CELL CYCLE AND CELL DIVISION 01. INTRODUCTION © Growth and reproduction are characteristics of cells, indeed of all living organisms. © ~All cells reproduce by dividing into two, with each parental cell giving rise to two daughter cells each time they divide. These newly formed daughter cells cam themselves grow and divide, giving rise to a new cell population that Is formed by the growth and d a single parental cell and its progeny. © In other words, such cycles of growth and division allow a single cell to form a structure consisting of millions of cells. @ Term mitosis was proposed by Flemming. Mitosis produced genetically identical cells, which are also similar to mother cell. )_ CAUSE OF MITOSIS (A) Kern plasm theory : Hertwig proposed kern plasm theory. According to this theory mitosis occurs due to disturbance in Karyoplasmic Index (KI) or Nucleocytoplasmic ratio of cell. Karyoplasmic Index : significance of mitosis Modifications of mitosis , Meiosis Significance of Meiosis + Differences between mitosis and meiosis Vn = © Ve =Volume of cell (-) Ve-Va = Volume of cytoplasm /olume of nucleus © Karyoplasmic Index of small cell is high as they have oo less cytoplasm. Nucleus efficiently controls the activity of cytoplasm in small cells. GC) e In a large cell nucleus fail to control the activity of cytoplasm efficiently. To attain the control of nucleus ‘on cytoplasm a large celll divides into two cells. © ® (8) Surface-Volume Ratio: Surface-volume ratio is also considered as a cause of cell division. When a cell grows in size its volumes increases more than its surface. So a stage will reach when the surface area of cell becomes insufficient to draw the materials from surrounding. At such critical stage, cell increases its surface volume ratio by division. ision is a very important process replication and cell growth also take place. © Allthese processes, i.e, cell division, DNA replication, and cell growth, hence, have to take place in a coordinated way to ensure correct division and formation of progeny cells containing intact genomes. ——— Ee all g organisms, Di DNAALLEN’ inthesise © The sequence of events by which a cell duplicates its genome, Sv" eS the other o daughter cells is termed cell cycle, constituents of the cell and eventually divides into tw« ss but DN, © Cell growth (in terms of cytoplasmic increase) Is a continuous proce A synthesis ‘occurs only during one specific stage in the cell cycle. daughter nuclei by 2 complex serie, © The replicated chromosomes (DNA) are then distributed to es under genetic control. of events during cell division, These events are themselv (2) PHASES OF CELL CYCLE @ Atypical eukaryotic cell cycle is illustrated by human cells in culture. These cells divide ‘once in approximately every 24 hours. © The time period of cell cycle is varied from organism to organism and also from cell type to cell type Eg. :- Yeast can progress through the cell cycle in only about 90 minutes. Cell cycle involves two stages Interphase Division Phase/M-Phase - This is phase between two Interphase successive M-phase. In interphase cell grows in size and prepares itself for next division. NCERT XI Page No. 163, Figure No. 10.1 Interphase is most active phase of cell cycle. ‘The interphase last more than 95% of the duration of cell cycle. © — Aseries of metabolic changes occurs during interphase in cell. These changes were not visible under microscope, so some scientist termed interphase as resting phase. It is the time during which cell is preparing for division by undergoing both cell growth and DNA re; orderly manner. ‘Howard and Pelc classified interphase into three sub stages :~ G, — phase (I* Gap phase) or Pre DNA synthesis phase or post mitosis gap phase eG; phase corresponds to the interval between mitosis and initiation of DNA replication. During G; phase the cell is metabolically active and continuously grows but does not replicate its DNA. During G;-most of cell organelles increases in cell and cell rapidly synthesizes different types of RNA and proteins. Due to availability of protein, synthesis of new protoplasm takes place in cell and it starts growing in size. Cell grows maximum in G, stage.G,— phase (2 Gap phase) phase (ONA synthesis phase) Replication of nu Pre-Medical i clear DN, re Medi Replication of cyto; IA and synthest: During this time eae DNA may occur in Soy ne rt takes place in s-phase. jount age of cell cycle. Sane a then it sey oe per cell doubles. If the Initial amount of ONA is + if the cell ha loid or 2 . However, there is no increase in the chromosome 2n number of chromosomes at Gy, even after S phase of DNA eae Si replication and chromosome duplication (NA content in increa: id dipl a chromosome become di In animal cells, durin, : @ the ; centriole duplicates in the SS aAene DNA replication begins in the nucleus, and the OF Post DNA synthesis phase or Pre mitosis gap phase =~ e Final preparatior M-phase are SrneLed ae. occurs during this phase. Special proteins required for spindle fibres). Cell growth ee eg. Tubulin protein. (Required for formation of : Go phase - Some cells in the adult animals do not appear to exhibit division (e.g, heart cells) and many other cells divide only occasionally, as needed to replace cells that have been lost because of injury or cell death. These cells that do not divide further exit Gs phase to enter an inactive stage called quiescent stage (Go) of the cell cycle. © Calls in this stage remain metabolically active but no longer proliferate (aivide) unless called on to do so depending on the requirement of the organism. Checkpoints of cell cycle © Cell cycle is running by a | influenced by group of special proteins | * Cell size Influenced by "cyclins and Cdks. (Nurse, | 7 ONAdamose * chromosome atachmentto sine Sores Tur ee ae ees pone studied on saccharomyces) complex (APC) is activated. e Kinase is an enzyme that This APCs Inolved In — removes a _ phosphate (i) Separation of sister group from ATP & add to chromatids (division of another protein. The centromere) kinases involved in the tw Decondensaion cell cycle are called Cdks cogsernbly of nuclear because they are membrane activated when they combined with key protein called eyclin. Sean ‘At some check points @ influenced by kinase enzyme combines sf arowll factor with cyclin & this moves eens the cell cycle forwardly. ees e GrM__ transi is moting factor (MPF) formed by M-cyclin + CDK. triggered by maturation pro03. MITOSIS PHASE (M-PHASE) © Division phase or M-phase or mitosis phase lasts for only ab duration of cell cycle of a human cell. The M-phase represents the phase when the actual cell division or mitosis occurs. y seen in diploid somatic cay, inst this, the plants can shoy, out an hour in the 24 hoy, © In animals, mitosis or equational cell division is restricted or on except in some social insects for example-male honey bee etc. AB mitotic division in both haploid and diploid cells. © This is the most dramatic period of the cell cycle, involving a major reor components of the cell. Since the number of chromosomes in the pare the same, it is also called as equational division. ganisation of virtually aj ent and progeny cells is d into four stages of nuclear division, it is very © Though for convenience mitosis has been divide r-cut lines cannot essential to understand that cell division is a progressive process and very clea be drawn between various stages. e@ The M-phase start nuclear division, corresponding to the separation of daughter chromosomes (Karyokinesis) and usually ends with division of cytoplasm (cytokinesis). © _Karyokinesis is divided into the following four stages :- (1) Prophase (2) Metaphase (3) Anaphase (4) Telophase (1) PROPHASE @ — Prophase which is the first stage of karyokinesis of mitosis follows the S and Gz phases of interphase. @ Inthe Sand G; phases the new DNA molecules formed are not distinct bu' Prophase is marked by the initiation of condensation of chromosomal material. The iterwined. chromosomal material becomes untangled during the process of chromatin condensation. The centriole, which had undergone duplication during S phase of interphase, now begins to move towards opposite poles of the cell. ‘Anastral and Amphiastral Mitosis : In plants, centrioles are absent and no asters are formed. Mitosis without asters is known as anastral mitosis. In animals, the asters are present and the mitosis is described as amphiastral or astral mitosis. The completion of prophase can thus be marked by the following characteristic events: Chromosomal material condenses to form compact mitotic chromosomes. Chromosomes are seen to be composed of two chromatids attached together at the centromere. Centrosome which had undergone duplication during interphase, begins to move towards opposite poles of the cell. Each centrosome radiates out microtubules called aster. The two asters together with spindle fibres forms mitotic apparatus.iedical t the e Pie cell a a _ of prophase when viewed under the microscope, do not show golel complexes, endoplasmic reticulum, nucleolus and nuclear envelope. Separating Centrosome Golgi body Nucleolus Untangled ‘Nuclear membrane chromatin fibres NCERT XI Page No. 165, Condensation Figure No. 10.2 (a) Early Prophase — Chromosome Disintegration of Nuclear Membrane, ER and Golgi body, Astral rays/Aster Spindle fibre Condensation of chromosomes continues Disintegration of nucleolus Late Prophase NCERT XI Page No. 165, Figure No. 10.2 (a) 2)_ METAPHASE | ‘The complete disintegration of the nuclear envelope marks the start of the second phase of mitosis, hence the chromosomes are spread through the cytoplasm of the cell. By this stage, condensation of chromosomes is completed and they can be observed clearly under the microscope. This then, is the stage at which morphology of chromosomes is most At this stage, metaphase chromosome is made up of two sister chromatids, which are held together by the centromere. Small disc-shaped structures at the surface of the centromeres are called kinetochores. These structures serve as the sites of attachment of spindle fibres (formed by the microtubules) to the chromosomes that are moved into position at the centre of the cell.Pre-Medical ‘Continuous fibre Chromosomal fibre Transition to Metaphase NCERT XI Page No. 165, Figure No. 10.2 (b) Uinatone NCERT XI Page No. 165, Figure No. 10.2 (b) © Hence, the metaphase is characterised by all the chromosomes coming to lie at the equator with one chromatid of each chromosome connected by its kinetochore to spindle fibres from one pole and its sister chromatid connected by its kinetochore to spindle fibres from the opposite pole. The plane of alignment of the chromosomes at metaphase is referred to as the metaphase plate. * Chromosomal fibres (discontinuous/kinetochore fibres which run from Pole to centromere) and Supporting fibres (continuous/non-kinetochore fibres which run from pole to pole) arrange in cell. © Centromere lies at equator and arms of chromosomes remain directed towards poles. © The key features of metaphase are: * Spindle fibres attach to kinetochores of chromosomes, Chromosomes are moved to spindle equator and get aligned along metaphase plate through spindle fibres to both poles. k————— —ge future daughter nuclei, number of chromosome become double in cell 0 new d The tw aughter chromosomes begin moving toward opposite ends of the cell as their spindle fibres shorten due to depolymerisation of tubulin protein towards kinetochorle end. ho chr as 200 omosome moves away from the equatorial plate, the centromere of each chromosome is towards the pole and hence at the leading edge, with the arms of the chromosome trailing behind, ‘Anaphase stage is characterised by the following key events: (4), TELOPHASE fel SRS PROPHASE ‘At the beginning of the final stage of karyokinesis, i.e., Centromeres split and chromatids separate. Chromatids (now reffered as chromosomes) move to opposite poles. Daughter chromosomes {each with single chromatid) Anaphase NCERT XI Page No. 166, Figure No. 10.2 (c) telophase, the chromosomes that have reached their respective poles decondense and lose their individuality. The individual chromosomes can no longer be seen and chromatin material tends to collect at each of the two poles. This is the stage which shows the following key events: Chromosomes cluster at opposite spindle poles and their identity is lost as discrete elements. Nuclear envelope develops around the chromosome clusters at each pole forming two daughter nuclei. Nucleolus, Golgi complex and ER reform.Pre-Medical ‘Nuclear membrane Nucleolus ER. Chromosome |Decondensation Interphase Chromatin network : NCERT XI Page No. 166, Telophase Figure No. 10.2 (d) & (e) (seers @ Mitosis accomplishes not only the segregation of duplicated chromosomes into daughter nucle} (Karyokinesis) but the cell itself is divided into two daughter cells by the separation of cytoplasm called cytokinesis at the end of which cell division gets completed. © At the time of cytoplasmic division, organelles like mitochondria and plastids get distributed between the two daughter cells. © In animals cytokinesis occurs by constriction & furrow formation. At the periphery of the equator a contractile ring is formed that is made up of actin and myosin protein. Due to interaction between actin and myosin, ring contract, thus a furrow forms from outside to inside in cell. Furrow deepens continuously and ultimately a cell divides into two daughter cells. In animals cytokinesis occurs in centripetal order. Daughter nucleus Furrow formation (Centripetal oder) SEE < <>. Contractile ring t Actin and myosit protein (ii) od Ee deepens Daughter cells (i)Pre-Medical cytokinesis Im plants takes place by cell plate formation because constriction is not possible gue #0 presence of a relatively inextensible cell wall, Many golgi vesicles and spindle microtubules arrange themselves on equator to form phragmoplast. Fragments of ER may also deposit in phragmoplast. Membranes of golgi vesicles fuse to form a plate like structure called cell plate. Golgi vesicles secret calcium and magnesium pectate due to which cell plate Is modified into middle lamella, In plants, cytokinesis occurs in centrifugal order (cell plate formation is from center to periphery). In some organisms Karyokinesis is not followed by cytokinesis as a result of which multinucleate condition arises leading to the formation of syncytium (e.g., liquid endosperm jin coconut). Fragments of spindle fibers Golgi vesicles (microtubules) secrete Ca and Daughter nucleus Mg pectate Golgi vesicles Phragmoplast ; Cell plate (Centrifugal order) 0} (ii) Cell wall Cell membrane Middle lamella (iii) (iv)isl AMITOSIS : It is a simple method of cell division which is also called direct cell division. In this PreMedical 04. SIGNIFICANCE OF MITOSIS Development of an organism occurs by mitosis. Every organism starts its life from a single cel, i.e. zygote. Repeated mitosis in zygote leads to the formation of the whole body. The growth of multicellular organisms is due to mitosis. Cell growth results in disturbing the ratio between the nucleus and the cytoplasm. It therefore becomes essential for the cell to divide to restore the nucleo-cytoplasmic ratio. A very significant contribution of mitosis is cell repair. The cells of the upper layer of the epidermis, cells of the lining of the gut, and blood cells are being constantly replaced. Mitotic divisions in the meristematic tissues - the apical and the lateral cambium, result in a continuous growth of plants throughout their life. 05. MODIFICATIONS OF MITOSIS. Free nuclear division :- Karyokinesis is not followed by cytokinesis as a result of which multinucleated condition arises. Endomitosis :- This is duplication of chromosomes without division of nucleus. Endomitosis leads to polyploidy. i.e. Increase in number of set of chromosomes. Colchicine induces polyploidy in plants. Colchicine is a mitotic poison as it arrests the formation of spindle fibres, Endoreduplication :- The polytene chromosomes are formed by the process of endoreduplication. In endoreduplication, the chromatids replicate but do not get seperated. This process is also known as polyteny. division there is no differentiation of chromosomes and spindle. The nuclear envelope does not degenerate. The nucleus elongates and constricts in the middle to form two daughter nuclei. This is followed by a centripetal constriction of the cytoplasm to form two daughter cells. eg. Prokaryotes and some unicellular eukaryotes. % Gordon {ey Pointe * During the division of a cell, DNA replication and cell growth also take place. The sequence of events by which a cell duplicates its genome, synthesise the other constituents of the cell and eventually divides into two daughter cells is termed cell cycle. The interphase lasts more than 95% of the duration of cell cycle. S phase marks the phase of DNA replication and chromosome duplication. In prophase, chromosomal material (Chromatin) condenses to form compact mitotic chromosomes. P In metaphase, spindle fibres attach to kinetochores of chromosomes. In anaphase, centromeres split and chromatids separate. In animal cell cytokinesis occurs by furrow formation and in plant cell it occurs by cell plate method. Avery significant contribution of mitosis is cell repair.