UNIT 1

System Development
Fundamentals
LH- 9HRS

Er. Rolisha Sthapit

SYSTEM ANALYSIS AND DESIGN (SAD)
CONTENTS (LH-9HRS)
1.1 The system development environment
Introduction, Modern Approach of System Analysis and Design, Information System and its Types,
Developing Information systems and the System Development Life Cycle, The Heart of System
Development Process, The Traditional Waterfall SDLC, Approaches for Improving Development,
CASE tools, Rapid Application Development, Service -Oriented Architecture, Agile Methodologies,
eXtreme Programming, Object -Oriented Analysis and Design
1.2 The origins of software
Introduction, System Acquisition, Reuse
1.3 Managing the Information Systems Project
Introduction, Managing Information Systems Project, Representing and Scheduling Project, Using
Project Management Software Plans
 1.1 The system development environment
Introduction, Modern Approach of System Analysis and Design,
Information System and its Types, Developing Information systems and
the System Development Life Cycle, The Heart of System Development
Process, The Traditional Waterfall SDLC, Approaches for Improving
Development, CASE tools, Rapid Application Development, Service -
Oriented Architecture, Agile Methodologies, eXtreme Programming,
Object -Oriented Analysis and Design
Introduction: Data Vs Information
• Data is raw unprocessed facts and figures that have no context or purposeful
meaning.
• Data are raw facts about the organization and its business transactions.
• Most data items have little meaning and use by themselves.
• Information is processed data that has meaning .
• Information is data that has been refined and organized by processing and
purposeful intelligence.
• Data is used as input for the computer system. Information is the output of data.
• Data is unprocessed facts figures. Information is processed data.
• Data doesn’t depend on Information. Information depends on data.
• Data is not specific. Information is specific.
• Data is a single unit. A group of data which carries news and meaning is called
Information.
• Data doesn’t carry a meaning. Information must carry a logical meaning.
• Data is the raw material. Information is the product.
System
• A system is an orderly grouping of
interdependent components linked together
according to a plan to achieve a specific
objective.
• A system is a collection of components
(subsystems) that work together to realize some
objective. For example, the library system
contains librarians, books, and periodicals as
components to provide knowledge for its
members.
• A set of detailed methods, procedures and
routines established or formulation to carry out
specify activity, perform a duty or solve a
problem.
Elements of System
Every system has three activities or functions. These
activities are input, processing and output.
• Input: It involves capturing and assembling elements
that enter the system to be processed. Inputs to the system
are anything to be captured by the system from its
environment. For example, raw materials.
• Processing: It involves transformation processes that
convert input to output. For example, a manufacturing
process.
• Output: It involves transferring elements that have been
produced by a transformation process to their ultimate
destinations. Outputs are the things produced by the
system and sent into its environment. For example,
finished products.
The system also includes other two additional activities. These activities include
feedback and control.
• Feedback: It is data about the performance of a system. It is the idea of
monitoring the current system output and comparing it to the system goal. Any
variation from the goal are then fed back in to the system and used to adjust it to
ensure that it meets its goal. For example, data about sales performance is
feedback to a sales manager.
• Control: It involves monitoring and evaluating feedback to determine whether a
system is moving toward the achievement of its goals. The control function then
makes necessary adjustments to a system’s input and processing components to
ensure that it produces proper output. For example, a sales manager exercises
control when reassigning salespersons to new sales territories after evaluating
feedback about their sales performance
Theoretical approaches to systems have introduced many generalized principles. Goal
setting is one such principle. It defines exactly what the system is supposed to do. There are
principles concerned with system structure and behavior. System boundary is one such a
principle. This defines the components that make up the system.
Anything outside the system boundary is known as system environment. A system can be
made up of any number of subsystems. Each subsystem carries out part of the system
function i.e. part of the system goal.
The subsystems communicate by passing messages between themselves. Several systems
may share the same environment. Some of these systems may be connected to one another
by means of a shared boundary, or interface. A system that interacts with other systems in
its environment is called open system. Finally, a system that has the ability to change itself
or environment in order to survive is called an adaptive system.
Characteristics of System
• Organization
• Interaction
• Interdependence
• Integration
• Central Objective
• Organization-It implies structure and order. It is the arrangement of components
that helps to achieve objectives.
• Interaction-It refers to manner in which each component functions with other
components of the system. In an organization, for example, purchasing must
interact with production, advertising with sales, etc.
• Interdependence- It means that parts of the organization or computer system
depend on one another. They are coordinated and linked together according to a
plan. One subsystem depends on the input of another subsystem for proper
functioning.
• Integration- It refers to the completeness of system. It is concerned with how a
system is tied together. It is more than sharing a physical part or location. The
parts of a system work together within the system even though each part performs
a unique function.
• Central Objective-Objective may be real or stated. All the components work
together to achieve that particular objective.
Why System Analysis ?
• The dissection of a system into its component pieces to study how
those component pieces interact and work.
(1) The survey and planning
(2) The study and analysis
(3) The definition

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What is System Design ?
• The process of defining the architecture, components, modules,
interfaces and data for a system to satisfy specified requirements is
called System Design.

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Need for System Analysis and Design
• Installing a system without proper planning leads to great user
dissatisfaction and frequently causes the system to fall into disuse.
• Lends structure to the analysis and design of information systems.
• A series of processes systematically undertaken to improve a business
through the use of computerized information systems

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Information System
• In a simplest sense, a system that provides information to people in an organization is
called information system (IS).
• Information systems in organizations capture and manage data to produce useful
information that supports an organization and its employees, customers, suppliers and
partners. So, many organizations consider information system to be the essential one.
• Information systems produce information by using data about significant people, places,
and things from within the organization and/or from the external environment to make
decisions, control operations, analyze problems, and create new products or services.
• Information is the data shaped into a meaningful form.
• Data, on the other hand, are the collection of raw facts representing events occurring in
organizations or the environment before they have been organized and arranged into a
form that people can understand and use.
• The three activities to produce information
in an information system are input,
processing, and output.
• Input captures or collects raw data from
within the organization or from its external
environment for processing.
• Processing converts these raw data into the
meaningful information.
• Output transfers this information to the
people who will use it or to the activities for
which it will be used.
• Information systems also require feedback,
which is used to monitor the current
information system output and compare it to
the system goal.
• The two types of information systems are formal and informal.
• Formal information systems are based on accepted and fixed definitions of data
and procedures for collecting, storing, processing, disseminating, and using these
data with predefined rules.
• Informal information systems, in contrast, relay on unstated rules.
• Formal information systems can be manual as well as computer based.
• Manual information systems use paper-and-pencil technology.
• In contrast, computer-based information systems (CBIS) relay on computer
hardware and software for processing and disseminating information.
• Information Technology:
Information technology is a contemporary term that describes the combination of computer
technology (hardware and software) with telecommunications technology (data, image, and voice
networks). Combination of hardware and software products and services that companies use to
manage, access, communicate, and share information
• Systems analysis:
Systems analysis is a problem-solving technique that decomposes a system into its component pieces
for the purpose of studying how well those component parts work and interact to accomplish their
purpose.
• Information systems analysis:
Information systems analysis is defined as those development phases in a project that primarily focus
on the business problem, independent of any technology that can or will be used to implement a
solution to that problem.
Types of Information System
• In practice there are several classes of
information systems in organizations. Each
class serves the needs of different types of
users. These are:
1. Transaction processing system (TPS)
2. Management information system (MIS)
3. Decision support system (DSS)
4. Executive information system (EIS)
5. Expert system
6. Communication and collaboration system
7. Office automation system.
Transaction Processing Systems(TPS)
• These are the computerized systems that perform and records the daily routine
transactions necessary to conduct business. These systems serve the operational level of
the organization. Some examples include sales order entry, hotel reservation systems,
payroll, employee record keeping, and shipping.
• Transaction processing systems are central to a business. TPS failure for a few hours can
cause a firm’s demise and perhaps other firms linked to it. Managers need TPS to
monitor the status of internal operations and the firm’s relations with external
environment. TPS are also major producers of information for the other types of systems.
• Online transaction processing systems (OLTPS) is an interactive data processing system
that involves a direct connection between TPS programs and users. As soon as a single
transaction is entered into a computer system, the program interacts immediately with the
user for that transaction. It is often known as the live system where there is no time lag
between data creation and its processing. A good example of this system is online ticket
reservation system.
• TPS is a type of IS that manages data
created in everyday operations. This
includes storing, formatting, processing,
retrieving, and creating some new
aggregate data.
• Examples: purchasing transactions, sales
orders, sales transactions, payroll,
employee data, inventory
• Records daily, routine activities
• Serves supervisory level of management
Management Information Systems (MISs)
• These are the information systems at the
management level of an organization and serve
management-level functions like planning,
controlling, and decision-making. These systems
provide reports that are usually generated on a
predetermined schedule and appear in
prearranged format.
• Typically, these systems use internal data
provided by the transaction processing systems.
These systems are used for structured decision-
making and in some cases for semi-structured
decision making as well.
• Salary analysis and sales reporting are the
examples in which MIS can be used.
• Management information system, or MIS,
broadly refers to a computer-based system that
provides managers with the tools to organize,
evaluate and efficiently manage departments
within an organization.
• MIS convert data from internal and
external sources into information
for managers.
• The source of data for an MIS
usually comes from numerous
databases. These databases are
usually the data storage for Data
Processing Systems.
• MIS summarise and report on the
organisation’s basic operations.
• MIS produce reports for managers
interested in historic trends on a
regular basis.
• MIS operate at the tactical level
• Example: Annual budgeting
Properties of MIS
• Management-oriented: The basic objective of MIS is to provide information
support to the management in the organization for decision making.
• Management directed: When MIS is management-oriented, it should be directed
by the management because it is the management who tells their needs and
requirements more effectively than anybody else.
• Integrated: It means a comprehensive or complete view of all the subsystems in
the organization of a company.
• Common database: This is the basic feature of MIS to achieve the objective of
using MIS in business organizations.
• Computerized: MIS can be used without a computer. But the use of computers
increases the effectiveness and the efficiency of the system.
• User friendly/Flexibility: An MIS should be flexible.
• Information as a resource: Information is the major ingredient of any MIS.
• Common data flows: The integration of different subsystems will lead to a
common data flow which will further help in avoiding duplicacy and redundancy
in data collection, storage and processing.
• Heavy planning-element: The preparation of MIS is not a one or two day
exercise. It usually takes 3 to 5 years and sometimes a much longer period.
Decision Support Systems (DSSs)
• These systems also serve at the management level
of the organization. These systems combine data
and sophisticated analytical models or data
analysis tools to support semi structured and
unstructured decision-making.
• These systems use internal information from TPS
and MIS, and often information from external
sources, such as current stock prices or product
prices of competitors.
• DSS have more analytical power than other
systems. Contract cost analysis is an example in
which DSS can be used.
• A decision support system (DSS) is an
information system application that provides its
users with decision-oriented information
whenever a decision-making situation arises.
When applied to executive managers, these
systems are sometimes called executive
information systems (EIS).
• A Decision Support System (DSS) is
an interactive computer-based system
or subsystem intended to help decision
makers use communications
technologies, data, documents,
knowledge and/or models to identify
and solve problems, complete decision
process tasks, and make decisions.
• Decision Support System is a general
term for any computer application that
enhances a person or group’s ability to
make decisions.
• Also, Decision Support Systems refers
to an academic field of research that
involves designing and studying
Decision Support Systems in their
context of Use
Executive Information Systems (EISs)
• These systems are also called executive support systems (ESSs) and serve the strategic
level of the organization. These systems are designed to address unstructured decision
making through advanced graphics and communication. It is used by top management.
• These systems incorporate data about external events such as new tax laws or
competitors, but they also draw summarized information from internal MIS and DSS.
• These systems are not designed to solve a specific problem but they provide generalized
computing and telecommunication capacity that can be applied to a changing array of
problems. 5-year operating plan is an example in which EIS can be used.
• Another special characteristic of an ESS is its drill down capability, which is the ability of
the system to provide information at any level of detail desired by the decision maker. For
example, the CEO of a company may want the monthly sales of Product X for the entire
company. Next, the CEO may want a breakdown of sales figures on a regional basis or on
a store wide basis. The drill down facility can provide both.
It is a user friendly, interactive system,
and almost intuitive to use; it has
excellent menus and graphic
capabilities designed to meet the
information needs of top management
engaged in long range planning, crisis
management, and other strategic
decisions.
Such systems assist in the making of
decisions that require an in depth
understanding of the firm and of the
industry in which the firm operates.
Expert Systems
• An expert system is an extension of DSS that
captures and reproduces the knowledge and
expertise of an expert problem solver or decision
maker and then simulates the “thinking” or
“actions” of that expert.
• These systems imitate the logic and reasoning of
the experts within their respective fields. Expert
systems are implemented with artificial
intelligence (AI) technology that captures, stores,
and provides access to the reasoning of the
experts.
• An expert system is a system that employs
human knowledge captured in a computer to
solve problems that ordinarily require human
expertise.(Turban)
• An expert system is a computer program that
tries to emulate human reasoning. It does this by
combining the knowledge of human experts and
then, following a set of rules, draws inferences.
• An expert system is made up
of three parts:
• A knowledge base stores all of
the facts, rules and information
needed to represent the
knowledge of the expert.
• An inference engine interprets
the rules and facts to find
solutions to user queries.
• A user interface allows new
knowledge to be entered and
the system queried.
Communication and Collaboration
Systems
• These systems enable more effective communications between workers, partners,
customers and suppliers to enhance their ability to collaborate. These systems use
network technology that allows companies to coordinate with other organizations
across great distances.
• These systems create new efficiencies and new relationships between an
organization, its customers and suppliers, and business partners redefining
organizational boundaries.
Office Automation Systems
• Office automation (OA) is more than word processing and spreadsheet applications.
• Office automation systems support the wide range of business office activities for
improved work flow and communication between workers, regardless of whether or not
those workers are located in the same office.
• Office automation functions include word processing, spreadsheet applications,
electronic mails, work group computing, fax processing, work flow management etc.
• Office automation systems can be designed to support both individuals and work groups.
• Personnel information systems are those designed to meet the needs of a single user.
They are designed to boost an individual’s productivity.
• Work group information systems, on the other hand, are designed to meet the needs of
a work group. They are designed to boost the group’s productivity.
Systems Analysis and Design
• System analysis and design is a complex, challenging, and simulating
organizational process that a team of business and systems professionals uses to
develop and maintain computer-based information systems. It is an organizational
improvement process.
• Information systems are built and rebuilt for organizational benefits.
• System Analysis: Process of gathering and interpreting facts, diagnosing
problems, and using the facts to improve the system.
• System Design: Process of planning a new system to replace or complement the
old.
• Analysis specifies what the system should do and design states how to achieve the
objective.
• An important result of system analysis and design is application software i.e.
software designed to support organizational functions or processes such as
inventory management, payroll, or mark-sheet analysis.
• In addition to application software, the total information system includes the
hardware and systems software on which the application software runs,
documentation and training materials, the specific job roles associated with the
overall system, controls and the people who use the software along with their
work methods.
• In systems analysis and design, we use various methodologies, techniques and
tools that have been developed, tested, and widely used over the years to assist
people during system analysis and design.
• Methodologies are comprehensive, multistep approaches
to systems development that will guide your work and
influence the quality of your final product: the
information system. Methodologies use a standard set of
steps. A methodology adopted by an organization will be
consistent with its general management style. Most
methodologies incorporate several development
techniques.
• Techniques are particular processes that will help to
ensure that your work is well thought-out, complete, and
comprehensible to other on the project team. Techniques
also provide support for a wide range of tasks like
conducting interviews, planning and managing the
activities in a system development project, diagramming
the system’s logic, and designing the reports that the
system will generate.
• Tools are typically computer programs that make it easy
to use and benefit from the techniques and to faithfully
follow the guidelines of the overall development
methodology.
Importance of Systems Analysis and
Design
• Systems analysis and design is the collection of important activities that takes
place when new information systems are being built or existing ones are changed.
All the activities are needed to build good information systems.
• The systems developed by using systems analysis and design activities fulfill the
requirements of organizations’ personnel.
• Furthermore, we can develop information systems easily and rapidly because there
are lots of supporting methodologies, tools, and techniques. The information
system can be built in the most effective way.
• The systems also fit into an existing environment and will be very easy to use and
maintain. By following the activities involved in systems analysis and design, we
can develop high quality information system within allocated budget and time.
Information System Stakeholders
• A stakeholder is any person who has an interest in an existing or proposed information
system. She/he may be technical or non-technical and internal or external worker.
• Stakeholders are also called information workers. An information worker involves in
creating, collecting, processing, distributing and using information.
• There are six groups of stakeholders and each group has a different role in the same
information system. But in practice, any individual person may play more than one role.
• For example, a system analyst may also work as a system designer. The six groups are:
1. System owners
2. System users
3. System designers
4. System builders
5. System analysts and project managers
6. Information technology vendors and consultants.
(1)System owners
• System owners are the information system’s sponsors and chief advocates. They are
usually responsible for funding the project of development, operate, and maintain the
information system. They are interested with-how much will the system cost? And how
much value or what benefit will the system return to the business? Every information
system has one or more system owners. They usually come from the ranks of managers to
supervisors.
(2)System Users
• These are the people who use or are affected by the information system on a regular basis.
They are concerned with the system’s functionality related with their jobs and the
system’s ease of learning and use. A system user may capture, validate, enter, respond,
store and exchange data and information. System users are also called clients. To know
business requirements, discussions with most users need to be kept.
(3)System Designers
• These are technology specialists who translate system users’ business
requirements and constraints into technical solutions. These are interested in
information technology choices and the design of systems within the constraints of
the chosen technology. They design the computer database, inputs, outputs,
screens, networks, and programs that will meet the system users’ requirements.
These designs guide the construction of the final system.
(4)System Builders
• These are also technology specialists who construct information systems and
components based on the design specifications generated by the system designer.
(5)Systems Analysts and Project Managers
A. Systems Analyst:
• Although, many people in organizations are responsible for systems analysis and
design, in most organizations the systems analyst has the primary responsibility.
The primary role of a systems analyst is to study the problems and needs of an
organization in order to determine how people, methods and information
technology can best be combined to bring about improvements in the organization.
System analysts identify and validate problems and needs and ensure that the
technical solution fulfills these problems and needs. Systems analysts study the
system and identify and validate its problems and needs for system owners and
users and ensure that the technical solution fulfills the business needs.
B. Project Manager:
• To build a good information system and applications all the stakeholders must
work together as a team. Teams require leadership. For this reason, usually one or
more of these stakeholders takes on the role of project manager to ensure that
systems are developed on time, within budget and acceptable quality. So, project
manager is responsible for planning, monitoring, and controlling projects with
respect to schedule, budget, deliverables, customer satisfaction, technical
standards and system quality.
(6)Information Technology Vendors and Consultants
• Most information systems are dependent on information technology that must be
selected, installed and customized, integrated into business, and technically
supported. This technology is developed, sold, and supported by IT vendors.
Similarly, many businesses rely on external consultants to help them develop or
acquire information systems and technology. The use of consultants may be driven
by the need for specialized knowledge or skills or by an immediate need to
complete a project.
A Modern Approach to Systems Analysis and Design
• 1950s: All applications had to be developed in machine language or assembly language.
They had to be developed from scratch because due to the absence of software industry.
• 1960s: Smaller, faster, less expensive computers, beginning of the software industry, use
in-house development.
• 1970s: Realized how expensive to develop customized information system for every
application , started development of database management system.
• 1980s: The software industry expended greatly, CASE(computer aided software
engineering) tools.
• Started writing application software in oop languages, graphics were used, developed less
software in-house and bought more from software vendors.
• 1990s: focus on system integration, GUI(Graphical user interface) applications,
client/server platforms, Internet.
• The new century: Web application development, wireless PDAs (personal digital
assistants, eg pocket PCs), ASP(application service provider).
Process-Oriented Approach
• Focus is on flow, use and transformation of data in an information system
• Involves creating graphical representations such as data flow diagrams and charts
• Data are tracked from sources, through intermediate steps and to final destinations
• Natural structure of data is not specified
• Disadvantage: data files are tied to specific applications
Data-Oriented Approach
• Depicts ideal organization of data, independent of where and how data are used
• Data model describes kinds of data and business relationships among the data
• Business rules depict how organization captures and processes the data
The Systems Analyst As A Modern
Business Problem Solver
Why do businesses need Systems Analysts?
• The system analyst bridges the communications gap between those who need the
computer and those who understand the technology
Systems analysts
• Systems analysts are people who understand both business and computing.
• Systems analysts study business problems and opportunities and then transform
business and information requirements of the business into the computer-based
information systems and computer applications that are implemented by various
technical specialists including computer programmers
A formal definition:
• A systems analyst facilitates the study of the problems and needs of a business to
determine how the business system and information technology can best solve the
problem and accomplish improvements for the business.
• The product of this activity may be improved business processes, improved
information systems, or new or improved computer applications frequently all
three.
• When information technology is used, the systems analyst is responsible for: the
efficient capture of data from its business source the flow of that data to the
computer the processing and storage of that data by the computer the flow of
useful and timely information back to the business and its people
Roles of the System Analyst
• The analyst plays a key role in information systems development projects.
• Must understand how to apply technology to solve business problems.
• Analyst may serve as change agents who identify the organizational improvement.
Preparing Career as a Systems Analyst
System analysts are the key individuals in the information system development process. To
succeed as a system analyst, you will need to develop the following skills.
• Working Knowledge of Information Technology: This is the technical skill. The analyst
must be aware of both existing and emerging information technology. Such knowledge
can be acquired by college courses, seminars and training programs.
• Computer Programming Experience and Expertise: This is also a technical skill
needed by systems analysts. Most system analyst need to be proficient in one or more
high level programming language.
• General Knowledge of Business Processes and Terminology: Most of the systems
today are business related and the systems analysts must be able to communicate with
business experts to gain understanding of their problems and needs. So, this skill is must.
To develop this skill, the system analyst should have knowledge about the courses like
accounting, finance, business law and ethics, economics, manufacturing, marketing,
operations management, human resource management, organizational behavior etc.
• General Problem Solving Skill: The systems analyst must be able to take a large
business problem, break down that problem into its component parts, analyze the various
aspects of the problem, and then assemble into an improved system to solve the problem.
To develop this skill, a system analyst should have knowledge about critical thinking and
reasoning.
• Good Interpersonal Communication Skill: To know the user requirements, an analyst
must be able to communicate orally and in writing. To develop this skill, the courses like
business and technical writing, business and technical speaking, interviewing and
listening will be effective.
• Good Interpersonal Relations Skill: The systems analysts should interact with all the
stakeholders in the information system development project. To do this they must have
this skill. To improve this skill, the analyst should have knowledge about the courses like
teamwork, principles of persuasion, managing change and conflict, and leadership.
• Flexibility and Adaptability: No two projects are alike. So, a successful system analyst
must learn to be flexible and to adapt to unique challenges and situations.
• Character and Ethics: The system analyst should have strong character and a
sense of right and wrong. This is needed to hide the sensitive and confidential
facts and information of an organization.
• System Analysis and Design Skill: All systems analysts should know concepts
and principles, tools, and techniques of information systems development.
Developing Information Systems and
System Development Life Cycle (SDLC)
• Most organizations use a standard set of steps, called a systems development
methodology to develop and support their information systems.
• It is a standard process followed in an organization to conduct all the steps
necessary to analyze, design, implement, and maintain information systems. And
systems development life cycle (SDLC) is the traditional methodology used to
develop, maintain, and replace information systems.
• It includes different phases as shown in the figure below. This representation of
SDLC is sometimes referred to as the waterfall model or classic life cycle.
• Phases in SDLC:
– Planning
– Analysis
– Design
– Implementation
– Maintenance

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• The first phase is called planning.
• In this phase, someone identifies the need for a new or enhanced system.
• These needs are then analyzed, prioritized and arranged into a plan for the IS department.
• Here, a potential information systems project is explained and an argument for continuing
or not continuing with the project is presented; a detailed plan is also developed for
conducting the remaining phases or the SDLC for the proposed system.
• The next phase is called analysis.
• During this phase, the analyst studies the current system and proposes alternative
replacement systems.
• Here, the analyst thoroughly studies the organization’s current procedures and the
information systems used to perform organizational tasks.

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• The analyst work with users to determine what the users want from a proposed
system.
• The analyst carefully studies any current systems, manual and computerized, that
might be replaced or enhanced as part of this project.
• The analyst studies the requirements and structures them according to their
interrelationships and eliminates any redundancies; generates alternative initial
designs to match the requirements; compare these alternatives to determine which
best meets the requirements within the cost, labor, and technical levels the
organization is willing to commit to the development process.
• The output of this phase is a description of the recommended alternative solution.
Once the recommendation is accepted by owners, you can begin to make plans to
acquire any hardware and system software necessary to build or operate the
system as proposed
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• The next phase is called design. During this phase, you convert the description of
the recommended alternative solution into logical and then physical system
specification.
• Here, you must design all aspects of the system form input and output screens to
reports, databases, and computer processes.
• Logical design is the part of the design process that is independent of any specific
hardware or software platform. Theoretically, the system could be implemented on
any hardware and systems software.
• Physical design is the part of the design phase in which the logical specifications
of the system form logical design are transformed into technology-specific details
from which all programming and system construction can be accomplished.

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• The next phase is called implementation.
• In this phase, the information system is coded, tested, installed, and
supported in the organization.
• During coding, programmers write the programs that make up the
information system.
• During testing, programmers and analysts test individual programs and the
entire system in order to find and correct errors.
• During installation, the new system becomes a part of the daily activities of
the organization. Implementation activities also include initial user support
such as the finalization of documentation, training programs, and ongoing
user assistance

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• The final phase of SDLC is called maintenance.
• In this phase, information system is systematically repaired and improved.
• When a system is operating in an organization, users sometimes find problems
with how it works and often think of better ways to perform its functions.
• Also the organization’s needs with respect to the system change over time.
• In maintenance, you make the changes that users ask for and modify the system to
reflect changing business conditions.

61
 The Heart of System Development Process

Current practice combines analysis, design, and implementation into a single iterative and parallel process of
activities
• The heart of system development is analysis-design-implementation.
• After collecting the system requirements, they are thoroughly analyzed by experts.
• After analyzing them properly, the design for implementation is done by keeping a
stress on meeting the requirements.
• As a next step, the system design is implemented with the help of information
from previous stages, so that the system meets the expected goals.
The Traditional Waterfall SDLC
• Waterfall model (sometimes called classic life cycle or the linear sequential model) is the
oldest and the most widely used paradigm for information systems development.
• While it does have weaknesses, it is significantly better than a haphazard approach. This
model is suitable for the projects in which user requirements are certain and precise.
• Note how the flow of the project begins in the planning phase and from there runs
“downhill” to each subsequent phase, just like a stream that runs off a cliff
• At the completion of each phase, a milestone has been reached and a document is
produced to be approved by the stakeholders before moving to the next phase; painstaking
amounts of documentation and signoffs through each part of the development cycle is
required.
• The pure waterfall lifecycle consists of several non-overlapping stages, as shown in the
following figure.
• The model begins with planning & analysis and continues with logical design, physical
design, implementation (i.e. coding, testing) and maintenance.
• The waterfall model is a linear,
sequential approach to the system
development life cycle (SDLC)
that is popular in software
engineering and
product development.
• The waterfall model emphasizes a
logical progression of steps.
Waterfall model can be used when:
• Requirements are not changing frequently
• Application is not complicated and big
• Project is short
• Requirement is clear
• Environment is stable
• Technology and tools used are not dynamic and is stable
• Resources are available and trained
Advantages of Waterfall Model
• Simple and easy to understand and use.
• Easy to manage due to the rigidity of the model- each phase has specific
deliverables and a review process.
• Phases are processed and completed one at a time.
• Works well for smaller projects where requirements are very well understood.
• Clearly defined stages.
• Well understood milestones.
• Easy to arrange tasks.
• Process and results are well documented.
Problems with Waterfall Approach
• System requirements “locked in” after being determined (can't change).
• Limited user involvement (only in requirements phase).
• Too much focus on milestone deadlines of SDLC phases to the detriment of sound
development practices.
• High amounts of risk and uncertainty.
• Poor model for long and ongoing projects.
• Cannot accommodate changing requirements.
• Difficult to measure progress within stages.
• Adjusting scope during the life cycle can end a project.
Different Approaches to Improving
Information Systems Development
• Several different approaches have been developed in the continuous effort to
improve the systems analysis and design process.
• The two important approaches are prototyping and joint application development
(JAD).
Prototyping Approach
• Prototyping is a form of rapid application development (RAD).
• Prototyping is a rapid, iterative, and incremental process of systems development
in which requirements are converted to a working system that is continually
revised through close work between the development team and the users.
• We can build a prototype with any computer language or development tool, but
special prototyping tools have been developed to simply the process.
• A prototype can be developed with some fourth-generation language (4GL), with
the query and screen and report design tools of a database management system,
and with tools called computer-aided software engineering (CASE) tools.
• In prototyping, the analyst works with users to determine the initial or basic
requirements for the system. The analyst then quickly builds a prototype.
When the prototype is completed, the users work
with it and tell the analyst what they like and do not
like about it. The analyst uses this feedback to
improve the prototype and takes the new version
back to the users. This iterative process continues
until the users are relatively satisfied with what they
have seen. Ideally, the prototype serves as a
mechanism for identifying information system
requirements. In this case, we throw away the
prototype (also called throwaway prototype) after
identifying requirements. The actual information
system is developed with an eye toward quality and
maintainability based on the requirements.
Advantages of prototypes Disadvantages of prototypes:

• Potential for changes to the system early • Prototyping is difficult to manage.

in the development. • Increase cost
• Opportunity to stop developing a non- • It is a time consuming if customer asks
working system. for changed in prototype.
• Possibility of developing system that • The methodology may increase the
closely addresses users’ requirements and system complexity as scope of the
expectations. system may expand beyond original
• Flexibility in design. plans.
• The developed prototype can be reused • Customer may get confused in the
by the developer for more complicated prototypes and real systems.
projects in the future. • The invested effort in the preparation of
• Missing functionalities can be easily prototypes may be too much if not
figured out. properly monitored.
Joint Application Design (JAD)
• Users, Managers and Analysts work together for several days
• System requirements are reviewed
• Structured process involving users, analysts, and managers.
• Several-day intensive workgroup sessions.
• Purpose: to specify or review system requirements.
• Joint application design (JAD) is a group-based method for collecting user
requirements and creating system designs.
• It is used within the systems analysis and design stages of the SDLC.
• Unlike the traditional SDLC, where the analysts interview individual users of the new
information system to understand their needs JAD has a meeting in which all users
meet simultaneously with analysts.
• During the meeting, all users jointly define and agree upon systems requirements.

CIS339
CIS339
Advantages: Disadvantages:
• Saves time • Very difficult to get all users to JAD
• Greater support for, and acceptance of meetings
new systems • All the problems that may be caused
by any group process
• Produces higher quality systems
• Easier implementation
• Lower training costs
Spiral Approach
• The spiral model combines the idea of iterative development with the
systematic, controlled aspects of the waterfall model.
• This Spiral model is a combination of iterative development process model and
sequential linear development model i.e. the waterfall model with a very high
emphasis on risk analysis.
• It allows incremental releases of the product or incremental refinement through
each iteration around the spiral.
• The exact number of loops of the spiral is unknown and can vary from project
to project. Each loop of the spiral is called a Phase of the software development
process.
• The functions of these four quadrants are
discussed below-
• Objectives determination and identify
alternative solutions: Requirements are
gathered from the customers and the
objectives are identified, elaborated and
analyzed at the start of every phase. Then
alternative solutions possible for the phase
are proposed in this quadrant.
• Identify and resolve Risks: During the
second quadrant all the possible solutions
are evaluated to select the best possible
solution. Then the risks associated with that
solution is identified and the risks are
resolved using the best possible strategy. At
the end of this quadrant, Prototype is built
for the best possible solution
• Develop next version of the Product: During the third quadrant, the identified
features are developed and verified through testing. At the end of the third
quadrant, the next version of the software is available.
• Review and plan for the next Phase: In the fourth quadrant, the Customers
evaluate the so far developed version of the software. In the end, planning for the
next phase is started
 Advantages Disadvantages
• Risk Handling: The projects with many • Complex: The Spiral Model is much more
unknown risks that occur as the development complex than other SDLC models.
proceeds, in that case, Spiral Model is the best
development model to follow due to the risk • Expensive: Spiral Model is not suitable for
analysis and risk handling at every phase. small projects as it is expensive.
• Good for large projects: It is recommended to • Too much dependable on Risk Analysis: The
use the Spiral Model in large and complex successful completion of the project is very
projects. much dependent on Risk Analysis. Without
• Flexibility in Requirements: Change requests very highly experienced expertise, it is going to
in the Requirements at later phase can be be a failure to develop a project using this
incorporated accurately by using this model.
model.
• Customer Satisfaction: Customer can see the • Difficulty in time management: As the
development of the product at the early phase
of the software development and thus, they number of phases is unknown at the start of the
familiar with the system by using it before project, so time estimation is very difficult.
completion of the total product.
CASE (Computer-Aided Software
Engineering) TOOLS
• Computer-aided software engineering (CASE) refers to automated software tools used
by systems analysts to develop information systems.
• These tools can be used to automate or support activities throughout the systems
development process with the objective of increasing productivity and improving the
overall quality of systems
• Computer-Aided Software Engineering (CASE) tools are automated software packages
that help to automate activities in the SDLC.
• CASE tools aim to enforce an engineering-type approach to the development of software
systems.
• CASE tools range from simple diagramming tools to very sophisticated programs to
document and automate most of the stages in the SDLC.
 CASE tools used since the early 1990s
• Computer-Aided Software Engineering
(CASE) tools
• Diagramming tools enable graphical
representation.
• Computer displays and report generators
help prototype how systems “look and
feel”.
• Analysis tools automatically check for
consistency in diagrams, forms, and
reports.
• Central repository for integrated storage of
diagrams, reports, and project management
specifications.
• Documentation generators standardize
technical and user documentation.
• Code generators enable automatic
generation of programs and database code
directly from design documents, diagrams,
forms, and reports.
• The case for using CASE tools:
• Improve quality of systems
developed.
• Help to increase the productivity of
systems analysts.
• Improve communication within the
development team and with users.
• Encourage an integrated approach to
the SDLC.
• Improve the management of the
project.
• Particularly helpful for systems
maintenance
Types of CASE
tools
There are three types of CASE tools: • Upper CASE tools
• Create and modify the system design.
• Upper CASE • Information about the project stored in the CASE
repository (reports, diagrams, files)
• Support analysis and design • Support modelling of how the system fits into the
organisation.
• Lower CASE • Analysis reports show incomplete parts and errors in
the system design e.g. balance between process and
• Support programming and data models.
implementation • Lower CASE Tools
• Generate source code and reduce need for systems
• Integrated CASE programming.
• Time for maintenance is reduced because test and
• Combines both upper and debug are eliminated.
lower CASE • Once mastered, promote the re-use of existing
documentation and components.

84
• Examples of CASE Tools:
• Diagramming – for representing processes, data and control structures graphically. (analysis)
• CASE repository – holds information required to create, modify and evolve the system.
(analysis, design, implementation)
• Form and report generators – automate generation of forms and reports to aid prototyping.
(design, implementation, RAD, XP)
• Code generators – automate generation of source code from diagrams and forms. (design,
implementation)
• Project management – aid in the planning, tracking, controlling and reporting of project
management. (planning)
• Document generator – create standard reports based upon the contents of the CASE repository.
(analysis, design, implementation)
• CASE analysis tools – help to identify problems of inconsistency, redundancy, and omissions.
(more likely in analysis and design)

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Rapid Application Development (RAD)
Approach
• The RAD (Rapid Application Development) model is based on prototyping and iterative
development with no specific planning involved. The process of writing the software
itself involves the planning required for developing the product.
• Rapid Application Development focuses on gathering customer requirements through
workshops or focus groups, early testing of the prototypes by the customer using iterative
concept, reuse of the existing prototypes (components), continuous integration and rapid
delivery.

88
Rapid Application Development (RAD)
model has the following phases −
• Requirements Planning phase − In the
requirements planning phase, a workshop
needs to be conducted to discuss business
problems in a structured manner.
• User Description phase − In the User
Description phase, automated tools are
used to capture information from users.
• Construction phase − In the Construction
phase, productivity tools, such as code
generators, screen generators, etc. are used
inside a time-box, with a “Do until Done”
approach.
• Cut Over phase − In the Cut over phase,
installation of the system, user acceptance
testing and user training are performed.

89
90
When to use RAD Methodology?
• When a system needs to be produced in a short span of time (2-3
months)
• When the requirements are known
• When the user will be involved all through the life cycle
• When technical risk is less
• When there is a necessity to create a system that can be modularized in
2-3 months of time
• When a budget is high enough to afford designers for modeling along
with the cost of automated tools for code generation

91
92
Service Orientated Architecture
• It is modern and new concept of software development .
• It make individual SOA services are unassociated or loosely coupled
to another. Each service executes one action.
• Each service can be used in other application within the organization
or even in other organizations.
• We can say that service-oriented architecture is simply a group of
services that can be called upon to provide specific functions.
• Rather than including calls to other services, a service can use certain
defined protocols so that it can communicate with other services.

93
Advantages Disadvantages
• SOA allows reuse the service of an existing • SOA requires high investment cost
system alternately building the new system.
(means large investment on technology,
• It allows plugging in new services or upgrading development and human resource).
existing services to place the new business
requirements. • There is greater overhead when a service
• It can enhance the performance, functionality of
interacts with another service which
a service and easily makes the system upgrade. increases the response time and machine
• SOA has capability to adjust or modify the load while validating the input
different external environments and large parameters.
applications can be managed easily. • SOA is not suitable for GUI (graphical
• The companies can develop applications user interface) applications which will
without replacing the existing applications. become more complex when the SOA
• It provides reliable applications in which you requires the heavy data exchange.
can test and debug the independent services
easily as compared to large number of code.
Agile Methodologies
• Agile methodologies, it argues that software development methodologies adapted from engineering
generally do not fit with real world software development. In civil engineering requirements tends
to be well understood, construction become very predictable.
• Motivated by recognition of software development as fluid, unpredictable, and dynamic.
• Three key principles
➢ Adaptive rather than predictive.
➢ Emphasize people rather than roles.
➢ Self-adaptive processes, as software is developed, the process used should be refined and
improved of course after reviewed by people working on the project.

• Agile is not for every project, it is for:

- unpredictable or dynamic requirement.
- responsible and motivated developers.
- customers who understand the process and will get involved.
• Agile Methodologies share iterative development (Martin, 1999). Iterative development focuses on
the frequent production of working versions of a system that have a subset of the total number of
required features. Iterative development provides feedback to customers and developers alike.
• Systems analyst or tester or manager, are not as important as the individuals who fill those roles.
Fowler argues that the application of engineering principles to systems development has resulted in
a view of people as interchangeable units instead of a view of people as talented individuals, each
bringing something unique to the development team.
• The Agile Methodologies promote a self-adaptive software development process. As software is
developed, the process used to develop it should be refined and improved. Development teams can
do this through a review process, often associated with the completion of iterations. The
implication is that, as processes are adapted, one would not expect to find a single monolithic
methodology within a given corporation or enterprise. Instead, one would find many variations of
the methodology, each of which reflects the particular talents and experience of the team using it.
Agile Manifesto

The Agile Methodologies

group argues that software
development methodologies
adapted from engineering
generally do not fit with real-
world software development.
eXtreme Programming (XP)
• eXtreme Programming is an approach to software development put together by
Beck and Andres (2004). It is distinguished by
➢its short cycles
➢incremental planning approach
➢focus on automated tests written by programmers and customers to monitor the
development process.
➢reliance on an evolutionary approach to development that lasts throughout the
lifetime of the system.
➢use of two-person programming teams.
➢Planning, analysis, design, and construction are all fused into a single phase of
activity.
• Under this approach, coding and testing are intimately related parts of the same process. The
programmers who write the code also develop the tests. The emphasis is on testing those things
that can break or go wrong, not on testing everything.
• Code is tested very soon after it is written. The overall philosophy behind eXtreme Programming is
that the code will be integrated into the system it is being developed for and tested within a few
hours after it has been written. If all the tests run successfully, then development proceeds. If not,
the code is reworked until the tests are successful.
• Another part of eXtreme Programming that makes the code-and-test process work more smoothly
is the practice of pair programming. All coding and testing is done by two people working together
to write code and develop tests. Beck says that pair programming is not one person typing while
the other one watches; rather, the two programmers work together on the problem they are trying to
solve, exchanging information and insight and sharing skills.
• Compared to traditional coding practices, the advantages of pair programming include:
(1) more (and better) communication among developers,
(2) higher levels of productivity,
(3) higher-quality code, and (
(4) reinforcement of the other practices in eXtreme Programming, such as the code andtest discipline
(Beck & Andres, 2004).
Although the eXtreme Programming process has its advantages, just as with any other approach to systems
development, it is not for everyone and is not applicable to every project.
Why is it called “Extreme?”
• Extreme Programming takes the effective principles and practices to extreme
levels.
• Code reviews are effective as the code is reviewed all the time.
• Testing is effective as there is continuous regression and testing.
• Design is effective as everybody needs to do refactoring daily.
• Integration testing is important as integrate and test several times a day.
• Short iterations are effective as the planning game for release planning and
iteration planning.
Object- Oriented Analysis and Design
• Object-oriented analysis and design (OOAD) is a Systems development
methodologies and techniques based on objects rather than data or processes.
• The object-oriented approach combines data and processes (called methods) into
single entities called objects.
• Objects usually correspond to the real things an information system deals with,
such as customers, suppliers, contracts, and rental agreements.
• The goal of OOAD is to make systems elements more reusable, thus improving
system quality and the productivity of systems analysis and design.
• The object-oriented approach to systems development shares the iterative
development approach of the Agile Methodologies.
• One of the most popular
realizations of the iterative
approach for object-oriented
development is the Rational
Unified Process (RUP), which
is based on an iterative,
incremental approach to systems
development.
• RUP has four phases: inception,
elaboration, construction, and
transition

Phases of OOAD
• In the inception phase, analysts define the scope, determine the feasibility of the
project, understand user requirements, and prepare a software development plan.
• In the elaboration phase, analysts detail user requirements and develop a baseline
architecture. Analysis and design activities constitute the bulk of the elaboration
phase.
• In the construction phase, the software is actually coded, tested, and documented.
• In the transition phase, the system is deployed, and the users are trained and
supported. As is evident from Figure, the construction phase is generally the
longest and the most resource intensive.
• The elaboration phase is also long, but less resource intensive.
• The transition phase is resource intensive but short.
• The inception phase is short and the least resource intensive.
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 1.2 The origins of software
Introduction, System Acquisition, Reuse
Introduction
• There are various sources of software for organizations.
• There are criteria to evaluate software from different sources.
• The impact of reuse on software development.
• If you wanted to write application software, you did it in-house, and you wrote the
software from scratch. Today there are many different sources of software and
firms that produce software, rather than in the information systems department of
a corporation. But for those of you who do go on to work in a corporate
information systems department, the focus is no longer exclusively on in-house
development.
System Acquisition
• Internal corporate information systems departments now spend a smaller and
smaller proportion of their time and effort on developing systems from scratch.
Companies continue to spend relatively little time and money on traditional
software development and maintenance. Instead, they invest in packaged software,
open-source software, and outsourced services.
• Organizations today have many choices when seeking an information systems.
Outsourcing
• If one organization develops or runs a computer application for another
organization, that practice is called outsourcing. Outsourcing includes a spectrum
of working arrangements.
• At one extreme is having a firm develop and run your application on its
computers—all you do is supply input and take output.
• A common example of such an arrangement is a company that runs payroll
applications for clients so that clients do not have to develop an independent in-
house payroll system. Instead, they simply provide employee payroll information
to the company, and, for a fee, the company returns completed paychecks, payroll
accounting reports, and tax and other statements for employees. For many
organizations, payroll is a very cost-effective operation when outsourced in this
way.
• Outsourcing is big business. Some organizations outsource the information technology
(IT) development of many of their IT functions at a cost of billions of dollars. Most
organizations outsource at least some aspect of their information systems activities.
• One example of the extent of outsourcing is Shell Oil. In 2008, Shell signed outsourcing
contracts with EDS, T-Systems, and AT&T worth $3.2 billion USD.
• Biggest outsourcing companies are IBM and EDS.
• Some reasons for outsourcing include
➢freeing up internal resources,
➢increasing the revenue potential of the organization,
➢reducing time to market,
➢increasing process efficiencies, and
➢outsourcing noncore activities.
Advantages: Disadvantages:
• Reduced operating expenses • Lowered Quality of Service
• Flexibility • Miscommunication
• Exposure to ne talent • Risk
• Focusing on core business processes
• Downsize the business by using
outsourcing services
• Managing resources
• Time-saving
Sources of Software
• We can group the sources of
software into six major
categories:
• Information technology services
firms,
• Packaged software producers,
• Enterprise-wide solutions,
• Cloud computing vendors,
• Open-source software,
• In-house developers
Information Technology Services Firms
• If a company needs an information system but does not have the expertise or the
personnel to develop the system in-house the company will likely consult an
information technology services firm.
• IT services firms help companies develop custom information systems for internal
use, or they develop, host, and run applications for customers, or they provide
other services.
• Many of the leading software companies in the world specialize in services, which
include custom systems development. These firms employ people with expertise
in the development of information systems. Their consultants may also have
expertise in a given business area.
• For example, consultants who work with banks understand financial institutions as
well as information systems. Consultants use many of the same methodologies,
techniques, and tools that companies use to develop systems in-house.
Packaged Software Producers
• The growth of the software industry has been phenomenal since its beginnings in the mid-
1960s.
• Some of the largest computer companies in the world are companies that produce
software exclusively.
• A good example is Microsoft, probably the best-known software company in the world.
Almost 87 percent of Microsoft’s revenue comes from its software sales, mostly for its
Windows operating systems and its personal productivity software, the Microsoft Office
Suite.
• The packaged software development industry serves many market segments.
• Their software offerings range from general, broadbased packages, such as productivity
tools, to very narrow, niche packages, such as software to help manage a day care center.
• Software companies develop software to run on many different computer platforms, from
microcomputers to large mainframes.
• The companies range in size from just a few people to thousands of employees.
• Software companies develop what are sometimes called prepackaged or off-the-
shelf systems. Microsoft’s Word and Intuit’s Quicken, QuickPay, and QuickBooks
are popular examples of such software.
• Software companies develop software to run on many different computer
platforms, from microcomputers to large mainframes.
• The companies range in size from just a few people to thousands of employees.
• Software companies consult with system users after the initial software design has
been completed and an early version of the system has been built. The systems are
then tested in actual organizations to determine whether there are any problems or
if any improvements can be made. Until testing is completed, the system is not
offered for sale to the public.
• Some off-the-shelf software systems cannot be modified to meet the specific,
individual needs of a particular organization. Such application systems are
sometimes called turnkey systems. The producer of a turnkey system will make
changes to the software only when a substantial number of users ask for a specific
change.
• However, other off-the-shelf application software can be modified or extended, by
the producer or by the user, to more closely fit the needs of the organization. Even
though many organizations perform similar functions, no two organizations do the
same thing in quite the same way. A turnkey system may be good enough for a
certain level of performance, but it will never perfectly match the way a given
organization does business.
Figure: A document created in Microsoft’s Word
Enterprise Solutions Software
• Many firms have chosen complete software solutions, called enterprise solutions
or enterprise resource planning (ERP) systems, to support their operations and
business processes.
• These ERP software solutions consist of a series of integrated modules.
• Each module supports an individual, traditional business function, such as
accounting, distribution, manufacturing, or human resources.
• The traditional approach would use different systems in different functional areas
of the business, such as a billing system in accounting and an inventory system in
the warehouse.
• The difference between the modules and traditional approaches is that the modules
are integrated to focus on business processes rather than on business functional
areas.

118
• Using enterprise software solutions, a firm can integrate all parts of a business
process in a unified information system.
• All aspects of a single transaction occur seamlessly within a single information
system, rather than as a series of disjointed, separate systems focused on business
functional areas.
• The benefits of the enterprise solutions approach include a single repository of
data for all aspects of a business process and the flexibility of the modules.
• A single repository ensures more consistent and accurate data, as well as less
maintenance.
• The modules are flexible because additional modules can be added as needed once
the basic system is in place.

119
• Added modules are immediately integrated into the existing system.
• However, there are disadvantages to enterprise solutions software. The systems are
very complex, so implementation can take a long time to complete.
• A system that integrates individual traditional business functions into a series of
modules so that a single transaction occurs seamlessly within a single information
system rather than several separate systems is called Enterprise Resource Planning
(ERP) systems

120
Cloud Computing
• Another method for organizations to obtain applications is to rent them or license
them from third-party providers who run the applications at remote sites. Users
have access to the applications through the Internet or through virtual private
networks.
• The application provider buys, installs, maintains, and upgrades the applications.
Users pay on a per-use basis or they license the software, typically month to
month.
• Although this practice has been known by many different names over the years,
today it is called cloud computing.
• Cloud computing refers to the provision of applications over the Internet, where
customers do not have to invest in the hardware and software resources needed to
run and maintain the applications.
• A well-known example of cloud computing is Google Apps, where users can share and
create documents, spreadsheets, and presentations.
• Another well-known example is Salesforce.com, which provides customer relationship
management software online.
• Cloud computing encompasses many areas of technology, including software as a service
(often referred to as SaaS), which includes Salesforce.com, and hardware as a service,
which includes Amazon Web Services and allows companies to order server capacity and
storage on demand.
• Taking the cloud computing route has its advantages. The top three reasons for choosing
to go with cloud computing, all of which result in benefits for the company, are
(1) freeing internal IT staff,
(2) gaining access to applications faster than via internal development,
(3) achieving lower cost access to corporate-quality applications.
• IT managers do have some concerns about cloud computing, however. The
primary concern is over security. Concerns over security are based on storing
company data on machines one does not own and that others can access.
• In fact, the top two reasons for not using cloud services are concerns about
unauthorized access to proprietary information and unauthorized access to
customer information.
• Another concern is reliability. Some warn that the cloud is actually a network of
networks, it is vulnerable to unexpected risks due to its complexity.
Open Source Software
• Open-source software is unlike the other types of software you have read about so
far. Open-source software is different because it is freely available, not just the
final product but the source code itself.
• It is also different because it is developed by a community of interested people
instead of by employees of a particular company.
• Open-source software performs the same functions as commercial software, such
as operating systems, e-mail, database systems, web browsers, and so on. Some of
the most well-known and popular open-source software names are Linux, an
operating system; mySQL, a database system; and Firefox, a web browser.
• Open source also applies to software components and objects.
• Open source is developed and maintained by communities of people, and
sometimes these communities can be very large.
• If the software is free, you might wonder how anybody makes any money by developing
open-source software. Companies and individuals can make money with open source in
two primary ways:
(1) by providing maintenance and other services or
(2) by providing one version of the software free and selling a more fully featured version.
• Some open-source solutions have more of an impact on the software industry than others.
Linux, for example, has been very successful in the server software market, where it is
estimated to have as much as 36 percent of the market share (W3Techs, 2015). In the
desktop operating systems market, Linux has about 1 percent market share. Other open-
source software products, such as mySQL, have also been successful, and open source’s
share of the software industry seems destined to continue to grow.
In-House Development
• In-house development has become a progressively smaller piece of all systems development work
that takes place in and for organizations. Internal corporate information systems departments now
spend a smaller and smaller proportion of their time and effort on developing systems from scratch.
• In-house development can lead to a larger maintenance burden than other development methods,
such as packaged applications.
• A study by Banker, Davis, and Slaughter found that using a code generator as the basis for in-house
development was related to an increase in maintenance hours, whereas using packaged applications
was associated with a decrease in maintenance effort.
• Of course, in-house development need not entail (to make something necessary ) development of
all of the software that will constitute the total system. Hybrid solutions involving some purchased
and some in-house software components are common. If you choose to acquire software from
outside sources, this choice is made at the end of the analysis phase. . The choice between a
package and an external supplier will be determined by your needs, not by what the supplier has to
sell.
• For each criterion, an explicit comparison should be made between the software package
and the process of developing the same application in-house.
• The most common criteria include the following:
➢Cost
➢Functionality
➢Vendor support
➢Viability of vendor
➢Flexibility
➢Documentation
➢Response time
➢Ease of installation
Reuse
• Reuse is the use of previously written software resources in new applications.
• Because so many bits and pieces of applications are relatively generic across applications,
it seems intuitive that great savings can be achieved in many areas if those generic bits
and pieces do not have to be written a new each time they are needed.
• Reuse should increase programmer productivity because being able to use existing
software for some functions means they can perform more work in the same amount of
time.
• Reuse should also decrease development time, minimizing schedule overruns.
• Because existing pieces of software have already been tested, reusing them should also
result in higher-quality software with lower defect rates, decreasing maintenance costs.
• Some of the components that can be reuse are Source code, design and interfaces, user
manuals, software documentation, software requirement specifications and many more.
Advantages:
• Less effort,
• Time-saving,
• Reduce cost,
• Increase software productivity,
• Utilize fewer resources,
• Leads to a better quality software.
Stages of Re-use Oriented Software
Engineering
• Requirement Specification: First of all specify the requirements. This will help
to decide that we have some existing software components for the development of
software or not.
• Component Analysis: Helps to decide that which component can be reused
where.
• Requirement Modification: If the requirements are changed by the customer,
then still existing components are helpful for use or not.
• Development: Existing components are matching with new software or not.
• Integration: can we integrate the new systems with existing components?
• System Validation: To validate the system that it can be accepted by the customer
or not.
 1.3 Managing the Information Systems Project
Introduction, Managing Information Systems Project,
Representing and Scheduling Project, Using Project
Management Software Plans
Introduction
• We will focus on the systems analyst’s role as project manager of an information
systems project. Throughout the SDLC, the project manager is responsible for initiating,
planning, executing, and closing down the systems development project.
• Project management is arguably the most important aspect of an information systems
development project. Effective project management helps to ensure that systems
development projects meet customer expectations and are delivered within budget and
time constraints.
• We will then be provided with an understanding of the project manager’s role and the
project management process.
• The discussion then turns to techniques for reporting project plans using Gantt charts and
network diagrams.
• The project will conclude with a discussion of the use of commercially available project
management software that can be used to assist with a wide variety of project
management activities
• Project is a planned undertaking of a series of related activities to reach an
objective that has a beginning and an end.
• Objective of a project
– Solve a business problem (develop a MIS)
– Take advantage of a business opportunities (develop BIS)
– Other non rational reason: spend existing available resources, training and
enhancing skills of employees
• Where do projects come from?
– There is no standard and answer varies from organization to organization
• Several projects may be submitted and need selection by filling a “Systems
Service Requests”
• Project management (PM) may be the most important aspect of systems
development.
• Effective PM helps to ensure
- The meeting of customer expectations.
- The satisfying of budget and time constraints.
• The nature of projects has changed from custom development to implementing
packaged software and data warehousing.
• PM skills are difficult and important to learn.
Project Management:
• Activities include planning work, assessing risk, estimating resources required,
organizing the work, assigning tasks, controlling project execution, reporting
progress, analyzing results
• Five major variables
❖Scope
❖Time
❖Cost
❖Quality
❖Risk
MANAGING THE INFORMATION
SYSTEMS PROJECT
• Project
A planned undertaking of related activities to reach an objective that has a
beginning and an end
• Project management is an important aspect of the development of information
systems and a critical skill for a systems analyst.
• The focus of project management is to ensure that systems development projects
meet customer expectations and are delivered within budget and time constraints.
• The project manager is a systems analyst with a diverse set of skills—
management, leadership, technical, conflict management, and customer
relationship—who is responsible for initiating, planning, executing, and closing
down a project.
• As a project manager, your environment is one of continual change and problem
solving.
• In some organizations, the project manager is a very experienced systems analyst,
whereas in others, both junior and senior analysts are expected to take on this role,
managing parts of a project or actively supporting a more senior colleague who
assumes the project manager role.
• Understanding the project management process is a critical skill for your future
success.
• Creating and implementing successful projects requires managing the resources,
activities, and tasks needed to complete the information systems project.
• Project management is a controlled process of initiating, planning, executing, and
closing down a project.
Deciding on Systems Projects
• System Service Request (SSR)
• A standard form for
requesting or proposing
systems development work
within an organization
• Feasibility study
• A study that determines
whether a requested system
makes economic and
operational sense for an
organization

FIGURE:
System Service Request for Purchasing Fulfillment System with name and contact information of
the person requesting the system, a statement of the problem, and the name and contact
information of the liaison and sponsor
Project Management Activities
Skills of Project Manager
Phases of Project Management Process
• Phase 1: Initiation
• Phase 2: Planning
• Phase 3: Execution
• Phase 4: Closedown
Phase 1: Initiation

• The first phase of the project management process in which activities are
performed to assess the size, scope, and complexity of the project and to establish
procedures to support later project activities.
• During project initiation, the project manager performs several activities to assess
the size, scope, and complexity of the project and to establish procedures to
support subsequent activities.
• Depending on the project, some initiation activities may be unnecessary and some
may be very involved.
• The types of activities you will perform when initiating a project are summarized
as follows:
Activities During Project Initiation
1. Establishing the project initiation team: This activity involves organizing project
team members to assist in accomplishing the project initiation activities.
2. Establishing a relationship with the customer: A thorough understanding of your
customer builds stronger partnerships and higher levels of trust.
3. Establishing the project initiation plan: This step defines the activities required to
organize the initiation team while it is working to define the goals and scope of the
project.
4. Establishing management procedures: Successful projects require the development
of effective management procedures.
5. Establishing the project management environment and project workbook: The
focus of this activity is to collect and organize the tools that you will use while
managing the project and to construct the project workbook. Diagrams, charts, and
system descriptions provide much of the project workbook contents. Thus, the project
workbook serves as a repository for all project correspondence, inputs, outputs,
deliverables, procedures, and standards established by the project team.
6. Developing the project charter. The project charter is a short (typically one page),
high-level document prepared for the customer that describes what the project will
deliver and outlines many of the key elements of the project.
Phase 2: Planning
• The second phase of the project management process that focuses on defining clear,
discrete activities and the work needed to complete each activity within a single project.
• The next step in the project management process is project planning. Research has found
a positive relationship between effective project planning and positive project outcomes.
• Project planning involves defining clear, discrete activities and the work needed to
complete each activity within a single project.
• It often requires you to make numerous assumptions about the availability of resources
such as hardware, software, and personnel.
• In actual fact, you often have to construct longer-term plans that are more general in
scope and nearer term plans that are more detailed. The repetitive nature of the project
management process requires that plans be constantly monitored throughout the project
and periodically updated (usually after each phase), based upon the most recent
information.
Activities During Project Planning
1. Describing Project Scope, Alternatives, 6. Determining Project Standards and
and Feasibility Procedures
2. Dividing the Project into Manageable 7. Identifying and Assessing Risk
Tasks 8. Creating a Preliminary Budget
3. Estimating Resources and Creating a 9. Developing a Project Scope
Resource Plan Statement
4. Developing a Preliminary Schedule 10. Setting a Baseline Project Plan
5. Developing a Communication Plan
1. Describing project scope, alternatives, and feasibility
• The purpose of this activity is to understand the content and complexity of the project. Within systems
development methodology, one of the first meetings must focus on defining a project’s scope.
• Although project scope information was not included in the SSR developed by Chris and Juanita, it was
important that both shared the same vision for the project before moving too far along.
• During this activity, you should reach agreement on the following questions:
- What problem or opportunity does the project address?
- What are the quantifiable results to be achieved?
- What needs to be done?
- How will success be measured?
- How will we know when we are finished?
• After defining the scope of the project, your next objective is to identify and document general
alternative solutions for the current business problem or opportunity. You must then assess (to judge or
decide value or importance) the feasibility of each alternative solution and choose which to consider
during subsequent SDLC phases.
At the start of project, there
is no idea of doing work,
every thing is unknown so
detailed plan is needed to do
every step. But after some
time ,that is week or month,
people gets idea of project
scheduling and can do some
steps on the basis of previous
step or his/her own creativity.
2. Dividing the project into manageable tasks:
• This is a critical activity during the project planning process. Here, you must
divide the entire project into manageable tasks and then logically order them to
ensure a smooth evolution between tasks.
• Work Breakdown Structure (WBS)
- Division of project into manageable and logically ordered tasks and
subtasks
• Scheduling Diagrams
- Gantt chart: horizontal bars represent task durations
- Network diagram: boxes and links represent task dependencies
Developing a Preliminary Schedule
3. Estimating resources and creating a resource plan
• The goal of this activity is to estimate resource requirements for each project
activity and to use this information to create a project resource plan. The resource
plan helps assemble and deploy resources in the most effective manner.
• For example, you would not want to bring additional programmers onto the
project at a rate faster than you could prepare work for them. Project managers use
a variety of tools to assist in making estimates of project size and costs.
• The most widely used method is called COCOMO (constructive cost model),
COCOMO predict human resource requirements for basic, intermediate, and very
complex systems.
4. Developing a preliminary schedule
• During this activity, you use the information on tasks and resource availability to
assign time estimates to each activity in the work breakdown structure. These time
estimates will enable you to create target starting and ending dates for the project.
• Target dates can be revisited and modified until a schedule is produced that is
acceptable to the customer. Determining an acceptable schedule may require that
you find additional or different resources or that the scope of the project be
changed. The schedule may be represented as a Gantt chart or as a network
diagram.
Scheduling Diagrams Network Diagram

FIGURE:
• A network diagram
illustrating tasks with
rectangles (or ovals) and
the relationships and
sequences of those
activities with arrows
(Source: Microsoft
Corporation.)
5. Developing a communication plan
• The goal of this activity is to outline the communication procedures among
management, project team members, and the customer. The communication plan
includes when and how written and oral reports will be provided by the team, how
team members will coordinate work, what messages will be sent to announce the
project to interested parties, and what kinds of information will be shared with
vendors and external contractors involved with the project.
• It is important that free and open communication occur among all parties with
respect to proprietary information and confidentiality with the customer
• When developing a communication plan, numerous questions must be answered in
order to assure that the plan is comprehensive and complete, including the
following:
• Who are the stakeholders for this project?
• What information does each stakeholder need?
• When, and at what interval, does this information need to be produced?
• What sources will be used to gather and generate this information?
• Who will collect, store, and verify the accuracy of this information?
• Who will organize and package this information into a document?
• Who will be the contact person for each stakeholder should any questions arise?
• What format will be used to package this information?
• What communication medium will be most effective for delivering this information to the
stakeholder?
• Once these questions are answered for each stakeholder, a comprehensive communication plan can
be developed. In this plan, a summary of communication documents, work assignments, schedules,
and distribution methods will be outlined.
6. Determining project standards and procedures
• During this activity, you will specify how various deliverables are produced and tested by
you and your project team. For example, the team must decide which tools to use, how
the standard SDLC might be modified, which SDLC methods will be used,
documentation styles (e.g., type fonts and margins for user manuals), how team members
will report the status of their assigned activities, and terminology.
• Setting project standards and procedures for work acceptance is a way to ensure the
development of a high-quality system. Also, it is much easier to train new team members
when clear standards are in place.
• Organizational standards for project management and conduct make the determination of
individual project standards easier and the interchange or sharing of personnel among
different projects feasible.
7. Identifying and assessing risk
• The goal of this activity is to identify sources of project risk and estimate the
consequences of those risks. Risks might arise from the use of new technology,
prospective users’ resistance to change, availability of critical resources,
competitive reactions or changes in regulatory actions due to the construction of a
system, or team member inexperience with technology or the business area. You
should continually try to identify and assess project risk.
8. Creating a preliminary budget
• During this phase, you need to create a preliminary budget that outlines the
planned expenses and revenues associated with your project. The project
justification will demonstrate that the benefits are worth these costs.
Developing a Preliminary Budget

FIGURE : A financial
cost and benefit
analysis for a systems
development project
(Source: Microsoft
Corporation.)

Spreadsheet
software is good
for this.
9. Developing a Project Scope Statement
• An important activity that occurs near the end of the project planning phase is the
development of the Project Scope Statement. Developed primarily for the
customer, this document outlines work that will be done and clearly describes
what the project will deliver. The Project Scope Statement is useful to make sure
that you, the customer, and other project team members have a clear understanding
of the intended project size, duration, and outcomes.
10. Setting a Baseline Project Plan
• Once all of the prior project planning activities have been completed, you will be
able to develop a Baseline Project Plan. This baseline plan provides an estimate of
the project’s tasks and resource requirements and is used to guide the next project
phase—execution. As new information is acquired during project execution, the
baseline plan will continue to be updated.
Phase 3: Execution
• The third phase of the project management process in which the plans created in the prior
phases (project initiation and planning) are put into action.
• Project execution puts the Baseline Project Plan into action.
• Within the context of the SDLC, project execution occurs primarily during the analysis,
design, and implementation phases.
• Execution Phases:
1. Execute baseline project plan.
2. Monitor progress against baseline plan.
3. Manage changes in baseline plan.
4. Maintain project workbook.
5. Communicate project status.
1. Executing the Baseline Project Plan:
• This means that you initiate the execution of project activities, acquire and assign
resources, orient and train new team members, keep the project on schedule, and ensure
the quality of project deliverables. This is a formidable task, but a task made much easier
through the use of sound project management techniques.
2. Monitoring project progress against the Baseline Project Plan :
• While you execute the Baseline Project Plan, you should monitor your progress. If the
project gets ahead of (or behind) schedule, you may have to adjust resources, activities,
and budgets. Monitoring project activities can result in modifications to the current plan.
Measuring the time and effort expended on each activity will help you improve the
accuracy of estimations for future projects. It is possible, with project schedule charts
such as Gantt charts, to show progress against a plan, and it is easy with network
diagrams to understand the ramifications (the possible results of an action )of delays in an
activity.
• Monitoring progress also means that the team leader must evaluate and appraise (to
examine someone or something in order to judge their qualities, success or needs )each
team member, occasionally change work assignments or request changes in personnel,
and provide feedback to the employee’s supervisor.
3. Managing changes to the Baseline Project Plan
• You will encounter pressure to make changes to the baseline plan. Numerous events may
initiate a change to the Baseline Project Plan, including the following possibilities:
➢A slipped completion date for an activity
➢A bungled (to do something wrong, in a careless or stupid way ) activity that must be
redone
➢The identification of a new activity that becomes evident later in the project
➢An unforeseen change in personnel due to sickness, resignation, or termination
Monitoring Progress with a Gantt Chart

FIGURE :
Gantt chart with tasks
3 and 7 completed
and task 8 partially
completed (Source:
Microsoft
Corporation.)
4. Maintaining the project workbook
• As in all project phases, maintaining complete records of all project events is
necessary. The workbook provides the documentation new team members require
to assimilate (to take in, fit into, or become similar ) project tasks quickly. It
explains why design decisions were made and is a primary source of information
for producing all project reports.
5. Communicating the project status
• The project manager is responsible for keeping all stakeholders—ystem
developers, managers, and customers—abreast (describes two or more people who
are next to each other and moving in the same direction ) of the project status.
Phase 4: Closedown
• The final phase of the project management process that focuses on bringing a
project to an end.
• The focus of project closedown is to bring the project to an end.
• Projects can conclude with a natural or unnatural termination.
• A natural termination occurs when the requirements of the project have been
met—the project has been completed and is a success.
• An unnatural termination occurs when the project is stopped before completion.
• Activities During Close down:
- Close down the project.
- Conduct post-project reviews.
- Close the customer contract.
• Closing-down the project
- Inform all members about the project end during a review meeting
• Conducting post-project review
- Set a review meeting with management and customers to assess project’ strengths
and weakness
- Develop new idea for new projects
• Closing the customer contract
- Stop funding and further new projects
When does a project end?
• If requirements have been all met (normal end)
• If all objectives have been successfully achieved
• Customers’ need are not any more valid in the customer business
• environment; state-of-the-art technology is available on the market)
• Running out of money further new projects
Representing and Scheduling Project
• A project manager has a wide variety of techniques available for depicting and documenting
project plans.
• These planning documents can take the form of graphical or textual reports, although graphical
reports have become most popular for depicting project plans.
• The most commonly used methods are Gantt charts and network diagrams.
• Because Gantt charts do not (typically) show how tasks must be ordered (precedence) but simply
show when a task should begin and when it should end, they are often more useful for depicting
relatively simple projects or subparts of a larger project, showing the activities of a single worker,
or monitoring the progress of activities compared to scheduled completion dates.
• A network diagram shows the ordering of activities by connecting a task to its predecessor and
successor tasks.
• Sometimes a network diagram is preferable; other times a Gantt chart more easily shows certain
aspects of a project.
Figure:
Graphical
diagrams that
depict project
plans
(a) A Gantt chart
Figure:
Graphical
diagrams that
depict project
plans
(b) A network
diagram
Gantt Charts vs. Network Diagrams
• Here are the key differences between these two charts:
• Gantt charts visually show the duration of tasks, whereas a network diagram
visually shows the sequence dependencies between tasks.
• Gantt charts visually show the time overlap of tasks, whereas a network diagram
does not show time overlap but does show which tasks could be done in parallel.
• Some forms of Gantt charts can visually show slack time available within an
earliest start and latest finish duration. A network diagram shows this by data
within activity rectangles.
• A project manager will periodically review the status of all ongoing project task
activities to assess whether the activities will be completed early, on time, or late.
• If early or late, the duration of the activity can be updated.
• Once changed, the scheduled start and finish times of all subsequent tasks will
also change.
• Making such a change will also alter a Gantt chart or network diagram used to
represent the project tasks.
Representing Project Plans:
• Project scheduling and management require that time, costs, and resources be controlled.
Resources are any person, group of people, piece of equipment, or material used in
accomplishing an activity.
• Network diagramming is a critical path scheduling technique used for controlling
resources.
• A critical path refers to a sequence of task activities whose order and durations directly
affect the completion date of a project.
• A network diagram is one of the most widely used and best known scheduling methods.
• You would use a network diagram when tasks
- are well defined and have a clear beginning and end point,
- can be worked on independently of other tasks,
- are ordered, and
- serve the purpose of the project
• A major strength of network diagramming is its ability to represent how completion times vary for
activities.
• Because of this, it is more often used than Gantt charts to manage projects such as information
systems development, where variability in the duration of activities is the norm.
• Network diagrams are composed of circles or rectangles representing activities and connecting
arrows showing required work flows

Figure
A network diagram showing activities
(represented by circles) and sequence of
those activities (represented by arrows)
Calculating Expected time durations using
PERT:(Program Evaluation Review Technique)
• One of the most difficult and most error-prone activities when constructing a
project schedule is the determination of the time duration for each task within a
work breakdown structure.
• It is particularly problematic to make these estimates when there is a high degree
of complexity and uncertainty about a task.
• PERT (Program Evaluation Review Technique) is a technique that uses
optimistic, pessimistic, and realistic time estimates to calculate the expected time
for a particular task.
• This technique can help you to obtain a better time estimate when there is some
uncertainty as to how much time a task will require to be completed.
• The optimistic (o) and pessimistic (p) times reflect the minimum and maximum possible periods
of time for an activity to be completed.
• The realistic (r) time, or most likely time, reflects the project manager’s “best guess” of the
amount of time the activity actually will require for completion.
• Once each of these estimates is made for an activity, an expected time (ET) can be calculated.
Example
• For example, suppose that your instructor asked you to calculate an expected time
for the completion of an upcoming programming assignment. For this assignment,
you estimate an optimistic time of two hours, a pessimistic time of eight hours,
and a most likely time of six hours. Using PERT, the expected time for completing
this assignment is 5.67 hours. Commercial project management software such as
Microsoft Project assists you in using PERT to make expected time calculations.
Additionally, many commercial tools allow you to customize the weighting of
optimistic, pessimistic, and realistic completion times.
Using project management software
• A wide variety of automated project management tools is available to help you manage a
development project.
• New versions of these tools are continuously being developed and released by software vendors.
• Most of the available tools have a set of common features that include the ability to define and
order tasks, assign resources to tasks, and easily modify tasks and resources.
• Project management tools are available to run on IBM-compatible personal computers, the
Macintosh, and larger mainframe and workstation-based systems.
• These systems vary in the number of task activities supported, the complexity of relationships,
system processing and storage requirements, and, of course, cost.
• When using this system to manage a project, you need to perform at least the following activities:
- Establish a project starting or ending date.
- Enter tasks and assign task relationships.
- Select a scheduling method to review project reports.
• Project management software helps project managers (PMs) and teams collaborate
and meet goals on time while managing resources and cost. Functions may include
task distribution, time tracking, budgeting, resource planning, team collaboration,
and many more.
• People also refer to project management software as Task Management Software
or Project Portfolio Management (PPM).
• Project management software covers a range of platforms, each with a slightly
different mix of functionality. It’s crucial that the vendor you select makes your
projects easier to manage and doesn’t add unneeded complexity. The transition
should be as smooth as possible.
• The three major pillars of project management are planning, tracking, and
collaboration.
Project Start Date

FIGURE
Establishing a project
starting date in
Microsoft Project for
Windows (Source:
Microsoft
Corporation.)
Entering Tasks

FIGURE
Entering tasks and
assigning task
relationships in
Microsoft project
for Windows
(Source: Microsoft
Corporation.)
 Viewing Network Diagram

FIGURE:
Viewing project
information as a
network diagram in
Microsoft Project
for Windows
(Source: Microsoft
Corporation.)

Hexagon shape indicates a milestone. Red boxes and arrows indicate critical path
(no slack).
Viewing Gantt Chart

FIGURE
Gantt chart showing
progress of activities
(right frame) versus
planned activities (left
frame)

Black line at top indicates a summary activity (composed of subtasks).

Diamond shape indicates a milestone.