006 Cengage Learning, Inc. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part.
Copyright 2006 Cengage Learning, Inc. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part.
Computer Systems and Networks

Copyright © 2006 Middlesex University Press

The Cengage Learning logo is a registered trademark used herein under

license.

For more information, contact Cengage Learning, Cheriton House; North

Way, Andover, Hampshire SP10 5BE or visit us on the World Wide Web at:
http://www.cengagelearning.co.uk

All rights reserved by Cengage Learning. The text of this publication, or any
part thereof, may not be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any
means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopying, recording, storage
in an information retrieval system, or otherwise, without prior permission of
the publisher.

While the publisher has taken all reasonable care in the preparation of this
book the publisher makes no representation, express or implied, with regard
to the accuracy of the information contained in this book and cannot accept
any legal responsibility or liability for any errors or omissions from the book
or the consequences thereof.

Products and services that are referred to in this book may be either
trademarks and/or registered trademarks of their respective owners. The
publisher and author/s make no claim to these trademarks.

British Library Cataloguing-in-Publication Data

A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library

ISBN 978-1-84480-639-3

British Library Cataloguing-in-

Publication Data
A catalogue record for this book is
available from the British Library
 Contents v

Series preface ix

Preface xi

About the website xiii

1 Setting the scene 1

1.1 Introduction 2
1.2 What is a computer? 2
1.3 The stored program model 6
1.4 Forms of computer hardware 8
1.5 Basic computer operation 9
1.6 Binary (number base 2) 10
1.7 Bits and bytes 13
1.8 Summary 14
1.9 Review questions 14
1.10 Feedback on activities 15

2 Logic gates and simple digital circuits 17

2.1 Introduction 18
2.2 Logic gates and truth tables 18
2.3 Combinational and sequential circuits 26
2.4 Example combinational logic circuits 30
2.5 Example sequential logic circuits 31
2.6 Hexadecimal 36
2.7 Summary 39
2.8 Review questions 39
2.9 Feedback on activities 40

3 Using and accessing memory 43

3.1 Introduction 44
3.2 Concepts and terminology 44
3.3 Addresses 45
3.4 The fetch-execute cycle 47
3.5 The connection between the processor and the main memory 48
3.6 Processor registers 50
3.7 Machine code 53
3.8 Volatile and non-volatile memory 57
3.9 Cache memory 63
3.10 Summary 64
3.11 Review questions 64
3.12 Feedback on activities 65

4 The computer: an interrupt-driven mathematical machine 67

4.1 Introduction 68
4.2 Representing positive and negative integers 68
4.3 Dealing with non-integer numbers 73
4.4 Character representation: ASCII 80
4.5 Representation of data and instructions 83
4.6 Interrupts 84
4.7 Interrupt priorities 86
4.8 Summary 90
4.9 Review questions 91
4.10 Feedback on activities 91
Copyright 2006 Cengage Learning, Inc. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part.
vi

5 Storage devices and data transfer issues 93

5.1 Introduction 94
5.2 Primary and secondary storage: capacity, speed and cost 94
5.3 Secondary storage using magnetisation 96
5.4 Secondary storage using optical techniques 103
5.5 Serial and parallel interfaces 105
5.6 Signal transfer 106
5.7 Summary 110
5.8 Review questions 112
5.9 Feedback on activities 112

6 Interfacing to the physical world 115

6.1 Introduction 116
6.2 Digital-to-analogue conversion 116
6.3 Analogue-to-digital conversion 119
6.4 Signals 122
6.5 Interaction devices 124
6.6 The display 129
6.7 Display metrics 135
6.8 Summary 136
6.9 Review questions 137
6.10 Feedback on activities 137

7 The central processing unit 141

7.1 Introduction 142
7.2 General processor architecture 142
7.3 The Register Transfer Language (RTL) 150
7.4 The stack 151
7.5 The overall architecture of a simple processor model 155
7.6 Summary 156
7.7 Review questions 156
7.8 Feedback on activities 157

8 Aspects of the operating system 161

8.1 Introduction 162
8.2 Basic input/output system (BIOS) 162
8.3 The reset vector 163
8.4 Operating system 164
8.5 Types of operating systems 168
8.6 Virtual memory 173
8.7 Multi-tasking 175
8.9 Summary 177
8.10 Review questions 177
8.11 Feedback on activities 178

Copyright 2006 Cengage Learning, Inc. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part.
 vii

9 Networking computers 181

9.1 Introduction 182
9.2 Bandwidth bit-rate and latency 182
9.3 Types of network 188
9.4 Network topologies 189
9.5 The layered approach to computer communications 192
9.6 Standards 194
9.7 The OSI model 196
9.8 The TCP/IP protocol 201
9.9 Summary 206
9.10 Review questions 207
9.11 Feedback on activities 210
10 Transmission media and data communications 213
10.1 Introduction 214
10.2 Concerning signals 214
10.3 Data transmission media 228
10.4 Contention-based access (CSMA/CD) 224
10.5 Ethernet 230
10.6 The Ethernet frame 236
10.7 Token passing 237
10.8 Summary 239
10.9 Review questions 239
10.10 Feedback on activities 240
11 The Internet 243
11.1 Introduction 244
11.2 Connection-oriented and connectionless internetworking 244
11.3 Internetworking 246
11.4 Data encapsulation 251
11.5 Internet Protocol (IP) 251
11.6 Internet addressing 254
11.7 Address resolution 260
11.8 The Domain Name System (DNS) 262
11.9 Summary 263
11.10 Review questions 264
11.11 Feedback on activities 266
12 Routers, satellites and security 269
12.1 Introduction 270
12.2 Routers in networks 270
12.2 The process of routing 271
12.3 Satellite communications 275
12.4 Cryptography 278
12.5 Public key encryption 279
12.6 Summary 282
12.7 Review questions 282
12.9 Feedback on activities 284

Answers to review questions 287

Index 307

Copyright 2006 Cengage Learning, Inc. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part.
Copyright 2006 Cengage Learning, Inc. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part.
 Series preface

The FastTrack Series

Thomson Learning and Middlesex University Press have collaborated to produce a unique
collection of textbooks which cover core, mainstream topics in an undergraduate computing
curriculum. FastTrack titles are instructional, syllabus-driven books of high quality and utility.
They are:
● For students: concise and relevant and written so that you should be able to get 100% value
out of 100% of the book at an affordable price
● For instructors: classroom tested, written to a tried and trusted pedagogy and market-
assessed for mainstream and global syllabus offerings so as to provide you with confidence in
the applicability of these books. The resources associated with each title are designed to make
delivery of courses straightforward and linked to the text.

FastTrack books can be used for self-study or as directed reading by a tutor. They contain the
essential reading necessary to complete a full understanding of the topic. They are augmented
by resources and activities, some of which will be delivered online as indicated in the text.

How the series evolved

Rapid growth in communications technology means that learning can become a global activity.
In collaboration, Global Campus, Middlesex University and Thomson Learning have produced
materials to suit a diverse and innovating discipline and student cohort.
Global Campus at the School of Computing Science, Middlesex University, combines local
support and tutors with CD-ROM-based materials and the Internet to enable students and
lecturers to work together across the world.
Middlesex University Press is a publishing house committed to providing high-quality,
innovative, learning solutions to organisations and individuals. The Press aims to provide
leading-edge ‘blended learning’ solutions to meet the needs of its clients and customers.
Partnership working is a major feature of the Press’s activities.
Together with Middlesex University Press and Middlesex University’s Centre for Learning
Development, Global Campus developed FastTrack books using a sound and consistent
pedagogic approach. The SCATE pedagogy is a learning framework that builds up as follows:
● Scope: Context and the learning outcomes
● Content: The bulk of the course: text, illustrations and examples
● Activity: Elements which will help students further understand the facts and concepts
presented to them in the previous section. This promotes students’ active participation in their
learning and in creating their understanding of the unit content
● Thinking: These elements give students the opportunity to reflect and share with their peers
their experience of studying each unit. There are review questions so that the students can
assess their own understanding and progress
● Extra: Further online study material and hyperlinks which may be supplemental, remedial or
advanced.

Copyright 2006 Cengage Learning, Inc. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part.
Copyright 2006 Cengage Learning, Inc. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part.
 Preface xi

Computer systems and networks

This book provides an introduction to the basic operation of computer systems and basic
material relating to the networking of computers. The reader is introduced to the basic
elements that form the modern computer, such as the processor, memory devices, secondary
storage devices and input/output devices. We describe how these devices are interconnected
and explain the passage of signals between them.
The reader is introduced to the operation of simple logic gates – and examples are given,
showing how these gates can be connected together to perform simple, but useful functions.
The computer is discussed in the context of a general purpose programmable machine, and we
describe how the operation of hardware can be determined by a series of instructions
(software).
We also introduce fundamental concepts in relation to operating systems but no prior
knowledge of computer systems is assumed. As such, this is an introductory-level book which
lays the foundations for more advanced courses.

Using this book

There are several devices which will help you in your studies and use of this book. Activities
usually require you to try out aspects of the material which have just been explained, or invite
you to consider something which is about to be discussed. In some cases, a response is
provided as part of the text that follows – so it is important to work on the activity before you
proceed! Usually, however, a formal answer will be provided in the final section of each
chapter.

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The time bar indicates approximately how long each activity will take:
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Review questions are (usually) short questions at the end of each chapter to check you
have remembered the main points of a chapter. They are a useful practical summary of
the content, and can be used as a form of revision aid to ensure that you remain
competent in each of the areas covered. Answers are provided at the end of the book.

Copyright 2006 Cengage Learning, Inc. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part.
xii

About the authors

Barry Blundell
Barry Blundell is a physicist with many years of experience in teaching computer and IT-related
courses and in developing digital systems. His research interests are multidisciplinary, and he is
a leading researcher in the area of emerging 3D display and interaction systems for the
advancement of human/computer communication. He is actively involved in forums promoting
the ethical usage of computer technologies. Dr Blundell is the author of three research
textbooks, several technical and undergraduate teaching books, and he is currently working on
an introductory undergraduate computer graphics book.

Nawaz Khan is a lecturer at the School of Computing Science, Middlesex University, UK. He
lectures on the topic of online database, web-based data transaction technologies, data
warehousing and data strategies. His present associations include professional membership of
IEEE and ACM, distance learning programme of Middlesex University and University of
Liverpool, UK.

Aboubaker Lasebae is a senior lecturer in the School of Computing Science at Middlesex

University. He previously worked for the Research and Development Centre in Tripoli, Libya, as
a design engineer. Aboubaker is the co-author of several books on computer systems and
networks and also on mobile and wireless networks.

Muthana Jabbar is a member of the Computer Communications Academic Group in the

School of Computing Science at Middlesex University. He previously worked in industry and as
a consultant to international and United Nations organisations in Europe and the Middle East.
Muthana’s teaching is diverse and includes computer architecture, network communications,
network management and computer and network security management.

Acknowledgements
Figures 9.9, 9.10 and Table 9.3 have been adapted from
Computer Communications and Networking Topologies, Gallo M & Hancock W
Published 2002 by Thomson Learning, ISBN 0-534-37780-7

Copyright 2006 Cengage Learning, Inc. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part.
 About the website
xiii

Visit the accompanying website at www.thomsonlearning.co.uk/fasttrack and click through to

the appropriate booksite to find further teaching and learning material including:
For Students
● Activities
● Multiple choice questions for each chapter.

For Lecturers
● Downloadable PowerPoint slides.

Fundamentals of
Programming Using
Java
Edward Currie

Database Management
Systems
George A Dafoulas &
Patricia Ward

Human–Computer
Interaction
Serengul Smith-Atakan

Copyright 2006 Cengage Learning, Inc. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part.
xiv

Copyright 2006 Cengage Learning, Inc. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part.
 CHAPTER 1

Setting the scene

OVERVIEW
Here we introduce various aspects of the modern computer. A computer comprises hardware
and software, and the power of the computer is derived from the ability of software to control
the functionality of hardware. In this way, a computer can be used for a wide range of tasks –
indeed, the computer is a general-purpose, programmable, machine.

Learning outcomes On completion of this chapter you should be able to:

● Distinguish between hardware and software and understand the concept of a ‘general
purpose programmable machine’

● Identify the key characteristics associated with the ‘stored program’ computer model and
name different forms of memory and storage devices employed in the modern computer

● Describe the computer in terms of a mathematical machine operating in the binary (base
2) number system

● Manually perform basic arithmetic in the binary number base and verify your results by
means of a calculator

● Distinguish between different traditional categories of computer.

Copyright 2006 Cengage Learning, Inc. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part.
2 COMPUTER SYSTEMS AND NETWORKS

1.1 Introduction
In this introductory chapter we present various background material and key concepts that will
be developed further in other parts of this book. In the next section we distinguish between
the software and hardware components that comprise a computer and introduce the concept
of a ‘general purpose programmable machine’. Here, we identify the three ways in which a
computer can execute a set of instructions: in sequence, by selection, and by iteration. This
leads on in Section 1.3 to consideration of the ‘stored program architecture’ that was
developed in the mid-1940s and enabled instructions to be represented as numerical codes
stored within a computer’s memory. At the time, this represented a major shift in thinking, and
is a technique that underpins the modern computer architecture.
In Section 1.4 we discuss traditional categories of computer, specifically: the mainframe, the
minicomputer, and the desktop machine. The mainframe gained considerable popularity in the
1960s, and ever larger computer installations evolved. Ultimately, systems of this sort became
outdated not only because of the rapid advances that were being made in computer hardware,
but also because of the complexity of the software needed to impose security and equitably
share computing resources between users. The minicomputer provided a lower-cost computing
solution and was particularly favoured by medium-sized businesses who were able to increase
efficiency by, for example, employing automated inventory and payroll management systems.
Furthermore, companies were able to employ affordable computer systems for activities such as
computer aided design (CAD) and simulation. However, in the case of both the mainframe
machine and minicomputer, the computer’s resources are shared between a number of users.
As a result, the performance offered to each user by these types of machine varies according to
the number of people using the system and the types of computer program in execution. Such
a lack of predictability is frustrating and was one of the factors that led to the development of
the desktop personal computer (PC). As the name implies, the PC does not constitute a shared
resource but is (traditionally) a single user machine. This form of computer was researched
throughout the 1970s, and rapidly gained popularity from the early 1980s onwards.
All material stored and processed by computer technologies is represented numerically, and in
Section 1.5 we briefly consider the computer as a mathematical machine in which
computations are carried out using the binary number base (base 2). Here, we also refer to the
computer as a digital machine whereby all signals may take on only certain (two) discrete
values. In Section 1.6 we discuss the conversion of base 10 numbers to binary and binary
number to base 10. Finally, in Section 1.7 we consider the range of values that may be
represented by a certain number of binary digits. In this section, we introduce the terms ‘bits’
and ‘bytes’. The former is used when referring to one or more binary digits, and the latter
when considering a number represented by eight bits (or groups of eight bits).

1.2 What is a computer?

A computer consists of a set of electronic and electromechanical components able to accept
some form of input, process this input in a way that can be specified by means of a set of
instructions, and produce some type of output (see Figure 1.1). All computers follow the same
fundamental sequence:
1 They accept instructions and data. This represents the ‘input’.
2 They ‘process’ the data according to a set of instructions (by performing calculations and by
making decisions – we will discuss this shortly).
3 They produce results in the form of information or actions. This represents the ‘output’.

Copyright 2006 Cengage Learning, Inc. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part.
 SETTING THE SCENE 3

Accept input Process the input Create output

(data and/or (according to a set (showing the results of
instructions) of instructions) the computational
process)

Figure 1.1: A computer accepts some form of input, processes this in accordance with a
set of instructions and generates some type of output.

A computer comprises both ‘hardware’ and ‘software’ systems. These are briefly introduced
below:

Hardware
This represents the electronic circuits and/or electromechanical components from which the
computer is constructed. As summarised in Figure 1.2, a basic computer system includes the
following types of hardware:

Storage devices

Central Printer
Keyboard Processing
Unit Speakers
Mouse (CPU)
Display

Memory

Figure 1.2: The computer is able to take input from various sources and provide output
to devices such as the display screen and printer(s).

Copyright 2006 Cengage Learning, Inc. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part.
4 COMPUTER SYSTEMS AND NETWORKS

The basic computer consists of:

● Devices such as a keyboard, mouse and display through which we interact with the computer.
In this respect we provide input to the machine via the keyboard and mouse and observe the
results of the computational process by means of the display screen
● A central processing unit (CPU), which is able to follow (‘execute’) a series of instructions and
controls most of the activities that take place within the machine
● A collection of memory devices able to store instructions and data during the operation of the
computer
● Various storage devices able to store instructions and data even when the computer is turned
off.
The most common form of computer in use today is the PC (Personal Computer). This was the
name given to a computer configuration that evolved during the 1970s and which is a desktop
machine (we will discuss computer configurations in a little more detail in Section 1.4). Figure
1.3 provides an illustration of some of the key components within a PC.

Software
Computer hardware is in itself unable to perform any useful tasks – it must be provided with
detailed and unambiguous instructions indicating exactly what actions are to be taken.
Consequently, it is necessary to provide the hardware with a set of instructions that define the
tasks that the hardware is to perform. These instructions (and any necessary data) are
contained within ‘computer programs’. Software is a term that is used when referring to
programs in a general way, and encompasses instructions that are to be acted upon by a
computer and the data that may be needed by these instructions. As we will discuss later in
the book, software is ‘permanently’ stored by means of secondary storage devices (e.g. hard
disks, floppy disks, or CD-ROM). Such media does not lose its contents when the computer is
turned off (hence these devices are said to provide long-term storage capability). During the
execution of a program, software is temporarily stored in main memory. However, the contents
of main memory are usually lost when the computer is turned off or reset.

Figure 1.3: A photograph of the inside of a PC. This shows some major components
located on the main circuit board (motherboard).

Copyright 2006 Cengage Learning, Inc. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part.
 SETTING THE SCENE 5

Modifying the instructions and/or data supplied to a computer can change the actions
performed by the computer hardware. In this respect the hardware is said to represent a
‘general purpose programmable machine’ and this enables computer technologies to be used
in many diverse areas of human endeavour.

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Activity 1.1

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PC subsystems
Gain access to a PC (preferably an old machine), ensure that the computer is not
plugged in, and remove the cover. By reference to Figure 1.3 or otherwise, identify
the following components/ subsystems:
(a) The power supply (b) The central processing unit (CPU)
(c) The main memory (d) The hard disk
In the case that you have access to a machine that is no longer required (i.e. a
broken computer), remove the CPU from the motherboard. Note the large number
of pins (connections) that link between the chip and the motherboard. As with all
connectors within the computer, these pins are gold plated (this helps to maintain
good electrical connectivity). You are strongly advised not to remove the CPU from a
working computer – the pins can be easily bent and it may prove quite difficult to re-
seat the CPU in its socket!

Computers can perform calculations at a very high speed and have the ability to support the
storage and rapid retrieval of enormous volumes of data. Furthermore, a computer is able to
make ‘decisions’ during the execution of instructions. In fact, a computer can handle
instructions in three general ways:
● It can execute a sequence of instructions. By way of analogy, consider baking a cake.
Here you would follow a recipe, i.e. you would follow one instruction after another. A
computer has the ability to execute a ‘list’ of instructions
● It can execute instructions by iteration. By this we mean that it can execute a series of
instructions repeatedly. By way of analogy, and using the cake example, you could imagine
somebody making ten cakes, each one after the other. Here they would execute the same
instructions repeatedly as they produced each cake – this is a process of repeated ‘iteration’
● It can execute instructions by selection. This is something we do continuously in our
everyday lives. For example, when we get up in a morning, we may look out of the window to
see what the weather is like. Subsequently we might make the following decision:
“If the weather is good, wear light clothing, or else wear warmer clothing.”
A computer is also able to select the next instruction that it should execute according to some
condition. For example, a computer is able to execute instructions of the form:
“If the value stored in a certain memory location is less than 10 do this…or else do this…”
The ability of a computer to execute instructions in sequence, by selection, and by iteration (see
Figure 1.4) provides the basis for a machine that offers tremendous flexibility. These concepts
are by no means new, and some 150 years ago a remarkable visionary called Charles Babbage
identified with great foresight the potential of programmable hardware, and the three modes
of instruction execution referred to above. However, many years were to pass before practical
computing machines were constructed.

Copyright 2006 Cengage Learning, Inc. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part.
6 COMPUTER SYSTEMS AND NETWORKS

➤
➤

➤
➤

➤
➤

➤
➤

➤
➤
➤
➤

(a) (b) (c)

Figure 1.4: A computer is able to execute instructions (a) in sequence, (b) by selection
and (c) by iteration. Here, we assume that each rectangle represents a program
instruction.

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Activity 1.2

The essence of a computer 1234567890

Distinguish between the essential functionality of a computer and a conventional

calculator.

1.3 The stored program model

Early electrical computers were programmed by means of cables and switches. These were
used to interconnect the subsystems within the computer in such a manner that they would act
in a certain (and desired) way on the input data. This was a time-consuming occupation – each
time the ‘program’ was to be changed, the computer required wiring modifications! In the
mid-1940s researchers realised that major benefits could be derived by representing instructions
as numerical codes loaded into the computer’s memory. In retrospect, this is an obvious
solution but at that time it represented a major breakthrough and resulted in the development
of the truly programmable computing machine.
This general technique is referred to as the ‘stored program’ computer model. Some books
adopt the title of the ‘von Neumann computer’ or ‘von Neumann architecture’, and in fact
while John von Neumann was one of the researchers working on this concept, he was certainly
not the sole instigator of the approach (equal if not greater credit should be attributed to
J. Presper Eckert and John Mauchly) – but the true history is frequently overlooked.

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 SETTING THE SCENE 7

In this book we will adopt the title ‘stored program architecture’, and avoid the debate as to
the correct origins of this technique.
In Figure 1.5 the general approach used in the stored program architecture is illustrated. As
may be seen, we assume that the computer comprises a central processing unit and memory.
Instructions and data are passed to the computer and stored within the memory. The central
processing unit (usually abbreviated to the ‘processor’) is able to access the instructions and
data from memory and perform the appropriate computations. The results of the computation
are then returned to memory or are output in a form that can be understood by the operator.

Central
Input Processing
data Unit
(CPU) Output of
results
Input
instructions
Memory

Figure 1.5: The stored program architecture. Here, instructions are represented by
numerical codes and stored within the computer’s memory.

As we will discuss in later chapters, the modern computer makes use of various forms of
memory and storage devices. The main memory (normally referred to as random access
memory (RAM)) contains the instructions and data associated with programs that are currently
being run (‘executed’) by the processor. Additionally, within the processor itself there are a
number of registers. These are locations where temporary numerical values can be stored
during calculations, and which also perform other tasks for the processor (we will examine their
purpose in some detail in Chapter 3). For the moment it is sufficient to note that registers can
be accessed at very high speeds because they are located within the processor. On the other
hand, main memory (RAM) operates at a lower speed but offers a far greater storage capacity.
The contents of registers and main memory are lost when a computer is turned off or reset.
Naturally, we also require storage devices that can retain their contents even when the
computer is no longer in operation, and for this purpose we make use of devices such as the
hard disk, floppy disk, and optical disk (such as the CD-ROM and DVD).
The hard disk can store vast amounts of material but is usually fixed in place within the
computer, and allows us to store and retrieve data and information within the computer itself.
On the other hand, the floppy disk and optical disks represent forms of ‘portable media’,
enabling material to be transferred between computers or stored in a secure repository.

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8 COMPUTER SYSTEMS AND NETWORKS

1234567890
1234567890
1234567890
1234567890
1234567890
1234567890
1234567890
1234567890

Activity 1.3
Memory and storage
Suggest additional reasons for using different types of memory and storage media
within a computer.

1.4 Forms of computer hardware

Before the late 1930s, computing machines had taken the form of mechanical and
electromechanical systems. This was soon to change and the quest for the ‘all-electronic’
computer became the subject of intensive research (the first machine of this sort was the ENIAC
– the Electronic Numerical Integrator and Calculator – which was developed during WWII and
was primarily used for solving ballistics problems. The machine was some 33m long, 2.8m high
and a metre or so wide – and employed 18,000 vacuum tubes.
Two of the most important breakthroughs that have occurred, and which made possible the
modern computer, were the invention of both the transistor and the integrated circuit. These
technologies enabled the development of more powerful and more reliable computer systems.
A major driving force behind the development of the integrated circuit was the Apollo space
programme that led to the voyages to the Moon in the late 1960s and early 1970s. Rockets
making such journeys had to be equipped with computer technologies that could perform a
multitude of tasks, including navigation (although it is amazing how rudimentary the computer
systems used actually were). In parallel, from the late 1950s through the 1960s, the nuclear
missile programme – which centred upon the development of intercontinental ballistic missiles
– necessitated the use of computers for the detection of missiles in flight and for missile
management and navigation.
The 1960s was the period in which large computers evolved. These computers were known as
mainframes and such machines became bigger and bigger. Computers of this type take the
form of large installations, and can support many users who share the computational capacity
of the machine. It was at this time that the philosophy of ‘economy of scale’ came into being.
Put simply: if you spend twice as much on a new mainframe, you get more than four times the
processing power. Given this idea, it was natural for mainframes to become ever bigger.
Unfortunately, bigger also meant more complicated and it became increasingly difficult to
equitably share the processing power between users. The result was that operating systems
became ever-more complex and used up more of the processing power of the machine –
leaving less available to the users.
Mainframes developed during the 1960s and 1970s took the form of large computers located
within large, clinical, air-conditioned facilities. Unfortunately, the very size of such machines
ultimately impacted on their performance. Here, it is important to note that electrical signals
do not travel instantaneously along wires – they propagate at a finite speed. Consequently, as
connections become longer, it takes more time for signals to pass along the wires and this
reduces computer performance. In order to increase performance, we endeavour to minimise
the lengths of the interconnections between critical components – which leads to the design of
compact computers. As mainframes grew in size, electrical signals had further to travel
(propagate) and so performance was compromised.
Minicomputers are much smaller, and were intended to support the computing requirements
of smaller organisations, rather than the large institutions serviced by mainframe machines. As
with the mainframe, the processing power of the minicomputer is shared between a number of

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 SETTING THE SCENE 9

users. Within a business, typical tasks that would have been carried out in the 1970s by
minicomputers included staff payroll calculation and stock inventories. As with any centralised
machine, reliability is paramount. Should the minicomputer develop a technical problem, then
all users are stopped in their work. Furthermore, when a computer is shared between users,
one can never guarantee performance – this being determined by the number of programs
running on the machine at any one time.
In the early 1970s, Xerox undertook pioneering work in an effort to develop the personal
computer. Essential to the vision was the development of a desktop machine where each user
has access to their own computer, and its resources are not shared. Consequently,
performance is controlled by the user and not by others using the machine. Xerox also
pioneered new interaction techniques, particularly the incorporation of the mouse (invented in
the mid-1960s), and the graphical user interface that we use today. They also pioneered the
development of the WYSIWYG wordprocessor (‘What You See Is What You Get’ – i.e. the
document that appears on the computer screen is identical to the form of the document when
printed).
The development work at Xerox took some time, and it was not until the early 1980s that the
personal computer (PC) that we know today became readily available. Soon a variety of
personal computers were produced by vendors such as Xerox, IBM, Commodore and
Macintosh. Other companies appeared on the scene, and a wide range of products became
available.
The 1980s denoted a period of rapid advancement in computer development and
performance. It was also a period of the survival of the fittest, and intense corporate warfare
broke out within the computer industry; excellent products seemed to disappear almost
overnight. Occasionally, companies were taken over simply in order to suppress products. This
was also a period when standards began to evolve and the issue of backward compatibility
became paramount. In this context, support for backward compatibility means that when a
new computer architecture is developed, it must still be able to execute older software
products. The availability of DOS within current versions of Windows provides an example of
adherence to backward compatibility.
Since the mid-1980s there has been a reduction in the diversity of computer architectures and
operating systems. The main advances that have taken place are in the areas of computer
performance, the increased capacity of storage media such as hard disks, and networking
technologies (particularly the Internet). In later chapters we will be considering these issues in
some depth.

1.5 Basic computer operation

Computers are digital machines that employ binary (number base 2) arithmetic. It is important
to remember that whatever task you perform on a computer (including, for example, playing a
CD or video, undertaking a word-processing activity or accessing Internet sites), the computer is
operating on numbers: it is a mathematical machine.
The diversity and nature of the applications that can be supported by the modern computer
often makes it difficult to imagine that the operation of the machine is underpinned by
mathematics. For example, consider a word-processing activity. Within a document we may
insert text (comprising alphabetic characters), diagrams and photographs. However, within the
computer each of these forms of material is represented by sets of numbers. Each word-
processing operation that we carry out results in the computer performing mathematical
calculations on these numbers – in fact, the computer knows only about numbers.

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10 COMPUTER SYSTEMS AND NETWORKS

Even when we create words and sentences in a document, these are not stored and
manipulated by the computer as a series of characters, but as a set of numerical values – the
operation of the computer is indeed based on mathematics.
A computer is said to be a ‘digital’ machine because all the components, wires, etc, operate
only on discrete signals. This is rather like a conventional light switch. The light can only be
turned on or off – it cannot be a half on, a quarter on, or a quarter off; the bulb has one of
two states: illuminated or otherwise. This analogy with a light bulb serves us quite well,
because not only is a computer a digital machine, but all computation is performed not in our
conventional base 10 system (in which we represent numbers by means of ten symbols, 0 to 9),
but in base 2 (for which we have only two symbols ‘0’ and ‘1’). In the next section we briefly
consider the base two number system.

1.6 Binary (number base 2)

In our everyday lives, we employ the decimal number system (base 10). Here, we make use of
ten symbols (‘0’ through to ‘9’). The modern computer, however, operates in base 2 (binary),
and in this number system we have only two symbols (‘0’ and ‘1’). In this section we provide a
brief review of the binary system. It is important that you have a clear understanding of this
number base, because it is critical to the operation of modern computer technologies.
Let us begin by considering how we represent numbers in base 10. As indicated above, we
have at our disposal ten symbols (0,1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9). Consequently, if we want to represent a
number (integer) up to the number nine, we simply make use of one of these symbols. But
what happens if we wish to represent a number greater than nine? Suppose that we want to
represent the number thirteen. We now allow our symbols to take on different meanings
according to their position (placement). For example, when we write 13, we actually assign to
the digit ‘1’ a new meaning. Here it represents the number of tens. Thus, 13 really means one
10, and three units (1s).
Consider another example. Suppose we want to represent numerically three thousand four
hundred and sixty-seven – we do so as follows:
Thousands Hundreds Tens Units
3 4 6 7

As you can see in the above, the digit ‘3’ indicates the number of thousands, the digit ‘4’ the
number of hundreds, the digit ‘6’ the number of tens, and the digit ‘7’ the number of units.
Each digit in the number has a different significance depending on the column in which it is
located. Now look at the values ascribed to the columns. We have the number of ones (units),
the number of tens, the number of hundreds, and the number of thousands. The next column
would be the number of ten thousands, etc. From this pattern it should be clear that the
columns can actually be represented in terms of ‘powers’ of ten:
Units = 100 (remember that 100 is defined as equalling 1)
Tens = 101
Hundreds = 102
Thousands = 103

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 SETTING THE SCENE 11

Because we are working in base 10, the values ascribed to each column in our numeric
representation increase by a factor of 10 as we move along the number.
In base 2 (binary), the values of the columns increase by a factor of 2. Let us take an example:
but in order to understand this you need to remember that, just as in base 10 we have ten
symbols at our disposal, in base 2 we only have two symbols (represented as 0 and 1).
Suppose we write the binary number 1100. What does this represent in our base 10 number
system? Examine the following table:
Eights (23) Fours (22) Twos (21) Units (20)
1 1 0 0

The binary number 1100 represents one 8, one 4, zero 2s, and zero units. Adding 8 and 4
together gives us 12. In short, the binary number 1100 corresponds to the base 10 number of
twelve.
Consider a further example – the binary number 1111.
Eights (23) Fours (22) Twos (21) Units (20)
1 1 1 1

As you can see, this corresponds to one 8, one 4, one 2, and one unit (1). Adding these
together gives us 15. Thus the binary number 1111 corresponds to the base 10 number of
fifteen. You can now convert binary numbers to base 10.

1234567890
1234567890
123456
123456
1234567890
123456
Activity 1.4

Converting from binary to base 10 123456

Convert the following binary numbers to base 10.

(a) 1101 (b) 11111 (c) 1010101

The next step is to convert base 10 numbers into binary. As long as you remember the values
assigned to the columns in both base 10 and base 2, you should encounter no problems with
this.
Let us begin with a simple example. Consider the base 10 number ‘five’. In order to convert
this into binary, we write down the values of a few binary columns:
8s 4s 2s 1s

Now we remember that a binary number can only be expressed using 0s and 1s. Therefore, all
we have to do is to insert 0s and 1s in the appropriate columns:
8s 4s 2s 1s
1 0 1

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12 COMPUTER SYSTEMS AND NETWORKS

Thus the binary representation of the base 10 number five is 101. When expressing a number
in binary we are simply looking at what ‘column values’ we need to use so as to form the base
10 number (five can be expressed as a ‘four’ plus a ‘one’). Consider another example – the
base 10 number twenty-seven. As this is a larger number, extra columns are needed:

64s 32s 16s 8s 4s 2s 1s

Here we have provided more columns than are necessary: naturally the 32 and 64 columns
cannot assist us in representing twenty-seven as placing a ‘1’ in either of these columns would
give rise to a binary number larger than 27! However, if we place a ‘1’ in the 16 column, a ‘1’
in the 8 column (this would add to 24), then we have 3 left to represent. This can be achieved
by placing a ‘1’ in the 2 column and a ‘1’ in the 1 column – as follows:

16s 8s 4s 2s 1s
1 1 0 1 1

Thus the binary representation of the decimal number twenty-seven is 11011.

1234567890
1234567890
123456
123456
1234567890
123456
123456
1234567890
Activity 1.5

Converting from base 10 to binary 123456

Convert the following base 10 numbers to binary:

(a) 9
(b) 36
(c) 73

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 SETTING THE SCENE 13
1234567890
1234567890
1234567890
1234567890
Binary arithmetic 1234567890
1234567890
1234567890
1234567890

Activity 1.6
1234567890

Most scientific calculators support binary arithmetic, and a ‘mode’ key is usually
provided to enable the calculator to operate in different number bases. This facility is
also available in the calculator program supplied with Windows. The calculator can
be accessed by selecting ‘programs’, ‘accessories’, and then ‘calculator’ under the
‘start’ menu icon (at the bottom left-hand side of the screen). Once you have
accessed the calculator, you need to select ‘scientific’ mode (this is available under
the ‘view’ icon). To enable the calculator to operate in base 2, check the ‘bin’
(binary) option. You will now find that only the ‘0’ and ‘1’ numbers on the keypad
operate (as we have seen, in binary we only have these two numerical symbols). Use
this calculator to perform the following binary arithmetic. You should check the
results that you obtain by manually converting each of the binary numbers to base
10, performing the arithmetic in base 10 and converting the result back to base 2.
(a) 11 + 101 =
(b) 1110 -11 =
(c) 100101 * 11 =
Note that * represents the multiplication operation.

1.7 Bits and bytes

Each binary digit (‘0’ and ‘1’) is referred to as a ‘bit’, and a group of eight bits is called a ‘byte’.
Thus 16 bits constitutes two bytes, 64 bits are eight bytes, etc. It is important that we have a
clear understanding of the number of values that can be represented by a certain number of
bits. This can be readily determined by examining some simple cases. For example, consider
two bits – they may take on the following values: 00, 01,10 and 11 Here we are simply
counting – in binary and the binary numbers given here represent 0, 1, 2 and 3 in base 10.
Thus two bits can represent four different values. Consider now the case of three bits. These
may take on the following binary values: 000, 001, 010, 011, 100, 101, 110 and 111 Again
we are simply counting in base 2 and you should confirm that these numbers represent 0, 1, 2,
3, 4, 5, 6 and 7. Thus three binary digits can represent eight different values.

1234567890
1234567890
123456
123456
1234567890
123456
123456
Activity 1.7

Counting in binary
Consider the case of four binary digits. List all possible values that may be
represented by four bits, and state the number of values that they may be used to
represent. As we have seen, two bits can be used to represent four different values
(=22); three bits, eight different values (=23); and four bits, 16 values (=24). From this
pattern it is readily apparent that an arbitrary number of n bits can be used to
represent 2n different values.

1234567890
1234567890
1234567890
1234567890
1234567890
1234567890
1234567890
1234567890
Activity 1.8

Binary representation 1234567890

Determine the number of binary values that may be represented by:

(a) 16 bits (b) 32 bits (c) 3 bytes

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14 COMPUTER SYSTEMS AND NETWORKS

1.8 Summary
In this first introductory chapter we have introduced a number of key ideas that will be used as
the basis for discussion in the coming chapters. As we have seen, although the computer is
able to process different forms of media (such as graphics, video, audio and text), within the
computer itself these are all represented by sets of numbers and processed by means of
mathematical calculations. Additionally, although in our everyday lives we generally employ the
decimal number base, computers operate in base 2 (binary). This is not an essential
characteristic of the computing machine but greatly facilitates aspects of their implementation.
Since operations are performed by the computer in base 2, a clear knowledge of base 2
arithmetic is an essential precursor to gaining a sound understanding the internal operation of
computer-based technologies.
Despite the flexibility and power of modern computer systems, computer hardware is based on
the interconnection of large numbers of very simple circuits (‘logic gates’). In the next chapter
we introduce a number of these ‘gates’ and show how they can be used to construct more
complicated devices.

1.9 Review questions

Question 1.1 State four essential characteristics of a computer.

Question 1.2 A computer is said to be a ‘digital machine’. What do you understand by

the term ‘digital’ when used in this context?

Question 1.3 Convert the base 10 number 21 to binary, and the binary number 1001 to
base 10.

Question 1.4 State two key features of the ‘stored program’ computer architecture.

Question 1.5 How many different values may be represented by (a) 4 bits and (b) by 2
bytes?

Question 1.6 What does the abbreviation ‘CPU’ stand for?

Question 1.7 Multiply the binary numbers 101 and 110.

Question 1.8 What do you understand by the phrase ‘a general purpose programmable
machine’?

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 SETTING THE SCENE 15

1.10 Feedback on activities

Activity 1.2: The essence of a computer

A conventional calculator is able to implement a number of predefined functions (we

exclude from our discussion programmable calculators). On the other hand, a computer is a
far more powerful tool as it is able to execute a series of instructions by sequence (one after
the other), by selection (decision-making during the execution of the instructions) and by
iteration (repeatedly executing a series of instructions until some form of condition occurs).

Consequently, the order of execution of instructions is not necessarily predefined, but is

generally determined by the results obtained during the computational process.

Activity 1.3: Memory and storage

One main reason for providing different forms of memory/storage device within a computer
concerns the balance we seek to obtain between speed, storage capacity, and price. Higher-
speed memory devices are more expensive in terms of their cost-per-unit of storage capacity.
Therefore storage devices able to store larger volumes of data tend to be less expensive, but
operate at a lower speed. Main memory (RAM) is more expensive (in terms of cost-per-unit
of storage) than, for example, the hard disk drive. On the other hand, main memory
operates at a higher speed.

Activity 1.4: Converting from binary to base 10

(a) The binary number 1101 corresponds to 13 in base 10, i.e. one unit, zero 2s, one 4, and
one 8.

(b) The binary number 11111 corresponds to 31 in base 10, i.e. one unit, one 2, one 4, one
8 and one 16. Adding these up gives us 31.

(c) The binary number 1010101 corresponds to 85 in base 10.

Activity 1.5: Converting from base 10 to binary

(a) 1001. Meaning that 9 can be represented by writing a ‘1’ in the 8 column, and a ‘1’ in
the 1 column.

(b) 100100. Meaning that 36 can be represented by placing a ‘1’ in the 32 column, and a
‘1’ in the 4’ column.

(c) 1001001.

Activity 1.6: Binary arithmetic

(a) 11+101= 3+5=8. This corresponds to the binary number 1000

(b) 1110-11= 14-3=11. This corresponds to the binary number 1011

(c) 100101*11=37*3= 111. This corresponds to the binary number 1101111

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16 COMPUTER SYSTEMS AND NETWORKS

Activity 1.7: Counting in binary

0000
0001
0010
0011
0100
0101
0110
0111
1000
1001
1010
1011
1100
1101
1110
1111

This gives a total of sixteen different values.

Activity 1.8: Binary representation

(a) 16 bits – 65,536

(b) 32 bits – 4,294,967,296

(c) 3 bytes corresponds to 24 bits which can take on 16,777,216 different values.

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 CHAPTER 2

Logic gates and simple digital circuits

OVERVIEW
The basic hardware elements that form a computer (gates) are very simple – not only in terms
of their electronic circuitry, but also in terms of their functionality. A computer comprises an
enormous number of such simple building blocks and in this chapter we introduce logic gates
by reviewing their individual functionality and by providing some simple circuits that show how
they can be interconnected in order to form useful functions.

Learning outcomes On completion of this chapter you should be able to:

● Identify the function of various logic gates and draw their associated symbols

● Understand and write out truth tables for logic gates and simple circuits

● Distinguish between sequential and combinational circuits

● Understand the operation of basic sequential and combinational circuits

● Perform conversions between binary (base 2) and hexadecimal (base 16) and understand
the advantages of representing binary in base 16.

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18 COMPUTER SYSTEMS AND NETWORKS

2.1 Introduction
Computers are constructed through the interconnection of very large numbers of simple circuits
(these are referred to as logic gates). In this chapter, we introduce several types of logic gate,
focusing our attention on the most basic and most widely used devices. In Section 2.3 we
briefly introduce two general types of digital circuit – these being referred to as combinational
and sequential logic circuits. In the case of the former, a circuit’s output is entirely determined
by the combination of signals currently supplied to it. In contrast, sequential logic circuits
produce output which is determined not only by the current logical state of the input signals,
but also by the previous state of the circuit. In short, sequential logic circuits exhibit ‘memory’
and underpin the construction of, for example, a computer’s main memory.
In Sections 2.4 and 2.5 we provide exemplar circuits that demonstrate the implementation of
both combinational and sequential circuits and therefore provide an insight into the design of
digital electronics.
Finally, in Section 2.6 we discuss the hexadecimal number base (base 16). As we discussed in
the previous chapter, modern computers perform their computations on binary (base 2)
numbers. Although binary may be the language of machines, from our point of view it is
certainly a far from convenient method of expressing and writing down large numbers.
However, binary numbers can be easily converted into base 16 and this provides a compact and
convenient means by which we can express and represent strings of 1s and 0s.

2.2 Logic gates and truth tables

When we think of a computer, we often imagine it to be constructed from immensely complex
circuits. In fact, a computer is essentially constructed through the use of many instances of
simple building blocks. These building blocks are referred to as logic gates, or simply as ‘gates’.
A gate consists of a simple electronic circuit which has one or more inputs and one or more
outputs. We interconnect these gates on a vast scale, and each is responsible for reacting in
some way to the binary input values presented to it.
Perhaps it is surprising that something as complicated as a computer can be created by the
interconnection of only a small number of different types of gate. In fact, as we will see later in
this chapter, a computer can (in principle) be constructed using only one type of gate.
Nevertheless, different types of gate are manufactured, and facilitate both the construction of a
computer and its speed of operation. The availability of different types of gate relates therefore
to convenience and performance rather than absolute necessity. The functionality of seven key
logic gates is briefly outlined below.
● The inverter – (NOT gate)
● The AND gate
● The NAND gate
● The OR gate
● The NOR gate
● The exclusive OR gate
● The buffer.

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 LOGIC GATES AND SIMPLE DIGITAL CIRCUITS 19

The inverter – (NOT gate)

The inverter (also commonly referred to as the NOT gate) is the simplest of all gates. As the
word ‘inverter’ implies, the function of this gate is to invert the signal presented to it. It has
one input and one output. If a voltage corresponding to a binary number 1 (this is also called
a ‘logic high’) is presented to the input of an inverter, then the output will be a binary 0 (this is
also referred to as a ‘logic low’). Conversely, if a logic low is presented to the input, the output
will be a logic high. In this way the inverter simply inverts the binary value presented to it. All
gates are represented in circuit diagrams by means of means of different symbols. The symbol
for an inverter is shown in Figure 2.1. You will note that there is a small circle at the output of
the gate. Whenever you see such a circle, it indicates that the gate has an inverting function.
In the small table provided on the right-hand side of Figure 2.1 we illustrate the functionality of
the gate. This shows the two possible logic states that can be applied to the input, and the
corresponding logic states produced at the output. A table that illustrates the logical function
of a gate is referred to as a ‘truth table’. Such tables are very convenient and can be used not
only to show the logical operation of individual gates, but also to summarise the logical
operation of circuits that are constructed from any number of gates.

input output

input output 0 1

1 0

symbol for invertor truth table

Figure 2.1: The symbol and truth table for an inverter

A gate is constructed on a silicon chip and consists of simple electronic components such as
diodes and transistors. However, when the input state applied to the gate changes, it takes the
components within the gate a certain time to react to these changes and so produce an
output. Thus, if the input applied to a gate is changed, it takes a certain (very small) amount of
time for this change to be reflected at the output. This delay in the reaction of a gate to an
input change is referred to as the gate’s ‘propagation delay’. These are very small; typically a
small number of nanoseconds (1 nanosecond equals 10-9 seconds). It would seem that such
delays are of no significance, but we must remember that computers operate at extremely high
speeds, and signals within a computer pass through enormous numbers of gates. Therefore
even very small delays can be significant. It is not the delay associated with a single gate that
ultimately counts, but rather the sum of all the delays associated with many gates that form
circuits within the computer. In Figure 2.2 a simple circuit diagram is presented showing three
inverters connected together. As may be seen, the output of the third inverter is connected
back to the input of the first inverter. Suppose that when we turn the power on to this circuit,
wire A happens to be at a logic high (you may equally assume that it happens to be at a logic
low). The output from inverter 1 will then be at a logic low, consequently the output from
inverter 2 will be at a logic high, and in turn the output from inverter 3 will be at a logic low. If
we now work our way through the circuit again, we will see that wire A will again change
state. In short, the circuit oscillates – each wire switches between being at a logic high, and a
logic low. In principle, this circuit will produce a waveform as indicated in Figure 2.2. (This
explanation of the action of the circuit is somewhat simplified. As we will later discuss, signals
do not instantaneously propagate through gates – their passage takes a finite time. This
complicates the operation of this simple circuit – although if certain requirements are met, the
circuit will oscillate and produce the form of waveform indicated in Figure 2.2.).

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20 COMPUTER SYSTEMS AND NETWORKS

voltage at
output

time

Figure 2.2: A simple oscillator that may, in principle, be formed using three
inverters

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Activity 2.1

Propagation delay 123456

Consider the circuit presented in Figure 2.2. Suppose that rather than using three
inverters, five inverters are connected in a similar way. What effect is this likely to
have?

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Activity 2.2

The action of an inverter 123456

Consider the circuit shown in Figure 2.2. Suppose that it is constructed using an
even rather than an odd number of gates. For example, you may consider a circuit
comprising two, or four inverters, connected together in the manner indicated in
Figure 2.2. How will this circuit behave?

The AND gate

The function of the AND gate is slightly more difficult to understand than the inverter. The
AND gate has more than one input (typically between two and eight inputs), and a single
output. If any of the inputs are in a logic low state (binary 0), then the output will also be a
logic low. This can be easily remembered as:
● Any low gives a low.

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 LOGIC GATES AND SIMPLE DIGITAL CIRCUITS 21

The symbol for an AND gate is given in Figure 2.3, together with a corresponding truth table.
Here, an AND gate with two inputs (labelled A and B) is shown, and as can be seen from the
truth table, if either of these inputs is a logic low then the output is also a logic low.
Consequently, the output from the gate can only be a logic high if the inputs are all logic highs.
As with an inverter, this functionality does not seem particularly complicated and it is difficult to
imagine that such a simple circuit can be of such importance in the implementation of
computer systems. As with the inverter and all other gates, there is a propagation delay
associated with the operation of the AND gate.

input A
output A B output
input B 0 0 0
0 1 0
A 2-input AND gate
1 0 0
1 1 1

Truth table

Figure 2.3: A two-input AND gate and its truth table

The NAND gate

In Figure 2.4 the symbol for a NAND gate is provided, together with its associated truth table.
Silicon chips containing NAND gates are readily available. However, if one does not have access
to a specifically manufactured NAND gate, it can be implemented by combining an AND gate
with an inverter, see Figure 2.5. The diagram illustrates the way in which a NAND gate can be
implemented using an AND gate connected to an inverter (recall this is also referred to as a
NOT gate). In fact, the word NAND is created by bringing together the words ‘NOT’ and
‘AND’. Thus, a NAND gate is a ‘NOT AND’ gate. As you will see from the truth table provided
in Figure 2.4, if any of the inputs of the NAND gate are at a logic low, then the output is a logic
high. This can easily be remembered as:
● Any low gives a high.

Consider for a moment the implementation of the NAND gate using a NOT and an AND gate,
as shown in Figure 2.5. Here, we have simply inverted the output from the AND gate, and a
comparison of the truth table provided in this illustration with the one presented in Figure 2.4
shows that both circuits perform the same logical function. However, since electrical signals
must now travel through two gates this circuit will exhibit a greater propagation delay than
would be the case if a single NAND gate were used.

the circle shows the

inverting function
input A
A B output
input B output 0 0 1
0 1 1
A 2-input NAND gate 1 0 1
1 1 0

Truth table
Figure 2.4: A two-input NAND gate and its truth table

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22 COMPUTER SYSTEMS AND NETWORKS

As with the AND gate, a NAND gate has two or more inputs (typically between two and eight),
and a single output. Referring to the symbol for the NAND gate which is illustrated in Figure
2.4, you will see that this symbol is the same as that used for the AND gate, but it has a small
circle at the output. As indicated above when discussing the inverter, this circle indicates that
the gate has an inverting function. By connecting together the inputs of a NAND gate, an
inverter may be constructed. This is illustrated in Figure 6.6.

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Activity 2.3

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A three-input NAND gate

Draw up a truth table for a 3-input NAND gate.

A B C output
input A output 0 0 0 1
input B 0 1 0 1
1 0 0 1
1 1 1 0

Truth table

Figure 2.5: A NAND gate implemented by using an AND gate and inverter

input output

2-input NAND gate

input output

3-input NAND gate

Figure 2.6: When the inputs of a NAND gate are connected together it acts as
an inverter

The OR gate
As with the AND and NAND gates, the OR gate has two or more inputs. The symbol for a two-
input OR gate is given in Figure 2.7 together with the corresponding truth table.

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 LOGIC GATES AND SIMPLE DIGITAL CIRCUITS 23

input A
output A B output
input B 0 0 0
0 1 1
A 2-input OR gate
1 0 1
1 1 1

Truth table

Figure 2.7: The symbol for a two-input OR gate and its truth table

In fact, an OR gate can be implemented using an AND gate and some inverters. Consider the
circuit and truth table presented in Figure 2.8. As may be seen, each of the input signals passes
through an inverter before being applied to the AND gate, and the output from this is also
passed through an inverter. You should verify the truth table presented in this illustration, and
with reference to the truth table given in Figure 2.7 confirm that this circuit performs the logical
OR operation.

C A B C D E output
input A
E output 0 0 1 1 1 0
input B 0 1 1 0 0 1
D
1 0 0 1 0 1
1 1 0 0 0 1

Truth table

Figure 2.8: A two-input OR gate implemented using an AND gate and three
inverters

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Activity 2.4

Building a two-input OR gate by means of NAND gates 123456

Draw a circuit diagram showing how a two-input OR gate could be implemented

using only NAND gates.

The NOR gate

The NOR gate derives its name from the ‘NOT OR’ designation. This means that it is an OR
gate whose output is inverted. The symbol for a two-input NOR gate is provided in Figure 2.9.
Here, you will see that this symbol is the same as that used for an OR gate, but is followed by a
small circle which indicates its inverting function. A NOR gate has two or more inputs – most
commonly between two and eight inputs are provided.

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24 COMPUTER SYSTEMS AND NETWORKS

input A
output A B output
input B 0 0 1
0 1 0
A 2-input NOR gate
1 0 0
1 1 0

Truth table

Figure 2.9: The symbol for a two-input NOR gate and its truth table

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Activity 2.5

A three-input NOR gate constructed using only NAND gates 123456

Draw a circuit diagram showing how a three-input NOR gate could be implemented
using only NAND gates.

The exclusive OR gate

The name ‘exclusive OR’ is usually abbreviated to ‘XOR’ or ‘EOR’. Again, this has two or more
inputs and in the case of the two-input XOR gate, its functionality is the same as the two-input
OR gate other than when the two inputs are a logic high. In this case, the output is a logic
low. The symbol for a two-input XOR gate and its corresponding truth table are given in Figure
2.10.
As with other gates mentioned above, the XOR function can be implemented using other gates
– as illustrated in Figure 2.11. Here, an XOR gate is constructed using a NAND gate, an OR
gate and an AND gate. However, since we know that the OR and AND gates may be
constructed using NAND gates, it follows that the XOR gate can be constructed using only
NAND gates. In fact, most gates can be implemented using only NAND gates – and, in
principle, a computer can be constructed from this single and very simple ‘building block’.

input A
output A B output
input B 0 0 0
0 1 1
A 2-input XOR gate
1 0 1
1 1 0

Truth table

Figure 2.10: The symbol for an XOR gate and its truth table

A deeper insight into the functionality of an XOR gate can be obtained from the information
provided in Figure 2.12. Here, one input is labelled as ‘A’ and the other as ‘control’. As may be
seen from the truth table provided in this illustration when the ‘control’ input is at a logic low,
the output simply follows the input signal applied to ‘A’. Thus, in this case if ‘A’ is a logic low –
so too is the output. If we now apply a logic high to ‘A’, then the output also takes on this
same logic state.

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 LOGIC GATES AND SIMPLE DIGITAL CIRCUITS 25

However, if the input labelled ‘control’ is a at logic high, then the gate acts as an inverter – the
output state is a logic low when ‘A’ is a logic high and vice versa.

A output 1
B

output 2

Figure 2.11: An XOR gate may be implemented using an AND gate, a NAND
gate and an OR gate

input A
output

control

A 2-input XOR gate

Figure 2.12: The XOR gate may be considered to act as a ‘programmable

inverter’. When the input labelled ‘control’ is a logic low, then the output
state is the same as input ‘A’. However, if the ‘control’ input is a logic high,
then the gate acts as an inverter.

The buffer
The symbol and truth table for this gate are provided in Figure 2.13. As may be seen, the
symbol used for the buffer has the same form as that used for the inverter, although the small
circle used at the output of the inverter is missing. (Recall that this circle is used to indicate that
the gate performs an inverting function.) In fact, as may be seen from the truth table, the
buffer does not have any logical function – the input and output have identical logic states (a
buffer has a single input and single output). It therefore appears that this device has little
purpose – it simply relays to the output the logic state applied to the input.

A B

input output 0 0

1 1

symbol for buffer truth table

Figure 2.13: The buffer – here we show the circuit symbol and truth table.

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26 COMPUTER SYSTEMS AND NETWORKS

However, within digital circuits the buffer has a very important function which relates to the
interconnection of gates.
Gates are electronic devices which have one or more inputs to which we apply logic low and
logic high signals. Typically, the former is represented by voltages close to zero volts and the
latter by voltages close to 5 volts. (For example, in the case of a particular type (family) of logic
gates (called the TTL LS series (Transistor-Transistor Logic Low-power Schottky)) a logic low
applied to the input of a gate is represented by voltages in the range 0 – 0.8v, and a logic high
by 2.8 – 5v. Another form of logic (CMOS) employs somewhat different voltages to represent
logic low and logic high states). When we apply these voltages to the input(s) of a gate, a
small electrical current will flow into the gate. This current must come from somewhere – it is
in fact provided by the output circuit of the gate to which the input(s) of other gates are
connected. Consider a circuit where the output of a NAND gate is connected to the inputs of
six inverters. So as to correctly operate, each of these inverters will draw a small current from
the NAND gate. However, there is a maximum current that the NAND gate can provide and if
this is exceeded, the circuit will fail to operate. This limits the number of gates that can be
connected to the output of a single gate and in this context we make use of the term ‘fan-out’
which refers to the maximum number of gates that can be directly driven by a single gate. For
the TTL LS family of gates mentioned earlier, the maximum fan-out is 20.
A buffer is commonly used in situations in which we wish to exceed the maximum fan-out that
can be supported by a single gate. By way of an example, suppose that we are using some
form of logic gates that have a maximum fan-out of four (this would not be a very attractive
form of gate) and that we wish a NAND gate to drive six other gates (inverters). If we simply
connect these then we would exceed the fan-out limitation and the circuit would not operate
correctly. However, by means of two buffers, we can solve the problem whereby the NAND
gate drives the two buffers and each of these drives three inverters and so the maximum fan-
out specification is not exceeded.
It is important to note that although the buffer serves no logical function, as with all logic
gates, it does exhibit a propagation delay and therefore when the logic state applied to the
input is changed, a short time will elapse before this change appears at the output.

2.3 Combinational and sequential circuits

The gates introduced in the previous section provide the essential building blocks from which
the computer is constructed. These gates are fabricated in large numbers on the CPU chip and
interconnected to provide the required functionality. They are also used in the implementation
of memory and other devices within the computer.
Gates may be used to create circuits that are broadly divided into two categories:
● Combinational logic circuits
● Sequential logic circuits.

These are briefly summarised below:

● Combinational logic: A combinational logic circuit has outputs that are completely defined by
the combination of input signals applied to the circuit. Thus, given a certain set of binary input
values, the circuit will produce a certain result (output). For example, the AND, OR and NOT
gates provide examples of combinational logic circuits.

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 LOGIC GATES AND SIMPLE DIGITAL CIRCUITS 27

As we will see in the next section, these may be interconnected to provide us with more
complex combinational logic circuits
● Sequential logic: A sequential logic circuit differs from combinational logic in that the
output(s) depend not only on the combination of inputs applied to the circuit but also on the
sequence in which they occur (i.e. on some previous state). The concept of sequential logic
will be familiar to you – but the name may not be. For example, a TV may have a single ON/
OFF button, and the TV may be in one of two states: ON or OFF. The effect of pressing the
ON/OFF button will depend on the state of the TV before the button is pressed. If, for example
the TV is already turned on, then the effect of pressing the button will be to turn it off.
Similarly, if the TV is turned off, then pressing the button will turn it on. Thus the output
resulting from the input depends on where we are in the on/off sequence. Sequential logic
circuits are constructed using the combinational logic gates of the sort described in the
previous section.

2.4 Example combinational logic circuits

In this section we briefly examine some simple circuits constructed by means of the logic gates
introduced in Section 2.2. Here, we will examine several circuits and draw up truth tables for
them. All circuits discussed in this section fall within the ‘combinational’ category mentioned in
the previous section.
Example circuit 1:
Consider the circuit provided in Figure 2.14. For all possible combinations of input, let us
determine the corresponding outputs. This may be readily achieved by drawing up a truth
table and including within this table the logic levels that appear on the connections between
the gates (in this case there are two – labelled x and y in the illustration.

A output

B
y

A B x y output
0 0 1 1 1
0 1 1 0 0
1 0 0 1 0
1 1 0 0 0

Figure 2.14: Combinational logic example circuit

If we compare the input and corresponding outputs given in this table to the truth tables
presented in Section 2.2, we will see that this circuit is acting as a NOR gate. Thus a NOR
function may be implemented by means of two inverters and an AND gate.

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28 COMPUTER SYSTEMS AND NETWORKS

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Activity 2.6
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Circuit behaviour 1
Consider the circuit provided in Figure 2.15. Complete the truth table so as to show
the output from the circuit for all possible combinations of input.

A
output

A B x output
x 0 0
B 0 1
1 0
1 1

Truth table

Figure 2.15: Combinational logic example circuit

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Activity 2.7

Circuit behaviour 2 1234567890

Consider the circuit provided in Figure 2.16. For all possible combinations of input,
determine the corresponding outputs. Hint: you should employ the same approach
that was used in the previous activity and complete the truth table provided.

A B S x y z output
0 0 0
y
0 1 0
z output 1 0 0
B 1 1 0
0 0 1
S x
. 0 1 1
1 0 1
1 1 1

Truth table
Figure 2.16: Combinational logic example circuit

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 LOGIC GATES AND SIMPLE DIGITAL CIRCUITS 29

Examine the truth table that you have drawn for Activity 2.7. Here, you will see that when the
input ‘S’ is a logic low, then the output corresponds to whatever input signal is applied to ‘B’.
Conversely, when ‘S’ is a logic high, the output follows whatever signal is applied to input ‘A’.
The type of circuit is referred to as a multiplexer and is widely used in digital electronics. In fact,
in circuit diagrams a special symbol is often used to represent the multiplexer – as illustrated in
Figure 2.17(a). In Figure 2.17(b) a diagram is presented which shows the functional behaviour
of the multiplexer.
We can consider this device to act as a switch, with the position of the switch being
determined by the value of the ‘select’ signal. Consequently, if the ‘select’ signal has one
particular binary value, the output will be governed by the signal applied to one of the inputs
(say ‘input 1’) and when the value of the ‘select’ signal is changed, the output will be driven by
the binary values applied to the other input (‘input 2’). In fact, multiplexers often have more
than two inputs – perhaps eight or sixteen – in which case more than one ‘select’ signal is
required. For example, in the case that a multiplexer has eight inputs, then three ‘select’ signals
are required. This is because the three signals may take on 23=8 different binary values and
each of these values determines the particular input that will drive the output.

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Activity 2.8

A 16-line multiplexer 12345

Consider a multiplexer with 16 inputs and a single output. How many select wires
(lines) are required to enable any of the inputs to be routed through to the output?

input 1 input 1
output output
input 2 input 2

select select

(a) (b)

Figure 2.17: In (a) the symbol for a multiplexer is given and (b) indicates the
effective action of this device.

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30 COMPUTER SYSTEMS AND NETWORKS

The half-adder
Here we briefly consider the creation of a circuit able to add together two binary digits (bits).
Before we do this, let us briefly look at the process of adding binary numbers.
First, consider adding two 3-bit binary numbers. For example:
1 1 0+
0 1 1

We start the addition process with the rightmost column (the least significant bits) and work
our way to the left.
1 1 0+
0 1 1
1

As we add, we may need to carry. In this example, we begin by adding 0 and 1. What should
we carry? Technically, you do not have to carry anything. However, when this process is
implemented in hardware, we always need to define a carry value, which in this case is zero.
We therefore carry a 0 into the next column, and then add that column.
0
1 1 0+
0 1 1
0 1

This time, when we add the middle column, we get 0 + 1 + 1 which sums to 0, with a
carry of 1.
1 0
1 1 0+
0 1 1
(1) 0 0 1

The final (leftmost) column adds 1 + 1 + 0, which sums to 0, and also generates a carry. We
put the carry in parentheses on the left.
Typically, when we perform an addition of two k-bit numbers, we expect the answer to be k-
bits. If the numbers are represented in binary, the result can be k+1 bits. To handle that case,
we have a carry bit (the one written in parentheses above).
It makes sense to design a circuit that adds in ‘columns’. Let us consider adding the rightmost
column. We are adding two bits. Therefore the adder we want to create should have two
inputs. It generates a sum bit for that column, plus a carry bit. So there should be two
outputs. This device is called a half-adder.
● Data inputs: 2 (call them A and B)
● Outputs: 2 (call them SUM, for sum, and CARRY, for carry).

A circuit for a half-adder together with its associated truth table is presented in Figure 2.18 and
uses an AND gate together with an XOR gate.

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 LOGIC GATES AND SIMPLE DIGITAL CIRCUITS 31

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Activity 2.9
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The half-adder

Verify the accuracy of the truth table presented in Figure 2.18 for the half-adder.

A B sum carry
A sum
0 0 0 0
0 1 1 0
1 0 1 0
carry 1 1 0 1
B

Figure 2.18: A half-adder and its associated truth table

As may be seen, a ‘carry’ value of 1 is generated only when both inputs are a logic high, and
the ‘sum’ is zero when we add together two zeros or two ones (in this latter case a ‘carry’ is
produced). This circuit is called a half-adder because although it produces a ‘carry out’ of the
current arithmetic operation, it does not permit a ‘carry in’ from a previous arithmetic
operation.

2.5 Example sequential logic circuits

In Section 2.3 we introduced the concept of the ‘sequential logic’ circuit. Here, the logic
state(s) of a circuits output(s) depends not only on the present values of the inputs applied to
Q the circuit but also the circuits previous state. In this section we provide several examples of
circuits of this type.
Consider the circuit presented in Figure 2.19. As may be seen, this circuit employs ‘feedback’
since the outputs of the two NAND gates are ‘fed back’ to act as inputs. The two outputs are
labelled Q and Q (generally expressed as ‘Q bar’). The use of the ‘bar indicates that the two
outputs are always (or should be) in opposite logic states (if, for example Q is a logic low then
Q will be a logic high).

A Q

B
Q

Figure 2.19: A simple example of sequential logic. This circuit is known as the
‘RS bistable’.

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32 COMPUTER SYSTEMS AND NETWORKS

Consider the case that A is a logic low and B a logic high. Using the same approach that was
adopted in the previous section, we can readily determine the output states (recall that for a
NAND gate ‘any low gives a high’). Since input A is low, it follows that the output from the top
gate will be a logic high (thus Q is high). Both inputs to the lower NAND gate are high, and so
its output will be a logic low. Thus Q=high and Q =low. If we now change input A to a logic
high state (leaving B unaltered), then this will have no impact on Q and Q (in fact we can say
that the circuit ‘remembers’ its previous state).
Now consider the case that A is a logic high and B a logic low. Using the same reasoning as
was used in the previous paragraph, it follows that Q will be a logic low and Q a logic high. If
we now change input B to a logic high and leave A unaltered this will have no effect on the
outputs. Again the circuit ‘remembers’ its previous state.
Unfortunately, if a logic low is applied to both inputs, then any subsequent change to either
one of the inputs has an undefined impact on the circuit. This can be understood by
examination of the circuit. If both inputs are a logic low, then the outputs from both NAND
gates will be high. If we now change A and B to a logic high, we cannot predict the states of
Q and Q – this will simply depend on slight differences in the propagation delays of the two
gates and so the circuit cannot be viewed as being stable. Consequently, we must avoid
simultaneously applying a logic low to both inputs.
The operation of this circuit can be summarised as follows:
● If A=0 and B=1 then Q=1 and Q =0. Call this state 1
● If A=1 and B=0 then Q=0 and Q =1. Call this state 2
● If we now make A=1 and B=1 then the circuit will retain its previous state (state 1 or state 2) –
i.e. it will ‘remember’ its previous state.
Note that when A=0 and B=1 then Q=1 and Q =0. Similarly when A=1 and B=0 then Q =1
and Q=0. Thus the output from the circuit corresponds to the inverted input. When Q=1 and
Q =0 the circuit is said to be ‘set’ and in the converse case (Q=0 and Q =1) the circuit is referred
to as being in the ‘reset’ state. Additionally, when both inputs are a logic high the circuit is said
to ‘latch’ (remember) the previous input.
As we have seen, the circuit can latch two input states (1,0 and 0,1) and the output is the
inverted input. Since the circuit can exhibit two stable states it is referred to as a ‘bistable’
device and is generally called an ‘RS latch’ or ‘RS bistable’. Here, the R and S indicate the set
and reset conditions in which the circuit is able to exhibit stability.

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Activity 2.10

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The RS bistable 1234567890
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Consider the circuit presented in Figure 2.20.

Here, the two NAND gates employed in Figure 2.19 have been replaced with two
NOR gates. For this circuit, if A and B are both a logic high the input is said to be
invalid. Thus there are three valid combinations of input 0,0; 0,1; 1,0. When the
two inputs are a logic low, the circuit will latch the previously applied values (0,1 or
1,0).
When A=1 and B=0 and when A=0 and B=1, determine the logic states of Q and Q .
Does this device invert the input values?

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 LOGIC GATES AND SIMPLE DIGITAL CIRCUITS 33

A Q

B
Q

Figure 2.20: The implementation of a bistable using NOR gates

The level-triggered D-type bistable

The simple form of circuit described above in which output is fed back to the circuit input
underpins the operation of various forms of computer memory. Unfortunately, the circuit
operates incorrectly when both inputs are in a logic low state, and so this condition must be
avoided. One solution is to make use of two additional gates as illustrated in Figure 2.21.
Here, we have only a single data input (D) and an additional input that is labelled ‘clk’ (a
frequently used abbreviation for ‘clock’).

D
A Q
E

D F Q

Clk

Figure 2.21: The level-triggered D-type bistable

Although at first sight this circuit may look complicated, its operation can be readily understood
by remembering that the bistable (located to the right of the dashed line) may only be
presented with three binary combinations (0,1; 1,0; 1,1). We aim to prevent it ever being
simultaneously presented with two logic lows.
The clock (‘clk’) is used to enable data to be presented to the bistable and subsequently
latched. When the clock is a logic low, then the output from gates A and B will be a logic high
(recall that for a NAND gate ‘any low gives a high’) – in this situation input D has no effect.
Thus both gates within the bistable (gates E and F) are presented with a logic high – this
corresponds to the latched state.

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34 COMPUTER SYSTEMS AND NETWORKS

Now consider the case in which the clock (‘clk’) is a logic high. If the input D is a logic low, the
output from gate A will be a logic high and the output from gate B a logic low (this is because
in the case of gate B, the value of D has been inverted and so both its inputs are in a logic high
state). Thus the bistable receives 1,0 and so Q=0 and Q =1 (the reset condition).
If input D is a logic high, the output from gate A will be a logic low and from gate B a logic
high. Thus the bistable is presented with 0,1 and so Q=1 and Q =0 (the set condition).

Summary
● We apply either a logic high or low to input D when the clock is in a logic high state. The value
of D sets or resets Q and Q . If now the clock changes to a logic low (before we remove the
value applied to input D), the bistable will latch (remember) the value of the signal that was
applied to input D. We have a memory device able to store one binary digit (bit).

This circuit is referred to as the ‘level-triggered D-type bistable’ and there are no circumstances
(other than circuit failure) in which both of the inputs of the bistable will be simultaneously
presented with a logic low. Thus the ‘invalid’ state is avoided.
The device is said to be ‘level-triggered’ since it is the binary value (level) of the clock that
determines when the bistable is in the latched state. As we will see, many digital circuits
employ an alternative approach in which they react to changes in the state of a signal (rather
than to the absolute binary value). Such devices are said to be ‘edge-triggered’. This can be
readily understood by reference to Figure 2.22, which shows the variation of a digital signal
(waveform) with time. As indicated, a ‘level-triggered’ device responds to the absolute binary
value of a signal. This contrasts with the ‘edge-triggered’ device in which changes in the state
of the waveform are of importance.
The waveform presented in this illustration is idealised in as much as the changes in state
appear to occur instantaneously. However, in the case of a real signal these changes occupy a
finite (although very small) time. The transition from a logic low to a logic high corresponds to
the waveform’s ‘rising edge’ and the converse to the ‘falling edge’.

A register
As we will discuss in Chapter 3, within a microprocessor there are a number of registers. These
are each able to store one or more bytes, and support both the operation of the processor and
the implementation of arithmetic and logical operations. Since the registers are implemented
on the processor chip, they operate at very high speeds.
For our present purposes it is sufficient to note that registers are simply storage locations able
to ‘remember’ one or more bytes. We can implement such a register by means of a set of D-
type bistables (the number of bistables needed corresponds to the number of bits that are to be
stored within the register). For simplicity, we will assume that a register is to hold (store) four
bits, and a suitable circuit is illustrated in Figure 2.23. Here, you will notice that each bistable
device is simply represented by a rectangle, each of which has two inputs (‘D’ and ‘clk’) and
two outputs Q and Q . For the moment we will assume that these are ‘level-triggered’ devices
of the sort that were illustrated in Figure 2.21.

Copyright 2006 Cengage Learning, Inc. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part.
 LOGIC GATES AND SIMPLE DIGITAL CIRCUITS 35

voltage An edge-triggered device responds

to changes in the state of the signal

Logic high

Logic low time

Rising Falling
edge edge

A level-triggered device responds

to the state of the signal - ie the
logic low and logic high states

Figure 2.22: An idealised waveform. Circuits may react to the absolute binary
state (voltage) of the signal or to changes in its state.

Data bit D Q Data output

Clk Q

Data bit D Q Data output

Clk Q

Data bit D Q Data output

Clk Q

Data bit D Q Data output

Clk Q

Clk

Figure 2.23: The creation of a 4-bit register using level-triggered D-type bistable

The circuit operates as follows:

1. The ‘clk’ signal goes to a logic high
2. The four bits that are to be ‘remembered’ are applied to the four inputs
3. The ‘clk’ goes to a logic low (thereby latching the data bits)
4. The input data is removed
5. The data outputs retain their state, thereby ‘remembering’ the values of the input data
bits.

Copyright 2006 Cengage Learning, Inc. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part.
Another Random Scribd Document
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combat between Frederick and a champion who may be willing to
appear for Elsa. None of the knights will defend her cause. She then
describes a champion whose form has appeared to her in a vision,
and she proclaims that he shall be her champion. Her pretence is
derided by Frederick and his followers, who think that she is out of
her mind; but after a triple summons by the Herald, there is seen in
the distance on the river, a boat drawn by a swan, and in it a knight
clad in silver armour. He comes to champion Elsa's cause, and before
the combat betroths himself to her, but makes a strict condition that
she shall never question him as to his name or birthplace, for should
she, he would be obliged to depart. She assents to the conditions,
and the combat which ensues results in Frederick's ignominious
defeat. Judgment of exile is pronounced on him.
Instead, however, of leaving the country he lingers in the
neighbourhood of Brabant, plotting with Ortrud how they may
compass the ruin of Lohengrin and Elsa. Ortrud by her entreaties
moves Elsa to pity, and persuades her to seek a reprieve for
Frederick, at the same time, however, using every opportunity to
instil doubts in Elsa's mind regarding her champion, and rousing her
to such a pitch of nervous curiosity that she is on the point of asking
him the forbidden question. After the bridal ceremonies, and in the
bridal chamber, the distrust which Ortrud and Frederick have
engendered in Elsa's mind so overcomes her faith that she
vehemently puts the forbidden question to her champion. Almost at
the same moment Frederick and four of his followers force their way
into the apartment, intending to take the knight's life. A single blow
of his sword, however, stretches Frederick lifeless, and his followers
bear his corpse away. Placing Elsa in the charge of her ladies-in-
waiting, and ordering them to take her to the presence of the King,
he repairs thither himself.
The Brabantian hosts are gathering, and he is expected to lead them
to battle, but owing to Elsa's question he is now obliged to disclose
who he is and to take his departure. He proclaims that he is
Lohengrin, son of Parsifal, Knight of the Holy Grail, and that he can
linger no longer in Brabant, but must return to the place of his
coming. The swan has once more appeared, drawing the boat down
the river, and bidding Elsa farewell he steps into the little shell-like
craft. Then Ortrud, with malicious glee, declares that the swan is
none other than Elsa's brother, whom she (Ortrud) bewitched into
this form, and that he would have been changed back again to his
human shape had it not been for Elsa's rashness. But Lohengrin,
through his supernatural powers, is able to undo Ortrud's work, and
at a word from him the swan disappears and Godfrey stands in its
place. A dove now descends, and, hovering in front of the boat,
draws it away with Lohengrin, while Elsa expires in her brother's
arms.
Owing to the lyric character of the story upon which "Lohengrin" is
based, the opera, while not at all lacking in strong dramatic
situations is characterized by a subtler and more subdued
melodiousness than "Tannhäuser," is more exquisitely lyrical in fact
than any Wagnerian work except "Parsifal."
There are typical themes in the score, but they are hardly handled
with the varied effect that entitles them to be called leading motives.
On the other hand there are fascinating details of orchestration.
These are important because the composer has given significant
clang-tints to the music that is heard in connection with the different
characters in the story. He uses the brass chiefly to accompany the
King, and, of course, the martial choruses; the plaintive, yet spiritual
high wood-wind for Elsa; the English horn and sombre bass clarinet
—the instrument that had to be bought—for Ortrud; the violins,
especially in high harmonic positions, to indicate the Grail and its
representative, for Lohengrin is a Knight of the Holy Grail. Even the
keys employed are distinctive. The Herald's trumpeters blow in C
and greet the King's arrival in that bright key. F-sharp minor is the
dark, threatful key that indicates Ortrud's appearance. The key of A,
which is the purest for strings and the most ethereal in effect, on
account of the greater ease of using "harmonics," announces the
approach of Lohengrin and the subtle influence of the Grail.
Moreover Wagner was the first composer to discover that celestial
effects of tone colour are produced by the prolonged notes of the
combined violins and wood-wind in the highest positions more truly
than by the harp. It is the association of ideas with the Scriptures,
wherein the harp frequently is mentioned, because it was the most
perfected instrument of the period, that has led other composers to
employ it for celestial tone-painting. But while no one appreciated
the beauty of the harp more than Wagner, or has employed it with
finer effect than he, his celestial tone-pictures with high-violins and
wood-wind are distinctly more ecstatic than those of other
composers.
The music clothes the drama most admirably. The Vorspiel or
Prelude immediately places the listener in the proper mood for the
story which is to unfold itself, and for the score, vocal and
instrumental, whose strains are to fall upon his ear.
The Prelude is based entirely upon one theme, a beautiful one and
expressive of the sanctity of the Grail, of which Lohengrin is one of
the knights. Violins and flutes with long-drawn-out, ethereal chords
open the Prelude. Then is heard on the violins, so divided as to
heighten the delicacy of the effect, the Motive of the Grail, the cup in
which the Saviour's blood is supposed to have been caught as it
flowed from the wound in His side, while he was on the Cross. No
modern book on orchestration is considered complete unless it
quotes this passage from the score, which is at once the earliest
and, after seventy years, still the most perfect example of the effect
of celestial harmony produced on the high notes of the divided violin
choir. This interesting passage in the score is as follows:
 [Listen (MP3)]

Although this is the only motive that occurs in the Prelude, the ear
never wearies of it. Its effectiveness is due to the wonderful skill
with which Wagner handles the theme, working it up through a
superb crescendo to a magnificent climax, with all the splendours of
Wagnerian orchestration, after which it dies away again to the
ethereal harmonies with which it first greeted the listener.
Act I. The curtain, on rising, discloses a scene of unwonted life on
the plain near the River Scheldt, where the stream winds toward
Antwerp. On an elevated seat under a huge oak sits King Henry I.
On either side are his Saxon and Thuringian nobles. Facing him with
the knights of Brabant are Count Frederick of Telramund and his
wife, Ortrud, daughter of the Prince of Friesland, of dark, almost
forbidding beauty, and with a treacherous mingling of haughtiness
and humility in her carriage.
It is a strange tale the King has just heard fall from Frederick of
Telramund's lips. Henry has assembled the Brabantians on the plain
by the Scheldt in order to summon them to join his army and aid in
checking the threatened invasion of Germany by the Hungarians. But
he has found the Brabantians themselves torn by factional strife,
some supporting, others opposing Frederick in his claim to the ducal
succession of Brabant.
"Sire," says Frederick, when called upon by the King to explain the
cause of the discord that has come upon the land, "the late Duke of
Brabant upon his death-bed confided to me, his kinsman, the care of
his two children, Elsa and her young brother Godfrey, with the right
to claim the maid as my wife. But one day Elsa led the boy into the
forest and returned alone. From her pale face and faltering lips I
judged only too well of what had happened, and I now publicly
accuse Elsa of having made away with her brother that she might be
sole heir to Brabant and reject my right to her hand. Her hand!
Horrified, I shrank from her and took a wife whom I could truly love.
Now as nearest kinsman of the duke I claim this land as my own, my
wife, too, being of the race that once gave a line of princes to
Brabant."
So saying, he leads Ortrud forward, and she, lowering her dark
visage, makes a deep obeisance to the King. To the latter but one
course is open. A terrible accusation has been uttered, and an
appeal must be made to the immediate judgment of God in trial by
combat between Frederick and whoever may appear as champion
for Elsa. Solemnly the King hangs his shield on the oak, the Saxons
and Thuringians thrust the points of their swords into the ground,
while the Brabantians lay theirs before them. The royal Herald steps
forward. "Elsa, without delay appear!" he calls in a loud voice.
A sudden hush falls upon the scene, as a slender figure robed in
white slowly advances toward the King. It is Elsa. With her fair brow,
gentle mien, and timid footsteps it seems impossible that she can be
the object of Frederick's dire charge. But there are dark forces
conspiring against her, of which none knows save her accuser and
the wife he has chosen from the remoter North. In Friesland the
weird rites of Odin and the ancient gods still had many secret
adherents, Ortrud among them, and it is the hope of this heathenish
woman, through the undoing of Elsa, and the accession of Frederick
whom she has completely under her influence, to check the spread
of the Christian faith toward the North and restore the rites of Odin
in Brabant. To this end she is ready to bring all the black magic of
which she secretly is mistress into play. What wonder that Elsa, as
she encounters her malevolent gaze, lowers her eyes with a
shudder!
Up to the moment of Elsa's entrance, the music is harsh and
vigorous, reflecting Frederick's excitement as, incited by Ortrud, he
brings forward his charge against Elsa. With her appearance a
change immediately comes over the music. It is soft, gentle, and
plaintive; not, however, entirely hopeless, as if the maiden, being
conscious of her innocence, does not despair of her fate.
"Elsa," gently asks the King, "whom name you as your champion?"
She answers as if in a trance; and it is at this point that the music of
"Elsa's Dream" is heard. In the course of this, violins whisper the
Grail Motive and in dreamy rapture Elsa sings, "I see, in splendour
shining, a knight of glorious mien. His eyes rest upon me with
tranquil gaze. He stands amid clouds beside a house of gold, and
resting on his sword. Heaven has sent him to save me. He shall my
champion be!"

Copyright photo by Dupont

Emma Eames as Elsa in “Lohengrin”

The men regard each other in wonder. But a sneer curls around
Ortrud's lips, and Frederick again proclaims his readiness to prove
his accusation in trial by combat for life and death.
"Elsa," the King asks once more, "whom have you chosen as your
champion?"
"Him whom Heaven shall send me; and to him, whatever he shall
ask of me, I freely will give, e'en though it be myself as bride!" Again
there is heard the lovely, broad and flowing melody of which I have
already spoken and which may be designated as the Elsa Motive.

[Listen]

The Herald now stations his trumpeters at the corners of the plain
and bids them blow a blast toward the four points of the compass.
When the last echo has died away he calls aloud:
"He who in right of Heaven comes here to fight for Elsa of Brabant,
let him step forth!"
The deep silence that follows is broken by Frederick's voice. "No one
appears to repel my charge. 'Tis proven."
"My King," implores Elsa, whose growing agitation is watched by
Ortrud with a malevolent smile, "my champion bides afar. He has not
yet heard the summons. I pray you let it go forth once more."
Again the trumpeters blow toward the four points of the compass,
again the Herald cries his call, again there is the fateful silence. "The
Heavens are silent. She is doomed," murmured the men. Then Elsa
throws herself upon her knees and raises her eyes in prayer.
Suddenly there is a commotion among the men nearest the river
bank.
"A wonder!" they cry. "A swan! A swan—drawing a boat by a golden
chain! In the boat stands a knight! See, it approaches! His armour is
so bright it blinds our eyes! A wonder! A wonder!"
There is a rush toward the bank and a great shout of acclaim, as the
swan with a graceful sweep rounds a bend in the river and brings
the shell-like boat, in which stands a knight in dazzling armour and
of noble mien, up to the shore. Not daring to trust her senses and
turn to behold the wondrous spectacle, Elsa gazes in rapture
heavenward, while Ortrud and Telramund, their fell intrigue suddenly
halted by a marvel that surpasses their comprehension, regard each
other with mingled amazement and alarm.
A strange feeling of awe overcomes the assembly, and the tumult
with which the advent of the knight has been hailed dies away to
breathless silence, as he extends his hand and in tender accents bids
farewell to the swan, which gently inclines its head and then glides
away with the boat, vanishing as it had come. There is a chorus, in
which, in half-hushed voices, the crowd gives expression to the
mystery of the scene. Then the men fall back and the Knight of the
Swan, for a silver swan surmounts his helmet and is blazoned upon
his shield, having made due obeisance to the King, advances to
where Elsa stands and, resting his eyes upon her pure and radiant
beauty, questions her.
"Elsa, if I become your champion and right the foul wrong that is
sought to be put upon you, will you confide your future to me; will
you become my bride?"
"My guardian, my defender!" she exclaims ecstatically. "All that I
have, all that I am, is yours!"
"Elsa," he says slowly, as if wishing her to weigh every word, "if I
champion your cause and take you to wife, there is one promise I
must exact: Never must you ask me whence I come or what my
name."
"I promise," she answers, serenely meeting his warning look. He
repeats the warning and again she promises to observe it.
"Elsa, I love you!" he exclaims, as he clasps her in his arms. Then
addressing the King he proclaims his readiness to defend her
innocence in trial by combat.
In this scene occurs one of the significant themes of the opera, the
motive of warning—for it is Elsa's disregard of it and the breaking of
her promise that brings her happiness to an end.

[Listen]

Three Saxons for the Knight and three Brabantians for Frederick
solemnly pace off the circle within which the combatants are to
fight. The King, drawing his sword, strikes three resounding blows
with it upon his shield. At the first stroke the Knight and Frederick
take their positions. At the second they draw their swords. At the
third they advance to the encounter. Frederick is no coward. His
willingness to meet the Knight whose coming had been so strange
proves that. But his blows are skilfully warded off until the Swan
Knight, finding an opening, fells him with a powerful stroke.
Frederick's life is forfeited, but his conqueror, perchance knowing
that he has been naught but a tool in the hands of a woman leagued
with the powers of evil, spares it and bids his fallen foe rise. The
King leads Elsa to the victor, while all hail him as her deliverer and
betrothed.
The scenes here described are most stirring. Before the combat
begins, the King intones a prayer, in which first the principals and
then the chorus join with noble effect, while the music of rejoicing
over the Knight's victory has an irresistible onsweep.
Act II. That night in the fortress of Antwerp, the palace where abide
the knights is brilliantly illuminated and sounds of revelry issue from
it, and lights shine from the kemenate, where Elsa's maids-in-waiting
are preparing her for the bridal on the morrow. But in the shadow of
the walls sit two figures, a man and a woman; the man, his head
bowed in despair, the woman looking vindictively toward the palace.
They are Frederick and Ortrud, who have been condemned to
banishment, he utterly dejected, she still trusting in the power of her
heathenish gods. To her the Swan Knight's chivalrous forbearance in
sparing Frederick's life has seemed weak instead of noble, and Elsa
she regards as an insipid dreamer and easy victim. Not knowing that
Ortrud still darkly schemes to ruin Elsa and restore him to power,
Frederick denounces her in an outburst of rage and despair.
As another burst of revelry, another flash of light, causes Frederick
to bow his head in deeper gloom, Ortrud begins to unfold her plot to
him. How long will a woman like Elsa—as sweet as she is beautiful,
but also as weak—be able to restrain herself from asking the
forbidden question? Once her suspicion aroused that the Knight is
concealing from her something in his past life, growing jealousy will
impel her first to seek to coax from him, then to demand of him his
name and lineage. Let Frederick conceal himself within the minster,
and when the bridal procession reaches the steps, come forth and,
accusing the Knight of treachery and deceit, demand that he be
compelled to disclose his name and origin. He will refuse, and thus,
even before Elsa enters the minster, she will begin to be beset by
doubts. She herself meanwhile will seek to enter the kemenate and
play upon her credulousness. "She is for me; her champion is for
you. Soon the daughter of Odin will teach you all the joys of
vengeance!" is Ortrud's sinister exclamation as she finishes.
Indeed it seems as if Fate were playing into her hand. For at that
very moment Elsa, all clad in white, comes out upon the balcony of
the kemenate and, sighing with happiness, breathes out upon the
night air her rapture at the thought of what bliss the coming day has
in store for her. As she lets her gaze rest on the calm night she hears
a piteous voice calling her name, and looking down sees Ortrud, her
hands raised in supplication to her. Moved by the spectacle of one
but a short time before so proud and now apparently in such utter
dejection, the guileless maid descends and, herself opening the door
of the kemenate, hastens to Ortrud, raises her to her feet, and
gently leads her in, while, hidden in the shadows, Frederick of
Telramund bides his time for action. Thus within and without,
mischief is plotting for the unsuspecting Elsa.
These episodes, following the appearance of Elsa upon the balcony,
are known as the "Balcony Scene." It opens with the exquisite
melody which Elsa breathes upon the zephyrs of the night in
gratitude to heaven for the champion sent to her defence. Then,
when in pity she has hastened down to Ortrud, the latter pours
doubts regarding her champion into Elsa's mind. Who is he? Whence
came he? May he not as unexpectedly depart? The whole closes
with a beautiful duet, which is repeated by the orchestra, as Ortrud
is conducted by Elsa into the apartment.
It is early morn. People begin to gather in the open place before the
minster and, by the time the sun is high, the space is crowded with
folk eager to view the bridal procession. They sing a fine and spirited
chorus.
At the appointed hour four pages come out upon the balcony of the
kemenate and cry out:
"Make way, our Lady Elsa comes!" Descending, they clear a path
through the crowd to the steps of the minster. A long train of richly
clad women emerges upon the balcony, slowly comes down the
steps and, proceeding past the palace, winds toward the minster. At
that moment a great shout, "Hail! Elsa of Brabant!" goes up, as the
bride herself appears followed by her ladies-in-waiting. For the
moment Ortrud's presence in the train is unnoticed, but as Elsa
approaches the minster, Frederick's wife suddenly throws herself in
her path.
"Back, Elsa!" she cries. "I am not a menial, born to follow you!
Although your Knight has overthrown my husband, you cannot boast
of who he is—his very name, the place whence he came, are
unknown. Strong must be his motives to forbid you to question him.
To what foul disgrace would he be brought were he compelled to
answer!"
Fortunately the King, the bridegroom, and the nobles approaching
from the palace, Elsa shrinks from Ortrud to her champion's side and
hides her face against his breast. At that moment Frederick of
Telramund, taking his cue from Ortrud, comes out upon the minster
steps and repeats his wife's accusation. Then, profiting by the
confusion, he slips away in the crowd. The insidious poison,
however, has already begun to take effect. For even as the King
taking the Knight on his right and Elsa on his left conducts them up
the minster steps, the trembling bride catches sight of Ortrud whose
hand is raised in threat and warning; and it is clinging to her
champion, in love indeed but love mingled with doubt and fear, that
she passes through the portal, and into the edifice.
These are crucial scenes. The procession to the minster, often known
as the bridal procession, must not be confused with the "Bridal
Chorus." It is familiar music, however, because at weddings it often
is played softly as a musical background to the ceremony.
Act III. The wedding festivities are described in the brilliant
"Introduction to Act III." This is followed in the opera by the "Bridal
Chorus," which, wherever heard—on stage or in church—falls with
renewed freshness and significance upon the ear. In this scene the
Knight and Elsa are conducted to the bridal chamber in the castle.
From the right enter Elsa's ladies-in-waiting leading the bride; from
the left the King and nobles leading the Knight. Preceding both
trains are pages bearing lights; and voices chant the bridal chorus.
The King ceremoniously embraces the couple and then the
procession makes its way out, until, as the last strains of the chorus
die away, Elsa and her champion are for the first time alone.
It should be a moment of supreme happiness for both, and indeed,
Elsa exclaims as her bridegroom takes her to his arms, that words
cannot give expression to all its hidden sweetness. Yet, when he
tenderly breathes her name, it serves only to remind her that she
cannot respond by uttering his. "How sweetly sounds my name
when spoken by you, while I, alas, cannot reply with yours. Surely,
some day, you will tell me, all in secret, and I shall be able to
whisper it when none but you is near!"
In her words the Knight perceives but too clearly the seeds of the
fatal mistrust sown by Ortrud and Frederick. Gently he leaves her
side and throwing open the casement, points to the moonlit
landscape where the river winds its course along the plain. The
same subtle magic that can conjure up this scene from the night has
brought him to her, made him love her, and give unshrinking
credence to her vow never to question his name or origin. Will she
now wantonly destroy the wondrous spell of moonlight and love?
But still Elsa urges him. "Let me be flattered by your trust and
confidence. Your secret will be safe in my heart. No threats, not
even of death, shall tear it from my lips. Tell me who you are and
whence you come!"
"Elsa!" he cries, "come to my heart. Let me feel that happiness is
mine at last. Let your love and confidence compensate me for what I
have left behind me. Cast dark suspicion aside. For know, I came not
hither from night and grieving but from the abode of light and noble
pleasures."
But his words have the very opposite effect of what he had hoped
for. "Heaven help me!" exclaims Elsa. "What must I hear! Already
you are beginning to look back with longing to the joys you have
given up for me. Some day you will leave me to sorrow and regret. I
have no magic spells wherewith to hold you. Ah!"—and now she
cries out like one distracted and with eyes straining at distance
—"See!—the swan!—I see him floating on the waters yonder! You
summon him, embark!—Love—madness—whatever it may be—your
name declare, your lineage and your home!"
Hardly have these mad words been spoken by her when, as she
stands before her husband of a few hours, she sees something that
with a sudden shock brings her to her senses. Rushing to the divan
where the pages laid the Knight's sword, she seizes it and thrusts it
into his hand, and he, turning to discover what peril threatens, sees
Frederick, followed by four Brabantian nobles, burst into the room.
With one stroke he lays the leader lifeless, and the others, seeing
him fall, go down on their knees in token of submission. At a sign
from the Knight they arise and, lifting Frederick's body, bear it away.
Then the Knight summons Elsa's ladies-in-waiting and bids them
prepare her in her richest garments to meet him before the King.
"There I will make fitting answer to her questions, tell her my name,
my rank, and whence I come."
Sadly he watches her being led away, while she, no longer the happy
bride, but the picture of utter dejection, turns and raises her hands
to him in supplication as though she would still implore him to undo
the ruin her lack of faith in him has wrought.
Some of the most beautiful as well as some of the most dramatic
music of the score occurs in these scenes.
The love duet is exquisite—one of the sweetest and tenderest
passages of which the lyric stage can boast. A very beautiful musical
episode is that in which the Knight, pointing through the open
casement to the flowery close below, softly illumined by the moon,
sings to an accompaniment of what might be called musical
moonbeams, "Say, dost thou breathe the incense sweet of flowers?"
But when, in spite of the tender warning which he conveys to her,
she begins questioning him, he turns toward her and in a passionate
musical phrase begs her to trust him and abide with him in loving
faith. Her dread that the memory of the delightful place from which
he has come will wean him from her; the wild vision in which she
imagines she sees the swan approaching to bear him away from her,
and when she puts to him the forbidden questions, are details
expressed with wonderful vividness in the music.
After the attack by Frederick and his death, there is a dramatic
silence during which Elsa sinks on her husband's breast and faints.
When I say silence I do not mean that there is a total cessation of
sound, for silence can be more impressively expressed in music than
by actual silence itself. It is done by Wagner in this case by long
drawn-out chords followed by faint taps on the tympani. When the
Knight bends down to Elsa, raises her, and gently places her on a
couch, echoes of the love duet add to the mournfulness of the
music. The scene closes with the Motive of Warning, which resounds
with dread meaning.
A quick change of scene should be made at this point in the
performance of the opera, but as a rule the change takes so long
that the third act is virtually given in two acts.
It is on the banks of the Scheldt, the very spot where he had
disembarked, that the Knight elects to make reply to Elsa's
questions. There the King, the nobles, and the Brabantians, whom
he was to lead, are awaiting him to take command, and as their
leader they hail him when he appears. This scene, "Promise of
Victory," is in the form of a brilliant march and chorus, during which
the Counts of Brabant, followed by their vassals, enter on horseback
from various directions. In the average performance of the opera,
however, much of it is sacrificed in order to shorten the
representation.
The Knight answers their hail by telling them that he has come to
bid them farewell, that Elsa has been lured to break her vow and ask
the forbidden questions which he now is there to answer. From
distant lands he came, from Montsalvat, where stands the temple of
the Holy Grail, his father, Percival, its King, and he, Lohengrin, its
Knight. And now, his name and lineage known, he must return, for
the Grail gives strength to its knights to right wrong and protect the
innocent only so long as the secret of their power remains
unrevealed.
Even while he speaks the swan is seen floating down the river. Sadly
Lohengrin bids Elsa farewell. Sadly all, save one, look on. For Ortrud,
who now pushes her way through the spectators, it is a moment of
triumph.
"Depart in all your glory," she calls out. "The swan that draws you
away is none other than Elsa's brother Godfrey, changed by my
magic into his present form. Had she kept her vow, had you been
allowed to tarry, you would have freed him from my spell. The
ancient gods, whom faithfully I serve, thus punish human
faithlessness!"
By the river bank Lohengrin falls upon his knees and prays in silence.
Suddenly a white dove descends over the boat. Rising, Lohengrin
loosens the golden chain by which the swan is attached to the boat;
the swan vanishes; in its place Godfrey stands upon the bank, and
Lohengrin, entering the boat, is drawn away by the dove. At sight of
the young Duke, Ortrud falls with a shriek, while the Brabantian
nobles kneel before him as he advances and makes obeisance to the
King. Elsa gazes on him in rapture until, mindful of her own sorrow,
as the boat in which Lohengrin stands vanishes around the upper
bend of the river, she cries out, "My husband! My husband!" and falls
back in death in her brother's arms.
Lohengrin's narrative of his origin is beautifully set to music familiar
from the Prelude; but when he proclaims his name we hear the
same measures which Elsa sang in the second part of her dream in
the first act. Very beautiful and tender is the music which he sings
when he hands Elsa his horn, his sword, and his ring to give to her
brother, should he return, and also his greeting to the swan when it
comes to bear him back. The work is brought to a close with a
repetition of the music of the second portion of Elsa's dream,
followed by a superb climax with the Motive of the Grail.

DER RING DES NIBELUNGEN

THE RING OF THE NIBELUNG

A stage-festival play for three days and a preliminary

evening (Ein Bühnenfestspiel für drei Tage und einen
Vorabend), words and music by Richard Wagner.
The first performance of the entire cycle of four music-
dramas took place at Bayreuth, August 13, 14, 16, and
17, 1876. "Das Rheingold" had been given September
22, 1869, and "Die Walküre," June 26, 1870, at
Munich.
January 30, 1888, at the Metropolitan Opera House,
New York, "Die Walküre" was given as the first
performance of the "Ring" in America, with the
omission, however, of "Das Rheingold," the cycle
therefore being incomplete, consisting only of the
three music-dramas—"Die Walküre," "Siegfried," and
"Götterdämmerung"; in other words the trilogy without
the Vorabend, or preliminary evening.
Beginning Monday, March 4, 1889, with "Das
Rheingold," the complete cycle, "Der Ring des
Nibelungen," was given for the first time in America;
"Die Walküre" following Tuesday, March 5; "Siegfried,"
Friday, March 8; "Götterdämmerung," Monday, March
11. The cycle was immediately repeated. Anton Seidl
was the conductor. Among the principals were Lilli
Lehmann, Max Alvary, and Emil Fischer.
Seidl conducted the production of the "Ring" in
London, under the direction of Angelo Neumann, at
Her Majesty's Theatre, May 5-9, 1882.
The "Ring" really is a tetralogy. Wagner, however,
called it a trilogy, regarding "Das Rheingold" only as a
Vorabend to the three longer music-dramas.
In the repetitions of the "Ring" in this country many
distinguished artists have appeared: Lehmann, Moran-
Olden, Nordica, Ternina, Fremstad, Gadski, Kurt, as
Brünnhilde; Lehmann, Nordica, Eames, Fremstad, as
Sieglinde; Alvary and Jean de Reszke as Siegfried, both
in "Siegfried" and "Götterdämmerung"; Niemann and
Van Dyck, as Siegmund; Fischer and Van Rooy as
Wotan; Schumann-Heink and Homer as Waltraute and
Erda.
 Copyright A. Dupont, N.Y.

Louise Homer as Fricka in “The Ring of the

Nibelung”

INTRODUCTION

The "Ring of the Nibelung" consists of four music-dramas—"Das

Rheingold" (The Rhinegold), "Die Walküre" (The Valkyr), "Siegfried,"
and "Götterdämmerung" (Dusk of the Gods). The "books" of these
were written in inverse order. Wagner made a dramatic sketch of the
Nibelung myth as early as the autumn of 1848, and between then
and the autumn of 1850 he wrote the "Death of Siegfried." This
subsequently became the "Dusk of the Gods." Meanwhile Wagner's
ideas as to the proper treatment of the myth seem to have
undergone a change. "Siegfried's Death" ended with Brünnhilde
leading Siegfried to Valhalla,—dramatic, but without the deeper
ethical significance of the later version, when Wagner evidently
conceived the purpose of connecting the final catastrophe of his
trilogy with the "Dusk of the Gods," or end of all things, in Northern
mythology, and of embodying a profound truth in the action of the
music-dramas. This metaphysical significance of the work is believed
to be sufficiently explained in the brief synopsis of the plot of the
trilogy and in the descriptive musical and dramatic analyses below.
In the autumn of 1850 when Wagner was on the point of sketching
out the music of "Siegfried's Death," he recognized that he must
lead up to it with another drama, and "Young Siegfried," afterwards
"Siegfried," was the result. This in turn he found incomplete, and
finally decided to supplement it with the "Valkyr" and "Rhinegold."
"Das Rheingold" was produced in Munich, at the Court Theatre,
September 22, 1869; "Die Walküre," on the same stage, June 20,
1870. "Siegfried" and "Dusk of the Gods" were not performed until
1876, when they were produced at Bayreuth.
Of the principal characters in the "Ring of the Nibelung," Alberich,
the Nibelung, and Wotan, the chief of the gods, are symbolic of
greed for wealth and power. This lust leads Alberich to renounce love
—the most sacred of emotions—in order that he may rob the
Rhinedaughters of the Rhinegold and forge from it the ring which is
to make him all-powerful. Wotan by strategy obtains the ring, but
instead of returning it to the Rhinedaughters, he gives it to the
giants, Fafner and Fasolt, as ransom for Freia, the goddess of youth
and beauty, whom he had promised to the giants as a reward for
building Walhalla. Alberich has cursed the ring and all into whose
possession it may come. The giants no sooner obtain it than they fall
to quarrelling over it. Fafner slays Fasolt and then retires to a cave in
the heart of a forest where, in the form of a dragon, he guards the
ring and the rest of the treasure which Wotan wrested from Alberich
and also gave to the giants as ransom for Freia. This treasure
includes the Tarnhelmet, a helmet made of Rhinegold, the wearer of
which can assume any guise.
Wotan having witnessed the slaying of Fasolt, is filled with dread lest
the curse of Alberich be visited upon the gods. To defend Walhalla
against the assaults of Alberich and the host of Nibelungs, he begets
in union with Erda, the goddess of wisdom, the Valkyrs (chief among
them Brünnhilde), wild maidens who course through the air on
superb chargers and bear the bodies of departed heroes to Walhalla,
where they revive and aid the gods in warding off the attacks of the
Nibelungs. But it is also necessary that the curse-laden ring should
be wrested from Fafner and restored through purely unselfish
motives to the Rhinedaughters, and the curse thus lifted from the
race of the gods. None of the gods can do this because their motive
in doing so would not be unselfish. Hence Wotan, for a time, casts
off his divinity, and in human disguise as Wälse, begets in union with
a human woman the Wälsung twins, Siegmund and Sieglinde.
Siegmund he hopes will be the hero who will slay Fafner and restore
the ring to the Rhinedaughters. To nerve him for this task, Wotan
surrounds the Wälsungs with numerous hardships. Sieglinde is
forced to become the wife of her robber, Hunding. Siegmund, storm-
driven, seeks shelter in Hunding's hut, where he and his sister,
recognizing one another, flee together. Hunding overtakes them and
Wotan, as Siegmund has been guilty of a crime against the marriage
vow, is obliged, at the request of his spouse Fricka, the Juno of
Northern mythology, to give victory to Hunding. Brünnhilde, contrary
to Wotan's command, takes pity on Siegmund, and seeks to shield
him against Hunding. For this, Wotan causes her to fall into a
profound slumber. The hero who will penetrate the barrier of fire
with which Wotan has surrounded the rock upon which she slumbers
can claim her as his bride.
After Siegmund's death Sieglinde gives birth to Siegfried, a son of
their illicit union, who is reared by one of the Nibelungs, Mime, in
the forest where Fafner guards the Nibelung treasure. Mime is
seeking to weld the pieces of Siegmund's sword (Nothung or
Needful) in order that Siegfried may slay Fafner, Mime hoping then
to kill the youth and to possess himself of the treasure. But he
cannot weld the sword. At last Siegfried, learning that it was his
father's weapon, welds the pieces and slays Fafner. His lips having
come in contact with his bloody fingers, he is, through the magic
power of the dragon's blood, enabled to understand the language of
the birds, and a little feathery songster warns him of Mime's
treachery. Siegfried slays the Nibelung and is then guided to the
fiery barrier around the Valkyr rock. Penetrating this, he comes upon
Brünnhilde, and enraptured with her beauty, awakens her and claims
her as his bride. She, the virgin pride of the goddess, yielding to the
love of the woman, gives herself up to him. He plights his troth with
the curse-laden ring which he has wrested from Fafner.
Siegfried goes forth in quest of adventure. On the Rhine lives the
Gibichung Gunther, his sister Gutrune and their half-brother Hagen,
none other than the son of the Nibelung Alberich. Hagen, knowing of
Siegfried's coming, plans his destruction in order to regain the ring
for the Nibelungs. Therefore, craftily concealing Brünnhilde's and
Siegfried's relations from Gunther, he incites a longing in the latter
to possess Brünnhilde as his bride. Carrying out a plot evolved by
Hagen, Gutrune on Siegfried's arrival presents to him a drinking-horn
filled with a love-potion. Siegfried drinks, is led through the effect of
the potion to forget that Brünnhilde is his bride, and, becoming
enamoured of Gutrune, asks her in marriage of Gunther. The latter
consents, provided Siegfried will disguise himself in the Tarnhelmet
as Gunther and lead Brünnhilde to him as bride. Siegfried readily
agrees, and in the guise of Gunther overcomes Brünnhilde and
delivers her to the Gibichung. But Brünnhilde, recognizing on
Siegfried the ring, which her conquerer had drawn from her finger,
accuses him of treachery in delivering her, his own bride, to Gunther.
The latter, unmasked and also suspicious of Siegfried, conspires with
Hagen and Brünnhilde, who, knowing naught of the love-potion, is
roused to a frenzy of hate and jealousy by Siegfried's seeming
treachery, to compass the young hero's death. Hagen slays Siegfried
during a hunt, and then in a quarrel with Gunther over the ring also
kills the Gibichung.
Meanwhile Brünnhilde has learned through the Rhinedaughters of
the treachery of which she and Siegfried have been the victims. All
her jealous hatred of Siegfried yields to her old love for him and a
passionate yearning to join him in death. She draws the ring from
his finger and places it on her own, then hurls a torch upon the
pyre. Mounting her steed, she plunges into the flames. One of the
Rhinedaughters, swimming in on the rising waters, seizes the curse-
laden ring. Hagen rushes into the flooding Rhine hoping to regain it,
but the other Rhinedaughters grasp him and draw him down into the
flood. Not only the flames of the pyre, but a glow which pervades
the whole horizon illumine the scene. It is Walhalla being consumed
by fire. Through love—the very emotion Alberich renounced in order
to gain wealth and power—Brünnhilde has caused the old order of
things to pass away and a human era to dawn in place of the old
mythological one of the gods.
The sum of all that has been written concerning the book of "The
Ring of the Nibelung" is probably larger than the sum of all that has
been written concerning the librettos used by all other composers.
What can be said of the ordinary opera libretto beyond Voltaire's
remark that "what is too stupid to be spoken is sung"? But "The Ring
of the Nibelung" produced vehement discussion. It was attacked and
defended, praised and ridiculed, extolled and condemned. And it
survived all the discussion it called forth. It is the outstanding fact in
Wagner's career that he always triumphed. He threw his lance into
the midst of his enemies and fought his way up to it. No matter how
much opposition his music-dramas excited, they gradually found
their way into the repertoire.
It was contended on many sides that a book like "The Ring of the
Nibelung" could not be set to music. Certainly it could not be after
the fashion of an ordinary opera. Perhaps people were so
accustomed to the books of nonsense which figured as opera
librettos that they thought "The Ring of the Nibelung" was so great a
work that its action and climaxes were beyond the scope of musical
expression. For such, Wagner has placed music on a higher level. He
has shown that music makes a great drama greater.
One of the most remarkable features of Wagner's works is the
author's complete absorption of the times of which he wrote. He
seems to have gone back to the very period in which the scenes of
his music-dramas are laid and to have himself lived through the
events in his plots. Hans Sachs could not have left a more faithful
portrayal of life in the Nuremberg of his day than Wagner has given
us in "Die Meistersinger." In "The Ring of the Nibelung" he has done
more—he has absorbed an imaginary epoch; lived over the days of
gods and demigods; infused life into mythological figures. "The
Rhinegold," which is full of varied interest from its first note to its
last, deals entirely with beings of mythology. They are presented
true to life—if that expression may be used in connection with
beings that never lived—that is to say, they are so vividly drawn that
we forget such beings never lived, and take as much interest in their
doings and saying as if they were lifelike reproductions of historical
characters. Was there ever a love scene more thrilling than that
between Siegmund and Sieglinde? It represents the gradations of
the love of two souls from its first awakening to its rapturous
greeting in full self-consciousness. No one stops to think during that
impassioned scene that the close relationship between Siegmund
and Sieglinde would in these days have been a bar to their legal
union. For all we know, in those moments when the impassioned
music of that scene whirls us away in its resistless current, not a
drop of related blood courses through their veins. It has been said
that we could not be interested in mythological beings—that "The
Ring of the Nibelung" lacked human interest. In reply, I say that
wonderful as is the first act of "The Valkyr," there is nothing in it to
compare in wild and lofty beauty with the last act of that music-
drama—especially the scene between Brünnhilde and Wotan.
That there are faults of dramatic construction in "The Ring of the
Nibelung" I admit. In what follows I have not hesitated to point
them out. But there are faults of construction in Shakespeare. What
would be the critical verdict if "Hamlet" were now to have its first
performance in the exact form in which Shakespeare left it? With all
its faults of dramatic construction "The Ring of the Nibelung" is a
remarkable drama, full of life and action and logically developed, the
events leading up to superb climaxes. Wagner was doubly inspired.
He was both a great dramatist and a great musician.
The chief faults of dramatic construction of which Wagner was guilty
in "The Ring of the Nibelung" are certain unduly prolonged scenes
which are merely episodical—that is, unnecessary to the
development of the plot so that they delay the action and weary the
audience to a point which endangers the success of the really
sublime portions of the score. In several of these scenes, there is a
great amount of narrative, the story of events with which we have
become familiar being retold in detail although some incidents which
connect the plot of the particular music-drama with that of the
preceding one are also related. But, as narrative on the stage makes
little impression, and, when it is sung perhaps none at all, because it
cannot be well understood, it would seem as if prefaces to the
dramas could have taken the place of these narratives. Certain it is
that these long drawn-out scenes did more to retard the popular
recognition of Wagner's genius than the activity of hostile critics and
musicians. Still, it should be remembered that these music-dramas
were composed for performance under the circumstances which
prevail at Bayreuth, where the performances begin in the afternoon
and there are long waits between the acts, during which you can
refresh yourself by a stroll or by the more mundane pleasures of the
table. Then, after an hour's relaxation of the mind and of the sense
of hearing, you are ready to hear another act. Under these
agreeable conditions one remains sufficiently fresh to enjoy the
music even of the dramatically faulty scenes.
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