Introduction and Preliminaries

In this chapter, we are diving into two fascinating areas of mathematics: the graph
theory and the ring theory. Graph theory helps us understand relationships between
things using diagrams called graphs, while ring theory explores patterns in numbers and
algebraic structures called rings. These subjects might seem different, but they both give
us powerful tools for solving problems and understanding how things connect, whether
it’s in networks or algebraic equations. All algebraic definitions are sourced from Ka-
plansky [?], while graph theory definitions are sourced from West [?] and Chartrand et
al. [?]. For a deeper exploration of commutative algebra, we refer the reader to Atiyah
and Macdonald [?]. Mohar and Thomassen [?], and White [?] provide valuable insights
for those interested in a topological graph theory perspective, and additional information
on algebraic graph theory can be found in the reference by Biggs [?].

1.1 Some basics of ring theory

In this section, we provide a concise overview of essential terminologies in ring theory.

Definition 1.1.1 (Ring). A ring (R, +, ·) is a nonempty set R together with binary
operations ’+’ and ’·’ defined on R, which satisfy the following conditions:

i. (R, +) is an abelian group

ii. a · (b · c) = (a · b) · c ∀ a, b, c ∈ R

iii. a · (b + c) = a · b + a · c ∀ a, b, c ∈ R

iv. (a + b) · c = a · c + b · c ∀ a, b, c ∈ R

Example 1.1.1. (R, +, ·), (Z, +, ·), (Q, +, ·) are the ring with usual addition and multi-
plication.

Definition 1.1.2 (Sub-ring). Suppose (R, +, ·) is a ring. A subset S of R is called a

subring of R, if

i. (S, +) is a subgroup of (R, +).

ii. S is closed under multiplication. This means that for every a, b ∈ S, we have ab ∈ S.
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Example 1.1.2. Z is a subring of Q, and Q is a subring of R.

Definition 1.1.3 (Commutative ring). A ring R is called commutative when, for all
a, b ∈ R, the condition a · b = b · a holds. Conversely, a ring R that does not satisfy this
commutative property is termed as a non-commutative ring.

Example 1.1.3. (Z, +, ·), (Q, +, ·), (R, +, ·) are the commutative rings with usual addi-
tion and multiplication.

Definition 1.1.4 (Ring with identity). Let R be a ring. An element e ∈ R is termed as

an identity element if, for all a ∈ R, the equalities ea = ae = a hold true. The identity
element in the ring R is conventionally denoted as ’e’.

Definition 1.1.5 (Unit element). Let R be a ring with identity. An element u ∈ R is

called a unit element if there exists v ∈ R such that uv = 1 = vu. The set of all units of
R is denoted by U (R).

Example 1.1.4. U (Q) = Q∗ = Q \ {0}, U (Z) = {−1, 1}.

Definition 1.1.6 (Division ring). A ring R that possesses an identity element is termed
a division ring when every non-zero element in R is invertible. If the division ring R is
also commutative, it is referred to as a field.

Definition 1.1.7 (Associative). Let R be a commutative ring with identity. An element

a ∈ R is said to be an associate of a nonzero element b ∈ R if a = ub for some unit u ∈ R.

Example 1.1.5. (i) 2, −2 are associate in Z.

Definition 1.1.8 (Zero-divisor). Let R be a commutative ring. An element a ∈ R is said

to be a zero-divisor of R if ab = 0 for some non-zero b ∈ R. The set of all zero-divisors of
R is denoted as Z(R).

Definition 1.1.9 (Integral domain). A commutative ring R with the unity is said to be
an integral domain if it does not contain any non-zero zero-divisors.

Example 1.1.6. i. Z, Q, R, C are some examples of integral domains, and Z6 is not

an integral domain.

ii. In general, Zn is an integral domain if and only if n is prime.

iii. Z[i] is not an integral domain.

Definition 1.1.10 (Field). An integral domain (F, +, ·) is said to be a field if each non-
zero element of F has multiplicative inverse.

Example 1.1.7. (Z, +, ·) is not a field, while (R, +, ·) is a field.

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Remark 1.1.1. i. Suppose R is a unital commutative ring and a ∈ R is a unit. Then

there is a unique a′ ∈ R such that a · a′ = 1R . (We call such an a′ the multiplicative
inverse or simply the inverse of a). The multiplicative inverse of a is denoted by
a−1 .

ii. Every field is an integral domain.

iii. Every finite integral domain is a field.

Definition 1.1.11 (Annihilator of an element). Let R be a commutative ring and x ∈ R.

The annihilator of x in R, denoted by ann(x), is defined as ann(x) = {y ∈ R : xy = 0}.

Definition 1.1.12 (Ideal). Let R be a ring. A nonempty subset I of R is called a left

(respectively right) ideal of R if for all a, b ∈ I and r ∈ R, both a − b and ra (or a − b
and ar) are elements of I. A nonempty subset I of a ring R is said to be an ideal if it is
a left as well as right ideal of R. The set of all ideals of R is denoted by I(R).

Definition 1.1.13 (Proper ideal). A proper ideal in a ring R is defined as an ideal I

satisfying the conditions I ̸= (0) and I ̸= R.

Definition 1.1.14 (Annihilating-ideal). Let R be a commutative ring. An ideal I of R is

said to be annihilating-ideal of R if there exists a nonzero ideal J of R such that IJ = (0).
The set of all annihilating-ideals of R is denoted by A(R).

Definition 1.1.15 (Essential ideal). An ideal I of a ring R is called an essential ideal if

it intersects nontrivially with every nonzero ideal of R. It is denoted as I ≤e R.

Definition 1.1.16 (Maximal ideal). Let R be a ring. An ideal M of R is called a maximal

ideal if M ̸= R and the only ideals containing M are M and R.

Example 1.1.8. Z2 is maximal ideal of Z.

Remark 1.1.2. Let R be a ring with unity. Then every proper ideal of R is contained
in a maximal ideal.

Definition 1.1.17 (Prime ideal). Let R be a commutative ring. An ideal P of R is called

a prime ideal if P ̸= R and for all a, b ∈ R, ab ∈ P implies either a ∈ P or b ∈ P .

Definition 1.1.18 (Principal ideal). Let R be a commutative ring with identity. An ideal
I of R is called a principal ideal if there exists a ∈ R such that I = ⟨a⟩ = {ra : r ∈ R}.

Definition 1.1.19 (Nilpotent element). In a ring R, an element x is called nilpotent if

there exists a positive integer n such that xn = 0.
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Definition 1.1.20 (Idempotent element). Let R be a ring with unity. An element x ∈ R

is said to be an idempotent if x2 = x. 0 and 1 are called as trivial idempotents of R.
Moreover, if x is an idempotent of R then (1 − x) is also an idempotent of R.
Definition 1.1.21 (Characteristic of a ring). Let R be a ring. The characteristic of R is
defined as the smallest positive integer n for which na = 0 holds true for every a ∈ R. If
no such positive integer exists, the ring R is said to be of characteristic zero.
Definition 1.1.22 (Reduced ring). A ring R is termed as reduced if it does not have any
nontrivial nilpotent element.
Remark 1.1.3. 1. Every maximal ideal of ring R is prime ideal but converse need not
be true.

2. A field has no proper ideals.

3. If F is a field, then F has exactly one maximal ideal namely {0} but converse need
not be true.

4. Suppose R is a unital commutative ring. Then R is a field if and only if R has

exactly two distinct ideals {0} and R.

5. Suppose R is an integral domain. Then char(R) is either 0 or a prime number.

6. Suppose R is an integral domain. Then for every non-zero a ∈ R and b, c ∈ R,

ab = ac implies b = c.
Definition 1.1.23 (Local ring). A ring R is said to be a local ring if it contains a unique
maximal ideal.
Example 1.1.9. All fields are local rings, since fields have unique maximal ideal.
Definition 1.1.24 (Artinian ring). A ring R is said to satisfy the descending chain
condition of ideals if, for every chain of ideals I1 ⊇ I2 ⊇ I3 ⊇ · · ·, there exists a positive
integer m such that Ik = Im for all k ≥ m. A ring R is called Artinian if it satisfies the
descending chain condition of ideals.
Theorem 1.1.1. If (R, m) is an Artinian local ring, then m is a nil-ideal.
Theorem 1.1.2. If R is an Artinian commutative ring, then R ∼
= R1 × R2 × · · · × Rn ,
where each Ri is an Artinian local ring.
If a reduced ring R possesses a nonzero minimal ideal, then R is said to be decompos-
able.
Definition 1.1.25 (Direct product of two rings). Let R1 and R2 be rings. The set
R = R1 × R2 = {(x, y) : x ∈ R1 , y ∈ R2 } forms a ring with respect to the operations
defined as (r1 , r2 ) + (s1 , s2 ) = (r1 + s1 , r2 + s2 ), and (r1 , r2 )(s1 , s2 ) = (r1 s1 , r2 s2 ), where
r1 , s1 ∈ R1 and r2 , s2 ∈ R2 . The ring R is called the direct product of rings R1 and R2 .
 5

1.2 Evolution and advancement of graph theory

Graph theory, a branch of discrete mathematics, originated in the 18th century with Leon-
hard Euler’s groundbreaking work on the Seven Bridges of Königsberg problem. Euler’s
paper introduced the concept by abstracting the city’s layout into nodes (land masses)
and edges (bridges), focusing on connections rather than geographical details in 1736.
This approach laid the foundation for graph theory, bringing forth key concepts like ver-
tices, edges, and paths. Euler’s pioneering work marked the genesis of this branch of
mathematics, providing a framework for analyzing and understanding networks repre-
sented as graphs. The evolution of Graph Theory unfolded gradually over the centuries,
with significant milestones in its development. A century after Euler’s groundbreaking
contributions, Kirchhoff made a notable stride in 1847 by applying graph theory to the
analysis of electric circuits. This application broadened the scope of the field, linking it to
real-world problems and engineering applications. In the mid-19th century, Arthur Cayley
and James Joseph Sylvester explored the specific graphs known as trees. Their discoveries
illuminated fundamental properties of these graphs, contributing to the growing body of
knowledge in Graph Theory. Fast forward to the early 20th century, nearly two centuries
after Euler’s initial work, and a breakthrough emerged. In 1930, Kazimierz Kuratowski
established a criterion for determining whether a graph is planar. This pivotal develop-
ment brought a deeper understanding of graphical representation of networks, shedding
light on the relationships between nodes and edges.
Continuing the progression, Hassler Whitney made significant contributions in the
mid-20th century, focusing on embedding graphs on the plane. His work laid the ground-
work for understanding the geometric aspects of graph theory, exploring how graphs could
be represented and manipulated within two-dimensional spaces. This historical journey
showcases the continuous expansion of Graph Theory, from its inception with Euler to
the various contributions that have enriched its applications and theoretical foundations.
As the field advanced, it became an indispensable tool for modelling and solving diverse
problems across multiple disciplines, from computer science to physics. Over the last cen-
tury, its enduring significance in mathematics has become evident through applications in
fields such as chemistry, engineering, architecture, management and control, communica-
tion, operation research, sparse matrix technology, and combinatorial optimization. This
versatility underscores the integral role of Graph Theory in addressing complex challenges
and contributing to advancements in an array of scientific and practical domains.
Overall, the evolution of graph theory from its inception to its current state reflects a
journey of continuous discovery, innovation, and interdisciplinary collaboration.
 6

1.3 Some basics of graph theory

This section compiles fundamental definitions and significant findings related to graphs.

Definition 1.3.1. A graph G = (V, E) is comprised of a finite nonempty set V containing

vertices and a set E consisting of unordered pairs of distinct vertices, referred to as edges.
The vertex set and edge set of G are denoted as V (G) and E(G), respectively. The edge
e = {u, v} is represented as e = uv, signifying that e connects the vertices u and v.
The relationship between vertices u and v is termed as adjacency, denoted by u ∼ v.
Additionally, u and v are said to be incident with the edge e. In cases where two vertices,
u and v, are not connected by an edge, they are deemed non-adjacent and denoted as
u ̸∼ v.

Figure 1.1: Graph G

Example 1.3.1. Let V (G) = {u, v, w, x, y} and E(G) = {uv, uw, vx, wx, xy}, then the
graph G in Figure (1.1).

Example 1.3.2. Consider the set S = {2, 3, 5, 8, 13, 21} of six specific Fibonacci numbers.
There are some pairs of distinct integers belonging to S whose sum or difference (in
absolute value) also belongs to S, namely, {2, 3}, {2, 5}, {3, 5}, {3, 8}, {5, 8}, {5, 13},
{8, 13}, {8, 21}, {13, 21}. There is a more visual way of identifying these pairs, namely
by the graph H of Figure (1.2). In this case, V (H) = {2, 3, 5, 8, 13, 21} and E(H) =
{{2, 3}, {2, 5}, {3, 5}, {3, 8}, {5, 8}, {5, 13}, {8, 13}, {8, 21}, {13, 21}}.

Figure 1.2: Graph H

 7

Definition 1.3.2. The number of elements in the vertex set of a graph G is referred to
as the order of G. Similarly, the number of elements in the edge set of G is termed the
size of G. A graph possessing n vertices and m edges is denoted as a (n, m)-graph. The
term trivial graph is assigned to the (1, 0)-graph.

Definition 1.3.3. A loop is an edge that originates and terminates at the same vertex.
Parallel edges are edges with identical pairs of end vertices. A graph is considered simple
if it lacks loops or parallel edges.

Definition 1.3.4. The degree of a vertex v in a graph G corresponds to the number of

edges in G that are incident to v. This is denoted as degG (v) (or simply deg(v) or d(v)).
The maximum and minimum degrees among the vertices in a graph G are denoted by
∆(G) and δ(G), respectively. A vertex with a degree of 0 in G is referred to as an isolated
vertex, while a vertex with a degree of 1 is termed a pendent vertex or an end vertex of
G. In the context of pendent vertices, a vertex adjacent to a pendent vertex is known
as a support. If a support has only one pendent vertex adjacent to it, it is considered
trivial ; otherwise, with two or more pendent vertices, it is termed a non-trivial support.
Additionally, a vertex in a graph G is labelled as a full degree vertex (or a dominating
vertex or a link-complete vertex) if it is adjacent to all vertices in G. If G is a graph of
order n and v is any vertex of G, then

0 ≤ δ(G) ≤ deg(v) ≤ ∆(G) ≤ n − 1

A vertex of degree zero is called an isolated vertex. A vertex of degree one is called a
pendent vertex.

x y

Figure 1.3: A graph with δ(G) = 1 and ∆(G) = 3

Definition 1.3.5. The degree sequence DS(G) of a graph G is a sequence of degrees of

vertices of G in non-increasing order. Irregularity index of a graph G, denoted by τ (G),
is the number of distinct terms in the degree sequence of G.
 8

Figure 1.4: A graph with degree sequence: deg(G) = {4, 3, 2, 2, 2, 1, 0}

Definition 1.3.6. A finite sequence of non-negative integers is called graphical if it is a

degree sequence of some graph G.

Theorem 1.3.1 (The first theorem of graph theory). If G is a graph of size m, then
X
deg v = 2m.
v∈V (G)

The First Theorem of Graph Theory is useful in solving problems such as:

Example 1.3.3. A certain graph G has order 14 and size 27. The degree of each vertex
of G is 3, 4 or 5. There are six vertices of degree 4. How many vertices of G have degree
3 and how many have degree 5?

Proof. Let x be the number of vertices of G having degree 3. Since the order of G is 14
and six vertices have degree 4, eight vertices have degree 3 or 5. So there are 8 − x vertices
of degree 5. Summing the degrees of the vertices of G and applying the first theorem of
graph theory, we obtain

3 · x + 4 · 6 + 5 · (8 − x) = 2 · 27
3x + 24 + 40 − 5x = 54
3x + 24 + 40 − 5x = 54
−2x = −10
x=5

and so, 8 − x = 3. Thus G has five vertices of degree 3 and three vertices of degree 5.

Theorem 1.3.2. Every graph has an even number of odd vertices.

Proof. Let G be a graph of size m. Divide V (G) into two subsets V1 and V2 , where V1
consists of the odd vertices of G and V2 consists of the even vertices of G. By the first
 9

theorem of graph theory,

X X X
deg v = deg v + deg v = 2m.
v∈V (G) v∈V1 v∈V2

P
The number v∈V2 deg v is even since it is a sum of even integers. Thus
X X
deg v = 2m − deg v,
v∈V1 v∈V2

P
which implies that v∈V1 deg v is even. Since each of the numbers deg v, v ∈ V1 , is odd,
the number of odd vertices of G is even.

Definition 1.3.7. A graph H is termed as a subgraph of a graph G if V (H) ⊆ V (G)

and E(H) ⊆ E(G). A spanning subgraph of G is a subgraph H with V (H) = V (G). For
any given set S of vertices in G, the induced subgraph, denoted as ⟨S⟩, is the maximal
subgraph of G with vertex set equal to S. In this induced subgraph, two vertices from the
set S are connected by an edge if and only if they are adjacent in the original graph G.
In Figure 1.9, it is illustrated that G2 , G3 , G4 are contained within G1 as subgraphs, while
G3 encompasses G1 as a spanning subgraph. Additionally, both G2 and G4 are depicted
as induced subgraphs of G1 .

Figure 1.5:

Figure 1.6: A graph G and its proper subgraph H

Definition 1.3.8. A subdivision of a graph, denoted as S(G) for a given graph G, is

derived by introducing additional vertices into each existing edge of G, precisely once.
 10

Hence, the process of graph subdivision involves the augmentation of an original graph
by inserting a new vertex within each existing edge, resulting in the creation of two new
edges.

Definition 1.3.9. Consider vertices u and v in a graph G, where u and v may or may
not be distinct. A u–v walk in G is a finite, alternating sequence

u = u0 , e1 , u1 , e2 , . . . , ek , uk = v

of vertices and edges. This sequence begins with vertex u and concludes with vertex v,
such that each ei represents an edge ui−1 ui for i = 1, 2, . . . , k.
The length of the walk refers to the value k. A u–v walk is categorized as closed if u = v,
and it is considered open otherwise. The walk, expressed as u0 , e1 , u1 , e2 , . . . , ek , uk , can
be denoted simply by the sequence of its vertices:

u0 , u1 , u2 , . . . , uk .

If all edges in the walk are distinct, it is termed a trail. If all vertices in the walk are
distinct, it is called a path. A closed path is specifically referred to as a cycle. Notationally,
a path on k vertices is symbolized as Pk , and a cycle on k vertices is represented as Ck .

Example 1.3.4. In the following graph G shown in Figure (1.7), the sequence W =
(x, y, w, y, v, w) represents an x−w walk of length 5.

Figure 1.7:

Definition 1.3.10. A graph G is said to be connected if there exists a path connecting any
pair of distinct vertices in G. A component of G refers to a maximal connected subgraph.
Therefore, a graph is considered disconnected if it comprises at least two components.

Example 1.3.5. The following graph G = G1 ∪ G2 ∪ G3 is a disconnected graph, where

G1 , G2 , and G3 are called the components of the disconnected graph G.
 11

Figure 1.8:

Definition 1.3.11. A graph G is totally disconnected if no two vertices of G are adjacent.

Figure 1.9:

Definition 1.3.12. The girth of a graph G is defined as the length of the shortest cycle in
G and is denoted by gr(G). On the other hand, the circumference of a graph G represents
the length of the longest cycle in G and is denoted by cr(G). In Figure (1.11), gr(G) = 3
and cr(G) = 8.

Definition 1.3.13. The distance d(u, v) between two vertices u and v within a graph G
is defined as the length of the shortest path connecting u to v in G. This shortest u–v
path is commonly referred to as a geodesic. In a connected graph G, the diameter is the
length of the longest geodesic. The notation diam(G) is used to denote the diameter of
graph G.

Definition 1.3.14. The direct sum of two graphs G1 and G2 , denoted as G1 ⊕ G2 ,

encompasses all vertices from both G1 and G2 . An edge exists in G1 ⊕ G2 if and only if
it exists in either G1 or G2 , but not both.

Definition 1.3.15. A graph G is known as regular graph if all its vertices have identical
degrees. Specifically, G is referred to as an r-regular graph if every vertex in G has a
degree of r. A graph with every vertex having a degree of 3 is denoted as a cubic graph,
given its connection to the term cubic indicating a degree of 3. Figure (1.12) is example
of regular graph.
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Figure 1.10:

Definition 1.3.16. A graph G is defined as complete if every pair of its vertices are
adjacent. A complete graph on n vertices is symbolized as Kn . In Figure (1.12), G2
exemplifies a complete graph denoted as K4 .

Definition 1.3.17. A clique within a graph G is a largest complete subgraph of G that

cannot be extended by adding more vertices. The clique number of G is represented by
ω(G) and signifies the number of vertices in the largest clique of G. In Figure (1.13),
ω(G1 ) = 4.

Definition 1.3.18. The complement of a graph G, denoted as G, is a graph with the

same vertex set V (G). In G, two vertices are connected by an edge if and only if they are
not adjacent in the original graph G.

Figure 1.11:

Definition 1.3.19. A bipartite graph is a type of graph in which the vertex set V (G) can
be divided into two distinct, non-empty, and disjoint subsets labeled as V1 and V2 . This
partition has the property that every edge in G connects a vertex from V1 to a vertex in
V2 . The pair (V1 , V2 ) is termed a bipartition of G. Illustrations are provided in Figures
(1.14), (1.15), and (1.16).

Example 1.3.6. (i) The vertex set V (G) = {x1 , x2 , x3 , x4 , y1 , y2 , y3 , y4 } of the graph G,
shown in Figure (1.14), can be partitioned into two subsets:

V1 = {x1 , x2 , x3 , x4 }, V2 = {y1 , y2 , y3 , y4 }
 13

such that every edge in G has one end in V1 and the other in V2 . Hence, G is a bipartite
graph.

Figure 1.12:

(ii) Cycle graph of order six C6 is bipartite graph.

Figure 1.13:

(iii) Odd cycle graph are not bipartite.

Definition 1.3.20. A complete bipartite graph is a bipartite graph characterized by a

bipartition (V1 , V2 ) in which each vertex in V1 is connected to every vertex in V2 . This
type of graph is denoted by Km,n , where |V1 | = m and |V2 | = n.

If the complete bipartite graph has the specific form K1,n , with a single vertex in V1 , it is
referred to as a star graph. An illustration is provided in Figure (1.16).

Figure 1.14:

Definition 1.3.21. An Eulerian graph is a graph that contains an Eulerian trail, which
is a closed trail that includes all edges and vertices of the graph.
 14

Definition 1.3.22. A Hamiltonian path in a graph G is a path that visits every vertex
of G exactly once. A Hamiltonian cycle is a cycle that visits every vertex exactly once
and returns to the starting vertex. A graph that contains a Hamiltonian cycle is called a
Hamiltonian graph.

Definition 1.3.23. A graph G is said to be acyclic if it contains no cycles. Furthermore,

if G is both acyclic and connected, it is known as a tree. An illustration is presented in
Figure (1.17).

Figure 1.15:

Definition 1.3.24. A graph is referred to as a unicycle graph when it contains exactly

one cycle. An illustration is provided in Figure (1.17).

Definition 1.3.25. A split graph is a simple graph in which the vertex set can be parti-
tioned into a clique and an independent set.

Definition 1.3.26. A coloring of a graph involves assigning colors to its vertices such
that no two adjacent vertices share the same color. Each set of vertices assigned the same
color forms an independent set and is called a color class. An n-coloring of a graph G
uses n colors to partition the vertex set V (G) into n color classes. The chromatic number
of a graph G, denoted by χ(G), is the minimum number n such that G has an n-coloring.

Definition 1.3.27. The Cartesian product of two graphs G and H is defined as the graph
G □ H on the vertex set V (G) × V (H), with the tuples ((v1 , u1 ), (v2 , u2 )) forming an edge
if v1 = v2 and u1 and u2 are adjacent in H or v1 and v2 are adjacent in G and u1 = u2 .

Figure 1.16: The Cartesian product of two graphs