Resistive

Circuits
For Students, Professionals
and Beyond
eBook 4

w w w. el ec t r o n i c s -t u to r i a l s .w s
 Re sis ti v e Circuits

TABLE OF
Our Terms of Use
CONTENTS
This Basic Electronics Tutorials eBook is focused on resistive circuits with the
information presented within this ebook provided “as-is” for general information
purposes only.
1. Resistor and Resistance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
All the information and material published and presented herein including the text,
2. Resistivity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .2 graphics and images is the copyright or similar such rights of Aspencore. This represents
3. Types of Resistors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 in part or in whole the supporting website: www.electronics-tutorials.ws, unless
otherwise expressly stated.
4. Fixed Value Resistors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
5. Preferred Resistor Value and Tolerances . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6 This free e-book is presented as general information and study reference guide for the
education of its readers who wish to learn Electronics. While every effort and reasonable
6. Resistor Colour Codes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8 care has been taken with respect to the accuracy of the information given herein, the
7. Connecting Resistors Together . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9 author makes no representations or warranties of any kind, expressed or implied, about
the completeness, accuracy, omission of errors, reliability, or suitability with respect to
8. Power In Resistors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13 the information or related graphics contained within this e-book for any purpose.

As such it is provided for personal use only and is not intended to address your particular
problem or requirement. Any reliance you place on such information is therefore strictly at
your own risk. We can not and do not offer any specific technical advice, troubleshooting
assistance or solutions to your individual needs.

We hope you find this guide useful and enlightening. For more information about any of
the topics covered herein please visit our online website at:

www.electronics-tutorials.ws

Copyright © 2022 Aspencore www.electronics-tutorials.ws All rights reserved

 Re sis ti v e Circuits

Table 1. Prefixes Used for Ohms

1. Resistor and Resistance
Electrical Resistance is a measure of how much a component opposes or resists the flow Prefix for Ohms Symbol Description Abbreviation Value
of electrical charge around a closed circuit. The amount of electrical charge that can flow Megaohm M One Million Ohms MΩ 106 Ω
in a circuit depends upon the magnitude of the voltage provided by the voltage source. Kilohm k One Thousand Ohms kΩ 103 Ω
However, electrical charge in the form of a current also depends on the resistance that Ohm - One Ohm Ω 100 Ω
the circuit offers to this flow of charge as electrical resistance defines the relationship Milliohm m One Thousandth of an Ohm mΩ 10 -3 Ω
between voltage and current flow. The basic circuit element which demonstrates this Microhm μ One Millionth of an Ohm μΩ 10-6 Ω
current-voltage (I-V) relationship is called a Resistor.
The most common prefixes used in Table 1 above to indicate the value of resistance are:
Resistors are the most fundamental and commonly used of all electronic components, Kilo-ohms ( kΩ = 103Ω ) and Mega-ohms ( MΩ = 106Ω ).
to the point where they are almost taken for granted, but they play a vital role within any
electrical or electronic circuit. The amount or value of resistance a particular circuit element has determines whether
the element is a “good conductor” with a low value resistance, a “bad conductor”
The principal job of a resistor within a circuit is to “resist” (hence the name Resistor), (insulator) with high value resistance, or has a value somewhere in between. Figure 1
regulate or set a constant flow of electrons (current) through them and as such are shows that an electrical cable consists of both and insulator and an electrical conductor.
commonly used as voltage dividers or current limiters within a circuit.
Figure 1. An Electrical Cable
Resistors add electrical resistance to a circuit so Resistor are passive components
by connecting them together in different series which resist the flow of electrical Insulator Conductor Low resistance, for example one ohm or less
or parallel combinations, any value of circuit current around a closed circuit. implies that the circuit is a good conductor
resistance can be obtained. The unit of resistance is the Ohm made from materials with lots of free electrons
in its valence shell to pass a current.
Resistors are what are called “Passive Electrical
Components”, that is they contain no power source or provide any form of amplification. Examples of good conductors are generally metals such as copper, aluminium, gold, silver
Instead resistors reduce or attenuate the voltage or current signal passing through them. or non-metals such as soft carbon, graphite or mercury.
This attenuation results in electrical energy being lost or dissipated in the form of heat as
High resistance, one mega-ohm or more implies the element is a bad conductor of
the resistor tries to resist the flow of electrons through itself.
electricity. Bad conductors in the form of insulators are generally made from non-metallic
The SI unit of resistance is the Ohm. To identify resistance it is given the Greek symbol Ω materials with no free electrons, or they have tightly bound electrons in their valence
(Omega). A conductor is said to have a resistance of one ohm when one volt causes one shell. Examples of non-conductive insulators include glass, porcelain, rubber, plastics and
ampere of current to flow through it. Note that Resistance cannot be negative in value dry wood or paper, etc.
only positive and in AC circuits, AC resistance equals DC resistance, ZR = R.

w w w.e l e c tro nic s- tu to r ials .ws 1

 Re sis ti v e Circuits

Figure 2. Resistor Circuit Symbol However, because every material has different
properties and will therefore oppose the flow of Resistivity is a measure of how
In all Electrical and Electronic circuit diagrams and current in different ways, a materials electrical good or bad a material is at
R = 100 W R = 100 W
schematics, the basic linear resistor is identified using resistance is determined by the properties of the conducting an electrical current
or the letter “R”. The most commonly used circuit symbol actual material being used as well as its physical
for a fixed value resistor is that of a “zig-zag” type line or dimensions.
a rectangular box as shown in Figure 2. The value of its resistance is measured in Ohms,
and is given the Greek letter Omega, Ω. The specific electrical resistance of a material is known as its resistivity, ρ (Greek letter
Rho) and is a measure of how strongly the material will oppose the flow of electric current
Resistors can have resistance values ranging from less than one ohm, ( <1Ω ) to well over through itself. Electrical Resistivity (ρ) is measured in units of ohm meters, (Ωm) and is
tens of millions of ohms, ( >10MΩ ) in value. given as:
The factors which affect any resistance of a uniform size are:
1. Length of Material: The resistance of a material is directly proportional to its
ρ = R ×A Wm
L
length. The longer the length of the material the more resistance it has.
2. Cross-sectional Area: The resistance of a material is indirectly proportional to its
Where: ρ is electrical resistivity, R is the resistance in ohms (Ω), L is the length in metres
width. The wider or thicker the material the less resistance it has allowing more
(m), A is the area in square metres (m2)
free electrons to flow.
3. Type of Material: The resistivity of the type of material affects the amount of free This resistivity factor allows different types of materials to be compared to one another
electrons able to flow through it. A conductor has less resistance while an insulator at a specified temperature according to their physical properties without regards to their
has more resistance. lengths or cross-sectional area. Thus a particular material can be classified as being either
a conductor, an insulator or a semiconductor material depending upon the value of their
4. Temperature: The temperature of the material affects its resistance. The higher resistivity and the higher the resistivity value of ρ, the more resistance and vice versa.
the temperature, the higher the resistance. Materials such as thermocouples and
thermistors are design to change their resistance with temperature. For example, the resistivity of a good conductor such as copper is in the order of 1.72
x 10-8 ohm metre (or 17.2 nΩm), whereas the resistivity of an insulator, such as air can
be well over 1.5 x 1014 or 150 trillion Ωm. Obviously zero resistivity would mean zero
2. Resistivity resistance. Superconductors can have zero resistance at low temperatures.
Materials such as copper and aluminium are known for their low levels of resistivity thus
The type of material used to construct a resistor, along with its physical size and shape allowing electrical current to easily flow through them. This makes these materials ideal
all determine the value of its resistance and we can create a resistor by simply attaching for use in electrical conductors, wires and cables. Silver and gold do have much low
connections to any type of conductive material. resistivity values, but for obvious reasons are more expensive to turn into electrical wires.

w w w.e l e c tro nic s- tu to r ials .ws 2

 Re sis ti v e Circuits

While the resistivity of a material may decide whether the material is a good conductor Figure 3. Resistor Symbols
allowing the generous flow of electrical charge, or a good insulator (poor conductor). By
altering the chemical composition of the base material from which a resistor is made, it is
possible to create resistances of any resistive value for a given physical size.
Resistors are generally made using a carbon (graphite) conductor for general purpose
carbon resistors (CR) or with a semiconductor substrate for metal film (MF) or metal oxide
precision resistors.
By altering the ratio of doping concentration to base conductor material, it is possible to
change the conductivity and therefore the resistance value to create a resistor of a fixed Fixed Value Fixed Value Variable Variable (LDR) Light
known value. The resistor body is colour coded to identify its resistive value. Resistor Resistor Resistor Resistor Dependant
(IEC symbol) (IEEE symbol) (Potentiometer) (Rheostat) Resistor

3. Types of Resistors Figure 3 shows the different symbols used for the three main types of resistors. The
two most common types of fixed ohmic value resistors are wirewound and carbon
Resistors are readily available in many types, shapes and wattage sizes from small surface composition. Carbon composition resistors are generally used when large resistances are
mount chip resistors to large wire wound heat dissipating resistors. However, resistors can needed.
be classified into the following three basic types.
While wirewound resistors, with their metal finned or epoxy encased body are used for
• Fixed Value Resistors - A fixed value resistor has one single value of resistance, for very high wattage applications. Variable resistors, known as potentiometers or rheostats
example 100Ω. The actual value of its resistance is determined by its percentage are also available.
tolerance range either side of its nominal value. For circuit analysis methods, its
resistance does not change producing a straight line linear response. 4. Fixed Value Resistors
• Variable Resistors - A variable resistor such as a potentiometer or rheostat can
produce either a linear or logarithmic response. It can provide an infinite number of Fixed resistors are manufactured with a specified and fixed value of resistance. Fixed value
resistive values between zero and its maximum resistive value. For example 0Ω to resistors are the most common and easily recognizable of all the passive components.
1,000Ω. This is achieved by rotating a shaft or adjusting a slider to move a wiper. These resistors have only two electrical connections allowing electrical current to flow in
either direction through them.
• Non-Linear Resistors - Non-linear resistors are resistive devices whose resistive
value changes significantly in response to an externally applied stimulus. Such as Thus fixed value resistors are bi-directional devices with no specific polarity offering the
temperature, light, pressure or voltage. Non-linear resistors include light dependent same amount of resistive value regardless of the direction in which the current flows.
resistors, or LDR’s, thermistors, photo-resistors, strain gauge’s and varistor’s.

w w w.e l e c tro nic s- tu to r ials .ws 3

 Re sis ti v e Circuits

Fixed value resistors are available as through-hole components with external leads for 4.1 Carbon Composite Resistors
insertion and soldering onto a circuit board (PCB) or as chip resistors for surface mount
technology (SMT) requiring physically small size resistors that are soldered directly onto Carbon Composition Resistors (CCR) are constructed from a solid rod of conductive
the surface of a circuit board. composite material with the most common type being the Carbon Resistor. Carbon
resistors are a cheap general purpose resistor used in electrical and electronic circuits.
All modern fixed value resistors can be classified into four broad groups:
Their resistive element is manufactured from a mixture of finely ground carbon dust or
• Carbon Composition Resistor – Made from compressed carbon dust or graphite graphite (similar to pencil lead) and a non-conducting ceramic (clay) powder to bind it
paste, available in low wattage values all together before being protected with a special epoxy coating and then colour code
marked for identification.
• Film or Cermet Resistor – Made from a conductive metal oxide paste, very low
wattage values The ratio of carbon dust to ceramic (conductor to insulator) determines the final resistive
value of the mixture and the higher the ratio of carbon to filler, the lower the resistance.
• Wire-wound Resistor – Metallic or ceramic bodies for heatsink mounting, used for Carbon resistors can have resistance values ranging from one ohm, ( 1Ω ) to well over tens
very high wattage power ratings of millions of ohms, ( 10MΩ ) in resistive value.
• Semiconductor Resistor – These are high frequency, precision made surface Figure 4. Carbon Resistor
mount thin film technology
Connecting Leads
There are a large variety of fixed and variable resistor types with different construction
styles available for each group, with each one having its own particular characteristics,
advantages and disadvantages compared to the others.
The principal parameters for a resistor, whether it is fixed or variable type are:
• Nominal Resistance Value expressed in Ohms (Ω)
• Power Rating given in Watts (W)
Insulating Material Carbon Mixture
• Resistance Tolerance expressed as a percentage of its fixed value, e.g. ±10%
• Temperature Coefficient in parts per million (ppm) by which the fixed value Carbon Resistors shown in Figure 4, are a low to medium type power resistor having a low
changes with temperature inductance value, making them ideal for use in high frequency applications, but they can
also suffer from noise and instability when hot. Carbon composite resistor types are very
The two most obvious characteristics of any fixed resistor are its nominal resistance value cheap to make and are therefore commonly used in electrical circuits.
and its maximum power rating.

w w w.e l e c tro nic s- tu to r ials .ws 4

 Re sis ti v e Circuits

Carbon resistors are usually prefixed with a “CR” notation, for example CR10kΩ . They This method of manufacture allows for much closer tolerance resistors (1% or less) as
are available in E6 ( ±20% tolerance (accuracy) ), E12 ( ±10% tolerance) and E24 ( ±5% compared to the simpler carbon composition types producing smaller sized resistors with
tolerance) packages with power ratings from 0.250 or 1/4 of a Watt up to 5 Watts. much higher ohmic values, in excess of 10MΩ (10 Million Ohms) compared to other types.
However, due to their manufacturing process carbon type resistors tend to have very large
tolerances. Metal Film Resistors shown in Figure 5, have much
better temperature stability than their carbon Fixed value resistors can be
4.2 Film Type Resistors equivalents, lower noise and are generally better for available as carbon, metal
high frequency or radio frequency applications. film, metal oxide thick film or
Film Resistors is the term used for Metal Film, Carbon Film and Metal Oxide Film types, wirewound types
which are made by depositing pure metals, such as nickel, or an oxide film, such as tin- Therefore a much better choice when any degree
oxide, onto an insulating ceramic rod or base substrate. of precision or stability is required. Metal Oxide Resistors have better high surge current
capability with a much higher temperature rating than the equivalent metal film resistors.
Their resistive value is precisely controlled by increasing the desired thickness of a
conductive film deposited onto the substrate giving them the more familiar name of Another type of metal film resistor commonly known as a Thick Film Resistor is
either “thick-film resistors” or “thin-film resistors”. manufactured by depositing a much thicker conductive paste of CERamic and METal,
called Cermet, onto an alumina ceramic substrate.
Once the conductive film is deposited, a laser is used to cut a high precision spiral helix
groove type pattern into this film. The cutting of the film has the effect of increasing the Cermet resistors have similar properties to metal film resistors and are generally used for
conductive or resistive path, a bit like taking a long length of straight wire and forming it making small surface mount chip type resistors, multi-resistor networks in one package
into a coil. for PCB and high frequency resistors. They have good temperature stability, low noise,
and good voltage ratings but low surge current properties.
Figure 5. Metal Film Resistor
The abbreviations and markings can sometimes give a clue to the type of resistor. Metal
Connecting Leads Film Resistors are commonly prefixed with an “MFR” notation. For example MFR100kΩ.
While a CF is used for Carbon Film types.
Metal film resistors are available in E24 (±5% & ±2% tolerances), E96 (±1% tolerance) and
E192 (±0.5%, ±0.25% & ±0.1% tolerances). Power ratings ranging from 0.05 (1/20th) of a
Watt up to 1/2 Watt.
Insulating
Material Generally speaking film resistors and especially metal film resistors are precision low
power components and are available for most surface-mount applications. Thick-film
Spiral Groove Metal Film metal-ceramic composites and thin-film types are also available having better electrical
characteristics as compared to carbon film resistor.

w w w.e l e c tro nic s- tu to r ials .ws 5

 Re sis ti v e Circuits

4.3 Film Type Resistors Chassis Mounted Wirewound Resistors are designed to be physically bolted or mounted
onto heatsinks or metal plates to further dissipate the generated heat. The mounting of
Wirewound Resistors shown in Figure 6, are made by winding a thin metal alloy wire the resistor onto a heatsink increases their current carrying capabilities even further.
(Nichrome) onto an insulating ceramic former in the form of a spiral helix in a similar
design to the film resistor above. Another type of wirewound resistor is the Power Wirewound Resistor. These are high
temperature, high power non-inductive resistor types generally coated with a vitreous or
Figure 6. Wirewound Resistor glass epoxy enamel for use in resistance banks or DC motor/servo control and dynamic
braking applications. They can even be used as low wattage space or cabinet heaters.
Aluminium Body for
Cooling The non-inductive resistance wire is wound around a ceramic or porcelain tube covered
Heat Dissapation
Fins with mica to prevent the alloy wires from moving when hot. Wirewound resistors are
Electrical Connecting Lugs available in a variety of resistance and power ratings.
One of the main uses for power wirewound resistors is the electrical heating elements of
an electric fire which converts the electrical current flowing through it into heat energy,
with each element dissipating up to 1000 Watts, (1kW) of electrical energy.
Wirewound resistor types are prefixed with a “WH” or “W” notation (eg WH10Ω) and are
available in the WH aluminium clad package (±1%, ±2%, ±5% and ±10% tolerance) or the
Mounting
W vitreous enamelled package (±1%, ±2% and ±5% tolerance) with power ratings from 1W
Feet to 300W or more.
Resistive Metal Wire

Wirewound resistors are generally only available in very low ohmic but high precision 5. Preferred Resistor Value and Tolerances
values ranging from 0.01Ω to about 100kΩ due to the gauge of the wire and number of
possible turns wound onto the base former. Fixed value resistors come in a variety of sizes and values but to have a resistor available
of every possible resistance value available, literally hundreds of thousands, if not millions
Wirewound resistors are available in many different shapes and styles and are able to of individual resistors would need to exist. Instead, resistors are manufactured in what are
handle much higher electrical currents than other resistors of the same ohmic value with commonly known commonly as “preferred values”.
power ratings in excess of 300 Watts available.
Instead of sequential values of resistance from 1Ω and upwards, certain values of resistors
These high power resistors are moulded or pressed into an aluminium heat sink body exist within certain tolerance limits. The tolerance of a resistor is the maximum difference
with fins attached to increase their overall surface area to promote heat loss and cooling. it can vary between its actual real value and the stated value for it to still be acceptable.

w w w.e l e c tro nic s- tu to r ials .ws 6

 Re sis ti v e Circuits

Resistor tolerance is generally expressed as a plus or minus percentage value. For The mathematical basis behind these preferred values comes from the square root value
example, a 1kΩ ±20% tolerance resistor may have a maximum and minimum resistive of the actual series being used. For example, for the E6 20% series there are six individual
value of: resistors or steps (1.0 to 6.8) and is given as the sixth root of ten ( 6√10 ).

Maximum Resistance Value of: 1kΩ or 1000Ω + 20% = 1,200Ω Thus for the E12 10% series there are twelve individual resistor steps (1.0 to 8.2). Therefore
it is given as the twelfth root of ten (12√10) and so on for the remaining E-series values.
Minimum Resistance Value of: 1kΩ or 1000Ω – 20% = 800Ω
Table 3. Preferred Resistor Values Table
Thus a 1kΩ ±20% tolerance resistor can have a maximum value of 1200Ω and a minimum
value of 800Ω. This results in a difference in resistance of 400Ω (1200 - 800) even for the Series Preferred Resistor Values
same value resistor, or between different resistors of the same ohmic value.
E-6 1.00 1.50 2.20 3.30 4.70 6.80
E-Series resistance values as shown in Table 2, where created to standardise the resistors
available while still allowing for a broad range of resistances to cover most needs. The E-12 1.00 1.20 1.50 1.80 2.20 2.70 3.30 3.90 4.70 5.60 6.80 8.20
tolerances for standard fixed value resistors are typically ±20%, ±10%, ±5% or ±1 %.
1.00 1.10 1.20 1.30 1.50 1.60 1.80 2.00 2.20 2.40 2.70 3.00 3.30 3.60 3.90
Tolerances as tight as 0.5%, 0.25%, and even 0.1% or higher are available but obviously E-24
4.30 4.70 5.10 5.60 6.20 6.80 7.50 8.20 9.10
the resistors with the smallest tolerance are the most accurate and the most expensive.
1.00 1.02 1.05 1.07 1.10 1.13 1.15 1.18 1.21 1.24 1.27 1.30 1.33 1.37 1.40
Table 2. Resistor Tolerance and E-series Table
1.43 1.47 1.50 1.54 1.58 1.62 1.65 1.69 1.74 1.78 1.82 1.87 1.91 1.96 2.00
2.05 2.10 2.15 2.21 2.26 2.32 2.37 2.43 2.49 2.55 2.61 2.67 2.74 2.80 2.87
Series Resistor Tolerance Values per Decade Usage E-96 2.94 3.01 3.09 3.16 3.24 3.32 3.40 3.48 3.57 3.65 3.74 3.83 3.92 4.02 4.12
E6 20% 6 steps per decade No longer in use 4.22 4.32 4.42 4.53 4.64 4.75 4.87 4.99 5.11 5.23 5.36 5.49 5.62 5.76 5.90
6.04 6.19 6.34 6.49 6.65 6.81 6.98 7.15 7.32 7.50 7.68 7.87 8.06 8.25 8.45
E12 10% 12 steps per decade Not commonly used
8.66 8.87 9.09 9.31 9.53 9.76
E24 5% 24 steps per decade Commonly used
E48 2% 48 steps per decade Commonly used The above E-series values of Table 3, defines the different sets of standard resistor values.
Thus E6 has six resistance values in each decimal interval, E12 has twelve, E24 has twenty-
E96 1% 96 steps per decade Commonly used four and so on. Then each standard E-value is multiplied by 1, 10, 100, 1,000, 10,000,
E192 0.5%, 0.25%, 0.1% 192 steps per decade Precision Usage 100,000 or 1,000,000 in order to derive the desired nominal resistance value.
For example, the 1.20 value given in the E-24 series table will produce a series of resistors
with resistances values of: 1.2Ω, 12Ω, 120Ω, 1,200Ω (or 1.2kΩ), 12kΩ, 120kΩ and 1.2MΩ
each one with a 5% tolerance band.
w w w.e l e c tro nic s- tu to r ials .ws 7
 Re sis ti v e Circuits

The tolerance series of preferred values are ranges of resistor values chosen so that at A resistors colour code markings consists of a set of individual coloured rings or bands
maximum or minimum tolerance any one resistor overlaps with its neighbouring value. in spectral order representing each digit of the resistors value. These coloured rings are
For example, take the E24 range of resistors with a 5% tolerance and resistor values are 47 always read one band at a time starting from the left to the right, with the larger width
and 51Ω respectively. tolerance band oriented to the right side indicating its tolerance.
47Ω + 5% = 49.35Ω, and 51Ω – 5% = 48.45Ω, an overlap of just 0.9Ω (49.35 – 48.45) Figure 7. Resistor Colour Codes
Note that all of the E-6 and E-12 values are also contained within the E-24 series but not 4 Bands
all of them are contained within the E-96 Series table.
Five and six band colour coded resistors are more commonly associated with the high 4.7K1 , 10%
precision 1% and 2% film types while the 5% and 10% tolerances are for the more general 5 Bands
purpose carbon types which tend to use the four band resistor colour code.
68K%, 5%
6. Resistor Colour Codes 6 Bands

A resistors value, tolerance, and wattage rating can be printed onto the body of the 560K%, 0.1%
resistor as numbers or letters when the resistors body is big enough to read the print,
such as large power resistors.
1st 2nd 3rd 0.01 10%
But when the resistor is small such as a 1/4 watt carbon or film type, these specifications
Digit Digit Digit
must be shown in some other manner as the printed information would be too small to 0.1 5%
read, or over time and excessive heat, they could disappear completely. 0 0 0 1
1 1 1 10 1% 100ppm
To overcome this, manufacturers use a coloured
Resistor colour codes are banding system known commonly as a resistor 2 2 2 100 2% 50ppm
a simple and visual way of colour code system of 4, 5 or 6 painted bands to 3 3 3 1k 15ppm
identifying a resistors value indicate a resistors nominal value. 4 4 4 10k 25ppm
and tolerance
5 5 5 100k 0.5%
Temperature
The body of small resistors use coloured painted Coefficient
6 6 6 1M 0.25%
bands to indicate both their resistive value and their tolerance with the physical size of the
resistor generally indicating its wattage rating. These coloured painted bands can be used 7 7 7 10M 0.1%

to easily identify a resistors ohmic value no matter what its size or condition without the 8 8 8
Multiplier
0.05%

need to measure it with the ohmmeter. 9 9 9 Tolerance

w w w.e l e c tro nic s- tu to r ials .ws 8

 Re sis ti v e Circuits

By matching the colour of the first band with its associated number in the digit column of Figure 8. Five-band Resistor Colour Codes
the colour chart below the first digit is identified and this represents the first digit of the
resistance value. 3rd colour band
multiplier
The coloured bands of the resistor given in
2nd colour band figure 8 are shown as: BLUE, RED, BLACK,
1st colour band tolerance
The colour of the second band with its associated number in the digit column of the BROWN and BROWN.
colour chart we get the second digit of the resistance value and so on. Then the resistor
colour code is read from left to right as illustrated below in figure 7. The Blue coloured band is the first digit with a
value of 6. The second Red band is the second
The “left-hand” or the most significant coloured band is the band which is nearest to a digit value of 2. The third band is the third digit
connecting lead with the colour coded bands being read from left-to-right as follows: value of 0. This gives a three digit value of 620. The fourth band, Brown has a value of 10.

•• 1st coloured band – This coloured band is closest to the end of the resistor on the So the resistor has a resistive value of 6200 ohms (620 × 10 = 6200) or 6k2Ω. The last band
left hand side and represents the first digit of the resistors value. gives the resistors tolerance value and Brown equals a tolerance range of ±1%. Thus the
value of the example resistor is: Blue Red Black Brown = 6 2 0 0 = 6 2 0 x 10 = 6200Ω or
•• 2nd coloured band – The second coloured band along representing the second 6k2Ω ±1%.
digit of the resistors value.
•• 3rd coloured band – This is for metal film resistors which use a five or six-band 7. Connecting Resistors Together
colour code for more precise values.
If there is no one single resistor available for a specific resistance value, we can combine
•• 4th coloured band – This is the mathematical multiplier which represents the two or more resistors together to obtain the necessary value we require, either as a series
number of zeros to be added to the first two (or three) digits. If the third colour, for a or parallel combination. Individual resistors which are combined together within a circuit
4-band resistor or the fourth colour, for a 5-band resistor, is either gold or silver, this produce what is generally called an Equivalent Resistance value or REQ.
represents a fractional decimal multiplier as the resistive value is less than 10Ω.
If the coloured band is Gold, multiply the first two or three digits by 0.1 (divide-by 7.1 Resistors in Series
10) and if the coloured band is Silver multiply by 0.01 (divide-by 100).
Individual resistors are said to be connected together in a “Series” combination when
•• 5th coloured band – The final coloured band represents the tolerance of the they are connected together in a single line as shown in Figure 9.
resistor. A Gold band indicates a tolerance of ±5% while a Silver band indicates a
tolerance of ±10%. If there is no coloured band as in a three band resistor, then the Figure 9. A Series Connection
tolerance is ±20%. R1 R2 R3 R4
A I I I I I
B

w w w.e l e c tro nic s- tu to r ials .ws 9

 Re sis ti v e Circuits

As all the current, (I) flowing through the first resistor of Figure 9 has no other path to flow What will be the voltage drops across each resistor?
through, it must therefore pass through the second resistor and then the third resistor and
so on. Thus, resistors in series have a Common Current flowing through them because the V1 = I × R1 = 0.1 × 30Ω = 3 volts
current that flows through the resistor chain can only take one path.
V2 = I × R2 = 0.1 × 20Ω = 2 volts
Thus for resistors in series: I = IR1 = IR2 = IR3 = IR4 ... etc. V3 = I × R3 = 0.1 × 25Ω = 2.5 volts
Since according to Ohms Law, the voltage drop across a resistor is the sum of the current V4 = I × R4 = 0.1 × 45Ω = 4.5 volts
times the resistance, V = I*R, the voltage presented across the whole resistive combination
is split between the individual resistors within the series chain. VT = V1 + V2 + V3 + V4 = 3 + 2 + 2.5 + 4.5 = 12 volts
Since the current through each resistor is the same, the voltage dropped across each
resistor will depend only upon its resistance with the sum of all these voltage drops being Figure 11 Same Resistive Value.
equal to the supply voltage. Thus series resistive networks can also be thought of as Since the total series resistance RT of Figure 10. is equal to the
“Voltage Dividers”. So a series resistive circuit that has “N” resistors will have N-different sum of all the individual resistances added together, if two
voltage drops across it while maintaining a common current. R
resistances in series string of Figure 11 are equal and of the
As the resistors are connected together in series the same current passes through each 2R same value, then the total or equivalent resistance, RT will be
resistor in the chain, thus the total resistance, RT between points A and B above must be R
equal to twice the value of one single resistor. That is equal to
equal to the sum of all the individual resistors in the series string added together. That is, 2R. For three equal resistors in series will be 3R, etc.
RT will equal R1 + R2 + R3 + R4. Using resistors of the same value also means that he IR voltage
drops across each individual resistance within the series string will be exactly the same so
Figure 10. A Series Resistive Circuit
using Ohms Law above: VR1 = VR2 = VR3 … etc
R1 Example: What will be the total resistance of the series
I
circuit shown in Figure 10 if: R1 = 30Ω, R2 = 20Ω, R3 = 25Ω Figure 12 Different Resistive Value.
A
and R4 = 45Ω If as shown in Figure 12, two resistors or impedances in
R2 series are unequal and of different values, then the total or
RT = R1 + R2 + R3 + R4 = 30 + 20 + 25 + 45 = 120Ω R1
equivalent resistance, RT is equal to the mathematical sum of
R1+R2
RT Also, what will be the value of the current flowing around the two resistances.
the circuit if 12 volts is applied between terminals A and B. R2 That is equal to R1 + R2. If three or more unequal (or equal)
R3
I = V ÷ RT = 12 ÷ 120 = 0.1 Amps or 100 milliamperes resistors are connected in series then the equivalent
R4 resistance is: R1 + R2 + R3 +…, etc.
B

w w w.e l e c tro nic s- tu to r ials .ws 10

 Re sis ti v e Circuits

One important point to note about resistors in series networks and check that your maths Thus parallel resistor networks can also be thought of as “Current Dividers” and a parallel
is correct. The total resistance ( RT ) of any two or more resistors connected together in resistor network having N resistors will have N-different current paths with the supply
series will always be GREATER than the value of the largest resistor in the series chain. voltage presented across the whole parallel combination being the same.

7.2 Resistors in Parallel Unlike the series resistor network whose total resistance, RT is equal to the sum of all the
individual resistors added together, the total or equivalent resistance for a parallel circuit
Individual resistors are said to be connected together in “Parallel” when both of their is calculated differently.
terminals are respectively connected to each terminal of the other resistor or resistors as
shown in Figure 13. Unlike the previous series circuit, in a parallel resistor network the Here, the reciprocal ( 1/R ) value of the individual resistances are all added together
current can take more than one resistive path around the circuit. instead of the resistances themselves with the inverse of the algebraic sum giving the
equivalent resistance as shown.
Figure 13. A Parallel Connection

+ IT 1 1 1 1 1 1
A RT
=
R1
+
R2
+
R3
+
R4
... ... +
RN
I1 I2 I3 IN

VS R1 R2 R3 RN Figure 14 Parallel Connected Resistors.

Example: What will be the total resistance of
IT the circuit shown in Figure 14 if:
A
B - I1 I2 I3 I4
R1 = 10Ω, R2 = 25Ω, R3 = 60Ω and R4 = 100Ω

Since there are multiple paths for the supply current to flow through, the current is not RT R1 R2 R3 R4 Rx = 1/R1 + 1/R2 + 1/R3 + 1/R4
the same at all points in a parallel circuit. However, the voltage drop across all of the Rx = 1/10 + 1/25 + 1/60 + 1/100 = 0.1667
resistors in a parallel resistive network IS the same. Then, Resistors in Parallel have a B Therefore: RT = 1/Rx = 1/0.1667 = 6Ω
Common Voltage across them and this is true for all parallel connected elements.

Thus for resistors in parallel: VS = VR1 = VR2 = VR3 = VRN .. etc.

If a 12 volt battery is applied between terminals A and B, what will be the total current
Since according to Ohms Law, the voltage drop across a resistor is the sum of the current taken from the supply.
times the resistance, V = I*R. As the voltage across each resistor is the same, the current
passing through each resistor will therefore depend on its resistive value, with the sum of I = VS ÷ RT = 12V ÷ 6Ω = 2.0 Amperes
all the parallel currents being equal to the supply current, IT.

w w w.e l e c tro nic s- tu to r ials .ws 11

 Re sis ti v e Circuits

Then if 12 Amperes in total is delivered by the supply, what will be the individual branch An important point to remember about resistors in parallel. The total circuit resistance
currents flowing through each parallel resistor branch. ( RT ) of any two resistors connected together in parallel will always be LESS than the value
of the smallest resistor in that combination.
I1 = V ÷ R1 = 12 ÷ 10Ω = 1.2 Amps
7.4 Series-Parallel Resistive Networks
I2 = V ÷ R2 = 12 ÷ 25Ω = 0.48 Amps (480mA)
I3 = V ÷ R3 = 12 ÷ 60Ω = 0.2 Amps (200mA) Resistive circuits generally combine series and parallel elements together to produce
more complex resistive networks. Resistor circuits that combine series and parallel
I4 = V ÷ R4 = 12 ÷ 100Ω = 0.12 Amps (120mA) resistors together are generally known as Resistor Combination or mixed resistor circuits
as shown in Figure 16.
Thus: I T = I 1 + I 2 + I 3 + I 4 = 1.2 + 0.48 + 0.2 + 0.12 = 2.0 Amps
Figure 16. Resistor Combinational Circuit
7.3 Two Resistors in Parallel
IT
R1 Resistors R2 and R4 are in parallel with
This method of reciprocal calculation can be used for calculating any number of A each other. As are resistors R3 and R5
individual resistances connected together within a single parallel network. If however,
there are only two individual resistors in parallel like the ones shown in Figure 15, then a R2 R4 RT = R1 + ((( R2 || R4 ) + ( R3 || R5 )) || R6 )
much simpler and quicker formula to find the total or equivalent resistance value, RT and
help reduce the reciprocal maths a little. RT IT = VAB ÷ RT
R6

This much quicker product-over-sum method of calculating two resistors in a parallel R3 R5

Where the parallel bars “||“ represents a
combination, having either equal or unequal resistive values is given as: parallel circuit condition.

Figure 15. Only Two Resistors In Parallel B

R1 × R 2 The method of calculating a combinational circuits equivalent resistance, voltage drops,

RT =
R1 + R 2 or branch currents is the same as that for any individual series or parallel circuit. We just
need to remember that series circuits have a common current, (Voltage Division) while
parallel circuits have a common voltage, (Current Division).
R1 R2 R1 x R2 Thus, if R1 = 30Ω and R2 = 45Ω, RT will equal:
R1 + R2

R1  R 2 30  45
RT    18 W
R1  R 2 30  45

w w w.e l e c tro nic s- tu to r ials .ws 12

 Re sis ti v e Circuits

Resistor power rating is an important parameter to consider when choosing a resistor for
8. Power In Resistors a particular application. The electrical power dissipation of any resistor in a DC circuit can
be calculated using one of the following three standard formulas:
When an electrical current passes through a resistor due to the presence of a voltage
across it, electrical energy is lost by the resistor in the form of heat and the greater this
current flow the hotter the resistor will get. 2 V2
Power, P = V×I = I R =
R
Resistors are rated by the value of their nominal resistance as well as the electrical power
given in watts, (W) that they can safely dissipate. A resistors power rating is sometimes Example: Calculate the power dissipated by a 240Ω resistor when connected to a 12 volt
called a Resistors Wattage Rating. DC supply.
A resistors wattage rating is defined as the amount of heat that a resistive element can Power, P = V2 ÷ R = 122 ÷ 240 = 0.6 watts
safely dissipate for an indefinite period of time without degrading its performance. Every
resistor will have a maximum power rating and common values range from 1/4W up to As the power dissipated by a resistor is commonly linked to its physical size, a 1/4 (0.250)
1000 Watts for ceramic or porcelain power resistors used for heating elements. Watt resistor is therefore physically smaller than a 1 Watt resistor. Generally, resistors
that are of the same ohmic value are also available in different power or wattage ratings.
We know from above that when a current flows through a resistance, a voltage is dropped Carbon resistors, for example, are commonly made in wattage ratings of 1/8 (0.125)W, 1/4
across it producing a product which relates to power. Thus if a resistance is subjected (0.250)W, 1/2 (0.5)W, 1W, and 2 Watts, etc.
to a voltage, or if it conducts an electrical current, then it will always consume electrical
power and we can superimpose these three quantities of power, voltage and current into End of this Resistive Circuits eBook
a triangle called a Power Triangle as shown in Figure 17.
Last revision: March 2022
Figure 17. The Power Triangle Copyright © 2022 Aspencore
https://www.electronics-tutorials.ws

P P P Free for non-commercial educational use and not for resale

With the completion of this Resistive Circuits eBook you should have gained a basic
V I V I V I understanding and knowledge of resistors and how to connect them. The information
provided here should give you a firm foundation for continuing your study of electronics
and electrical engineering. In ebook 5 we will learn about capacitors.
P P
P =VxI V = I = For more information about any of the topics covered here please visit our website at:
I V
www.electronics-tutorials.ws
Where: P is Power, V is Voltage and I is Current.
w w w.e l e c tro nic s- tu to r ials .ws 13