DSC-02: Cognitive Psychology

Unit 2 Notes
Hemansh, PSY/23/22 (with Vriti’s & Astha’s
help)
Unit 2:
Sensing and Perceiving: Sensation to Representation, approaches to perception,
perception of object and forms, perception of constancies and deficits of perception,
Attention: nature & theories, when attention fails us, Automatic and Controlled Processes in
Attention

Sensation & Perception

Stimulation refers to sensory inputs from one's environment that excite neural and mental
activity.
 Stimulation occurs externally on sensory organs, surfaces, tissues or cells
 Stimulation precedes sensation. The stimulus triggers the cascade of neural signalling
that produces a sensation
 Stimulation does not require conscious awareness or perception. You may not
experience or feel the stimulation.

Stimulation to Sensation

In all the sense organs, it is the job of the sensory receptors, such as the eyes and ears, to
convert incoming stimulus information into electrochemical signals—neural activity—the only
language the brain understands.

Psychologists use the term transduction for the sensory process that converts the
information carried by a physical stimulus, such as light or sound waves, into the form of
neural messages.

The process of transduction, which is the conversion of physical stimulation into neural
messages, can be broken down into the following steps:

1. Detection of Physical Stimulus: A sensory neuron detects a physical stimulus such

as a sound wave produced by a vibrating guitar string.

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 2. Activation of Receptors: When the appropriate stimulus reaches a sense organ, it
activates specialized neurons known as receptors.
3. Conversion to Nerve Signal: The receptors respond by converting their excitation
into a nerve signal. Thus, a sensation is generated.

# Please keep in mind, however, that the stimulus itself terminates in the receptor: The only
thing that flows into the nervous system is information carried by the neural impulse.

Sensation is defined simply as the process by which a stimulated receptor (such as the eyes
or ears) creates a pattern of neural messages that represent the stimulus in the brain, giving
rise to our initial experience of the stimulus.
 Psychologists who study sensation do so primarily from a biological perspective
 involves converting stimulation into a form the brain can understand (neural signals)
 Sensation occurs internally within the sensory systems and pathways of the body and
brain.
 Sensation involves the conscious awareness, detection or feeling of a stimulus. It is a
mental experience.
 Our sensory impressions of the world involve neural representations of stimuli—not the
actual stimuli themselves.
 The brain senses the world indirectly because the sense organs convert stimulation into
the language of the nervous system: neural messages.
 Different sensations occur because different areas of the brain receive the messages.
 Absolute Threshold: the minimum amount of physical energy needed to produce a
sensory experience. The operational definition, as in a lab, is the intensity at which the
stimulus is detected accurately half of the time over many trials. It varies continually
with our mental alertness and physical condition.
 Difference Threshold (also called the just noticeable difference or JND) is the
smallest physical difference between two stimuli that a person can reliably detect 50%
of the time. Weber’s law: The size of the JND is proportional to the intensity of the
stimulus The JND is always large when the stimulus intensity is high and small when the
stimulus intensity is low.
 With regards to the last 2 points, Sensation DOES NOT EQUAL Perception.
 Sensory Adaptation is the diminishing responsiveness of sensory systems to
prolonged stimulation

Signal Detection Theory (SDT) of Sensation

1. Factors Influencing Sensation: Sensation depends on the characteristics of

the stimulus, the background stimulation, and the detector. For instance, your
ability to receive a stimulus, such as a lecture, depends on competing stimuli
(like the sound of laptop keys or intrusive thoughts) and the condition of your
“detector” (your brain), which can be influenced by factors like caffeine or lack of
sleep.
2. Variability in Thresholds: SDT helps us understand why thresholds vary.
Unlike classical psychophysics, which posited that a signal would be sensed if it
exceeded the absolute threshold and missed if it was below, SDT views sensation
as a probability that the signal will be detected and processed accurately.
3. Advantages over Classical Psychophysics: SDT offers a more accurate
portrayal of sensation by accounting for the variability in human judgment and
the conditions in which the signal occurs. It acknowledges that the observer’s
physical and mental status is always changing, and that sensory experiences
must be compared with ever-changing expectations and biological conditions.
4. Application: SDT is particularly useful in situations where you must decide
whether a stimulus is present amidst background noise, taking into account
factors like the keenness of your hearing, your expectations, and other noises in
the background. For example, when you hear a bump in the night, your decision
about whether it’s the cat, an intruder, or just your imagination will depend on
these factors.

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Perception is the set of processes by which we recognize, organize, and make sense of the
sensations we receive from environmental stimuli. Perception does not consist of just seeing
what is being projected onto your retina (or any other stimuli); the process is much more
complex. Your brain processes the visual stimuli, giving the stimuli meaning and interpreting
them.

Sensation to Perception

Perception occurs when the informational medium carries information about a distal object to
a person. When the person’s sense receptors notice the information, proximal stimulation
occurs and the person perceives an object.

Perceptual Basics: Basic Concepts of Perception

 Proximal & Distal Stimulations, & Perceptual Object - James Gibson (1966, 1979)

Proximal and distal stimulations are terms used to describe the relationship between the
external world and our perception of it. Proximal stimulation is the stimulation that occurs
on our sensory receptors (such as the retina) when we perceive something. Distal
stimulation is the stimulation that is caused by the external object (such as a falling tree) in
the environment. Proximal and distal stimulations are related, but not identical, because our
perception is influenced by factors such as attention, expectations, and prior knowledge.
Therefore, we do not always perceive the distal object exactly as it is, but rather construct a
perceptual object (or a percept—a mental representation of a stimulus that is perceived)
based on the proximal stimulation and other sources of information. Perception occurs when a
perceptual object (i.e., what you see) is created in you that reflects the properties of the
external world.

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  Sensory Adaptation: How do we achieve perceptual stability when there is so
much instability at the level of sensory receptors?

Variation is necessary for perception! In sensory adaptation, receptor cells adapt to constant
stimulation by not firing until there is a change in stimulation. Through sensory adaptation,
we may stop detecting the presence of a stimulus.

The Ganzfeld Effect: The Ganzfeld effect (from German for "complete field"), or
perceptual deprivation, is a phenomenon of perception caused by exposure to an
unstructured, uniform stimulation field. When your eyes are exposed to a uniform field
of stimulation, you will stop perceiving that stimulus after a few minutes and see just a
grey field instead. This is because your eyes have adapted to the stimulus. Such a
uniform visual field is called Ganzfeld. The effect is the result of the brain amplifying
neural noise in order to look for the missing visual signals. The noise is interpreted in
the higher visual cortex, and gives rise to hallucinations. The Ganzfeld effect happens
when your brain is starved of visual stimulation and fills in the blanks on its own.

 Sometimes we perceive what is not there. Other times, we do not perceive

what is there. And at still other times, we perceive what cannot be there. The
existence of perceptual illusions suggests that what we sense (in our sensory
organs) is not necessarily, what we perceive (in our minds).

Our minds must take the available sensory information and manipulate that information to
create mental representations of objects, properties, and spatial relationships within our
environments. The way we represent these objects will depend in part on our viewpoint in
perceiving the objects.

Visual System

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The precondition for vision is the existence of light. Light is electromagnetic radiation that can
be described in terms of wavelength. Humans can perceive only a small range of the
wavelengths that exist; the visible wavelengths are from 380 to 750 nanometres.

Process of Visual Perception

1. Sensory Information Intake: Our visual system starts by gathering sensory

information from the environment. Light energy enters the eye and is received by the
retina, which contains photoreceptors—rods and cones, which convert light energy into
electrochemical energy that is transmitted by neurons to the brain.
2. Photoreceptors and Photopigments: Rods and cones within the retina differ in
shape, concentration, and function. Rods are long and thin, abundant in the peripheral
retina, assist in night vision and respond to light/dark stimuli. Cones (short and thick),
concentrated in the foveal region, and are responsible for colour perception.
3. Conversion of Light to Neural Signals: Photoreceptors contain photopigments that
react to light, transforming it into electrochemical signals, which are then transmitted
through neurons to the brain.
4. Pathway to the Brain: Neurochemical messages from rods and cones are transmitted
via bipolar cells to ganglion cells. The ganglion cells' axons collectively form the optic
nerve, which carries visual information to the brain.
5. Optic Chiasma: The optic nerves from each eye join at the optic chiasma, where some
fibres cross over. Ganglion cells from the nasal part of the retina cross over to the
opposite brain hemisphere, while those from the temporal area go to the same side of
the brain.
6. Image Projection: The lens of the eye projects an inverted and reversed image onto
the retina, which is then sent to the brain. This inverted message is processed further
along the visual pathway.
7. Transmission to Visual Cortex: About 90% of ganglion cells' information reaches the
lateral geniculate nucleus in the thalamus. Neurons then carry this information to the
primary visual cortex (V1) in the occipital lobe of the brain.
8. Visual Processing: The visual cortex contains various processing areas that handle
different aspects of visual information, including colour, location, depth, pattern, and

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 form. These areas in the brain process and interpret the incoming visual signals to
create a coherent perception of the environment.

Pathways to Perceive the What and the Where

A pathway in general is the path the visual information takes from its entering the human
perceptual system through the eyes to its being completely processed. The information from
the primary visual cortex in the occipital lobe is forwarded through two fasciculi (fibre
bundles):

 The Dorsal or the ‘Where’ Pathway: Here, information ascends toward the parietal
lobe along the dorsal pathway. It is responsible for processing location and motion
information. It determines ‘where’ an object is located in relation to your body. (Is it in
front of you? Are you about to step on it?)
 The Ventral or the ‘What’ Pathway: Here, information descends to the temporal
lobe along the ventral pathway. It is mainly responsible for processing the colour,
shape, and identity of visual stimuli. It determines ‘what’ an object is and ‘what’ the
context is (Is it a chair in the kitchen or a toilet in the bathroom).

This is the what–where hypothesis. Most of the research in this area has been carried
out with monkeys. In particular, a group of monkeys with lesions in the temporal lobe were
able to indicate where things were but seemed unable to recognize what they were. In
contrast, monkeys with lesions in the parietal lobe were able to recognize what things
were but not where they were.

The what–how hypothesis suggests the two pathways refer not to what things are and
to where they are, but rather to what they are and to how they function. According to this,
spatial information about where something is located in space is always present in visual
information processing. What differs between the two pathways is whether the emphasis is
on identifying what an object is (what-ventral stream) or, instead, on how we can situate
ourselves to grasp the object (how-dorsal stream).

Approaches to Perception

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 Bottom-up Theories

Bottom-up theories describe approaches in which perception starts with the stimuli whose
appearance you take in through your eye. Therefore, they are data-driven (i.e., stimulus-
driven) theories. These explain perception with the perceiver staring with small bits of
information from the environment that the then combines to form a concept, and doing so in
various ways.

1. Gibson’s Theory of Direct Perception

This theory by James Gibson (1966) states that the information in our sensory receptors
along with sensory context is all we need to perceive anything. Thus, it eliminates the
consideration of needing any higher-level intelligent processes in perception. This theory also
states that we do not need said higher-level processes to mediate sensory experiences and
actual perception since, in the real world; there is usually sufficient contextual the information
to make perceptual judgements. Thus, we effectively use contextual information directly
without the need of higher-level processes (Gibson, 1979). Since this contextual information is
likely to be available in a real-world setting rather than a lab experiment, readily, Gibson's
model is also sometimes referred to as the Ecological Model. Furthermore, direct perception
may also play a role in interpersonal situations when we try to make sense of others’
emotions and intentions (Gallagher, 2008).

Neuroscience and Direct Perception: The text discusses the role of neuroscience in
perception. It mentions that mirror neurons, which activate when a person performs or
observes an action, start firing 30 to 100 milliseconds after a visual stimulus. This suggests
that we may understand expressions, emotions, and movements of others before we form
hypotheses about what we perceive. The text also mentions that separate neural pathways
process form, colour, and texture in objects. When judging the length of an object, people
cannot ignore its width, but they can judge colour, form, and texture independently of other
qualities.

2. Template Theories

These theories are suggestive of our minds storing a variety of templates, i.e. highly detailed
models for patterns we might recognize. According to these theories, we recognize а pattern
when an incoming pattern is compared to all of the templates stored and identified by the
template that best matches it. These theories also suggest that expertise is attained by
acquiring chunks of knowledge in long-term memory that can be later accessed for fast
recognition.

In template matching, stimulus encountered is compared to previously stored template. Thus,

the process of perception involves looking for a match and sometimes further processing is
needed to sort out an appropriate template if multiple templates match a stimulus. This
model implies that we, in our stored knowledge, have millions of different templates for every
distinct pattern we recognize. However, there are a few limitations.

 To acquire a complete explanation of any stimulus, we would require an incredible

amount of stored templates.
 This model would need to explain the formation, storage, and evolution of templates
overtime since we become capable of recognizing new objects as technology and our
experiences change.
 Lastly, perceiver(s) may recognize many patterns as more or less the same thing.
Several distinct features need to be interpreted or adjusted first to match an existing
template meaning that there are some other processes going on to determine or
‘perceive’ the need for adjustment in the first place

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Neuroscience and Template Theories: This excerpt discusses how our brains recognize
letters versus digits. Research suggests a distinction in brain activation when processing
letters versus digits, with a specific area near the left fusiform gyrus being more active when
presented with letters. This "letter area" might specialize in processing letters, though its
involvement in digit recognition remains uncertain. This concept aligns with the idea of
specialized brain regions for different stimuli, such as facial recognition. Later, the text hints
at a discussion on the brain structures responsible for recognizing faces.

CAPTCHAs (Completely Automated Public Turing Test to Tell Computers and Humans Apart)

3. Feature-Matching Theories

In contrast to template thrones, feature-matching theories attempt to match features of a

pattern to features of a pattern stored in memory, rather than matching a whole pattern to
template or a prototype. In other words, instead of processing stimuli as whole units, they are
understood by their parts which are then recognised to them infer what the whole represents.
Here, the parts searched for and recognized are called features. Thus, in these theories, the
recognition of the whole object depends on the recognition of its features. This is called
featural analysis.

The Pandemonium Model, Oliver Selfridge (1959): One such feature-matching model
has been called Pandemonium (“pandemonium” refers to a noisy, chaotic place and hell). In
this model, metaphorical “demons” with specific duties receive and analyse the features of a
stimulus. There are four kinds of demons: image demons, feature demons, cognitive demons,
and decision demons. The “demons” function as feature detectors. Demons at the bottom
(first) level of processing scan the input, and demons at higher levels scan the output from
lower-level demons.

This model illustrates a number of important aspects of featural analysis.

 First, demons can scream more loudly or softly, depending on the clarity and quality of
the input. This allows for the fact that real-life stimuli are often degraded or incomplete,
yet objects and patterns can still be recognized.
 Second, feature demons can be linked to letter demons in such a way that features that
are more important carry greater weight. This takes into account that some features
matter more than others in pattern recognition do.
 Last, the weights of the various features can be changed over time, allowing for
learning.

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Most of the other feature models focus on distinguishing different features and their kinds like
global versus local features. Local features constitute small-make or detailed aspects of a
given pattern whereas global features what give a pattern its overall shape.

Studies using these models regarding these features show that in patterns where constituent
items are close together at a local level, perceiver has trouble identifying the local stimuli if
they are not concordant with the global stimuli. This is called the global precedence effect,
wherein the global features are dominant.

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In contrast, when letters are more widely spaced, the effect is reversed. Then a local
precedence effect appears. Participants more quickly identify the local features of the
individual letters than the global ones, and the local features interfere with the global
recognition in cases of contradictory stimuli.

Neuroscience and Feature-Matching Theories Researchers used single-cell recording

techniques on animals to understand how individual neurons in the visual cortex respond to
specific visual stimuli. They found that certain neurons in the visual cortex react to particular
kinds of stimuli, like lines or edges, but only in specific parts of the eye's retina. These
neurons in the cortex, which respond to simple features like lines or edges, seem to build up
to more complex detectors for shapes and objects. However, there's no single "grandmother
cell" that only recognizes one person; instead, there are cells that specialize in recognizing
complex objects like hands or faces. As information travels through the visual system, the
receptive fields (areas triggering neuron response) increase in size and the required
complexity of stimuli for response also grows. Initially, it was thought there were only simple
and complex cells in the visual cortex, but further research has identified detectors for various
shapes like corners, angles, or even specific objects like faces or hands. These cells can serve
multiple functions simultaneously and contribute to our perception without our conscious
awareness. Hubel & Wiesel (1979):

 Simple cells – bars/edges

 Complex cells – bars/edges detect bars of particular orientation
 Hyper-complex cell – particular colours (simple and complex cells), bars, or edges of
particular length or moving in a particular direction

4. Recognition-by-Components Theory, Irving Biederman (1987)

He suggested that we recognize 3-D objects by manipulating simple geometric shapes called
geons (for geometrical ions). According to his theory, we quickly recognize objects by
observing the edges of them and then decomposing the objects into geons. The geons also
can be recomposed into alternative arrangements. The geons are simple and function
regardless of viewpoint—they are viewpointinvariant. The objects constructed from geons
thus are recognized easily from many perspectives, despite visual noise.. It occurs even when
the stimulus object is degraded in some way. This is because you can still infer the presence
of the other geons.

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Limitations:

 His theory explains how we may recognize general instances of chairs, lamps, and
faces, but it does not adequately explain how we recognize particular chairs or
particular faces. So RBC theory cannot explain how we can distinguish one face from
the next.
 Another problem with his approach and the bottom-up approach in general, is how to
account for the effects of prior expectations and environmental context on some
phenomena of pattern perception.

Neuroscience and Recognition-by-Components Theory: Confirming Biederman's theory

of geons would imply the existence of neurons that respond to object properties unchanged
by different viewpoints. Studies have found neurons in the inferior temporal cortex sensitive
to these viewpoint-invariant properties. However, many neurons primarily respond to one
view and decrease their response as an object is rotated, contradicting Biederman's notion.
This contradiction raises uncertainty about the accuracy of Biederman's theory regarding
object recognition through viewpoint-invariant geons.

Top-Down Theories

According to this approach, perception is driven by high-level cognitive processes, existing

knowledge, and the prior expectations that influence perception. Thus, Perception is not
automatic from raw stimuli. It involves – (1) Making inferences, & (2) Guessing from
experience.

It is a constructive perception where the perceiver builds (constructs) a cognitive

understanding (perception) of a stimulus. The concepts of the perceiver and his or her
cognitive processes influence what he or she sees. The perceiver uses sensory information as
the foundation for the structure but also uses other sources of information to build the
perception. This viewpoint also is known as intelligent perception because it states
that higher-order thinking plays an important role in perception. It also emphasizes the role of
learning in perception. Perception both affects and is affected by the world as we experience
it.

According to constructivists, during perception, we quickly form and test various hypotheses
regarding percepts. The percepts are based on the following:

 what we sense (the sensory data)

 what we know (knowledge stored in memory)
 what we can infer (using high-level cognitive processes)

Successful constructive perception requires intelligence and thought in combining sensory

information with knowledge gained from previous experience.

Evidence/Arguments supporting the Constructivist Approach, i.e. the Explanatory

Limitations of Bottom-Up Theories, explained by Top-Down Theories

1. Context effect

Context effects are the influences of the surrounding environment on perception i.e. we
consider prior expectations like you would recognise a friend from far away because you
planned a hangout.

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You probably read the two words as “they bake,” perceiving the character in question
unambiguously as an ‘h’ the first time and then, milliseconds later, as an ‘a’. The context
surrounding the character ‘t’ and ‘ey’ the first time and ‘b’ and ‘ke’ the second time,
obviously influenced what you perceived.

Experiment - For example, participants might see a scene of a kitchen followed by stimuli
such as a loaf of bread, a mailbox, and a drum. Objects that were appropriate to the
established context, such as the loaf of bread in this example, were recognized more rapidly
than were objects that were inappropriate to the established context. The strength of the
context also plays a role in object recognition

2. Configural-Superiority, Object-Superiority, & Word-Superiority Effect

Configural-Superiority Effect is the effect by which objects presented in certain configurations

are easier to recognize than the objects presented in isolation, even if the objects in the
configurations are more complex than those in isolation.

Three of the stimuli are shaped like triangles, and one is not. In each case, the stimulus is a
diagonal line [Figure 3.17(a)] plus other lines [Figure 3.17(b)]. Thus, the stimuli in this second
condition are more complex variations of the stimuli in the first condition. Participants,
however, can more quickly spot which of the three-sided, more complicated figures is
different from the others than they can spot which of the lines is different from the others.

In the Object-Superiority Effect, a target line that forms a part of a drawing of a 3-D object
is identified more accurately than a target that forms a part of a disconnected 2-D pattern.

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The Word-Superiority Effect indicates that when people are presented with strings of
letters, it is easier for them to identify a single letter if the string makes sense and forms a
word instead of being just a nonsense sequence of letters. For example, it is easier to
recognize the letter ‘o’ in the word ‘house’ than in the word ‘huseo’.

Experiment: Sometimes a single letter was presented. At other times, the letter appeared in
the context of a word (such as WORD or WORK; notice that either D or K forms a common
English word in combination with the same three letters). At still other times, the letter was
presented with three other letters in a combination that did not form a word (OWRD or OWRK,
for instance). In each case, the stimuli were then masked, and the participant was asked
merely to say which letter, D or K, had been presented. Surprisingly, participants could much
more accurately identify letters presented in the context of words than non-sense words.

3. Gregory (1970) and Top-Down Processing Theory

Gregory's theory of top-down processing proposes that perception relies heavily on the brain's
stored knowledge and expectations to, actively, construct interpretations of sensory
information, rather than just passively receiving inputs.

Gregory suggested that individuals attempt to recognize objects by generating a series of

perceptual hypotheses about what that object might be. This involves generating a series
of hypotheses and accepting the one that is best supported by the data (in perception, ‘data’
would be the information flowing ‘up’ from the senses).

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According to Gregory, we are forced to generate hypotheses because the sensory data are
incomplete. If we had perfect and comprehensive sensory data, we would have no need of
hypotheses, as we would ‘know’ what we perceived. Prior stored knowledge is important
in perceptual hypotheses generation as it fills the gaps in sensory data.

There are some stimuli with which we are so familiar (such as faces) that there can be a
strong bias towards accepting a particular perceptual hypothesis, resulting in a ‘false’
perception. This, as Gregory suggests, represents a tendency to go with the most likely
hypothesis, i.e. the hypothesis that the face in emerging outwards.

A primary example Gregory uses to illustrate his theory, with reference to perceptual
hypotheses, is the illusory contours (or subjective contours) phenomenon. This refers to
cases where viewers report seeing an outline or shape that is not actually present, based on
certain arranged cues. For instance, when positioned properly, the edges of partial circles can
give the illusion of complete circular shapes.

How Bottom-Up and Top-Down Approaches go together

 Both top-down (constructivist) and bottom-up (direct perception) approaches have
empirical support, so they are likely complementary rather than contradictory.
 Top-down emphasizes prior knowledge combined with sensory input. Bottom-up
emphasizes richness of sensory information.
 Truth is likely in between - sensory information is rich but not completely unambiguous,
and perception involves some top-down processing but is not wholly constructed.
 Evidence supports an integrated view - early visual processing is more Bottom-Up but
later processing incorporates top-down factors like attention and goals.
 Different visual pathways mediate perception vs. action - we see objects holistically but
perceive them analytically if planning to act on them.
 Current theories explain some but not all perceptual phenomena. A comprehensive
theory needs to account for context effects and individual differences.

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 Perception of Objects and Forms

1. Viewer-Centered vs. Object-Centered vs. Landmark-Centered Representation

Viewer-Centered Object-Centered Landmark-Centered
Representation Representation Representation
The individual stores the way The individual stores a Information is characterized
the object looks to him or her. representation of the object, by its relation to a well-known
Thus, what matters is the independent of its or prominent item. Imagine
appearance of the object to appearance to the viewer. In visiting a new city. Each day
the viewer, not the actual this case, the shape of the you leave your hotel and go
structure of the object. The object will stay stable across on short trips. It is easy to
shape of the object changes, different orientations. This imagine that you would
depending on the angle from stability can be achieved by represent the area you
which we look at it. A number establishing the major and explore in relation to your
of views of the object are minor axes of the object, hotel.
stored, and when we try to which then serve as a basis
recognize an object, we have for defining further properties
to rotate that object in our of the object.
mind until it fits one of the
stored images.

2. Gestalt Approach
The Gestalt approach to form perception that was developed in Germany in the early
twentieth century is particularly useful for understanding how we perceive groups of objects
or even parts of objects to form integral wholes The approach was founded by Kurt Koffka
(1886–1941), Wolfgang Köhler (1887–1968), and Max Wertheimer. It was based on the
notion that the whole differs from the sum of its individual parts. The Gestalt approach
is overarched by the Law of Prägnanz.

Law of Prägnanz: We tend to perceive any given visual array in a way that most simply
organizes the different elements into a stable and coherent form. Thus, we do not merely
experience a jumble of unintelligible, disorganized sensations.

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Figure-ground is also called segregation of the whole display into objects (also called the
figure) and the background (also called the ground) is an important process known to
cognitive psychologists as form perception.

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Experiments show that people rely on Gestalt principles automatically, even when
assessing never-before-seen shapes, suggesting these visual organizational habits operate at
a fundamental perceptual level. For example, study participants were quicker at recognizing a
triangle shape as part of a novel image because its visual proximity and closure fit Gestalt
expectations.

The Gestalt principles powerfully demonstrate patterns in visual processing, operating

innately in the human perceptual system, including proximity-based grouping. However,
they serve more as descriptive observations rather than explanations of the
underlying mechanisms of organization and meaning making in perception. Understanding
why and how humans perceive patterns and forms as we do require deeper and more
complex perceptual theories that build upon these Gestalt foundations.

3. Recognizing Patterns and Faces

Humans have two systems for recognizing patterns, according to Martha Farah.

Feature Analysis System Configurational System

 This specializes in recognizing parts of  This specializes in recognizing larger
objects and in assembling those parts configurations, not analysing parts of
into distinctive wholes (feature analysis objects or the construction of the
system). For example, when you are in objects. For example, when you look at
a biology class and notice the elements a tulip in a garden and admire its
of a tulip—the stamen, the pistil, and distinctive beauty and form.
so forth—you look at the flower  Most relevant to recognizing faces -
through this first system. Recognizing a friend seen on a daily
 It can also be used in face recognition - basis, sometimes ignoring major
suppose you see someone whose face changes like haircut, glasses, etc.
looks vaguely familiar, but you are not
sure who it is.

If face recognition is somehow special and especially dependent on the second,

configurational system, then people should have more difficulty recognizing parts of faces
than parts of houses. An interesting example of a configurational effect in face recognition
occurs when people stare at distorted faces. If you stare at a distorted face for a while and
then stare at a normal face, the normal face will look distorted in the opposite direction.

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Evidence for Separate Systems

 Prosopagnosia
o Inability to recognize faces after brain damage
o Ability to recognize objects is intact
 Associative agnosia
o Difficulty with recognizing objects
o Can recognize faces

Perceptual Constancies
Perceptual constancy occurs when our perception of an object remains the same even
when our proximal sensation of the distal objects changes.

Size constancy Shape constancy

 Size constancy is the perception  Shape constancy is the perception that an object
that an object maintains the same maintains the same shape despite changes in
size despite changes in the size of the shape of the proximal stimulus.
the proximal stimulus.  The perceived shape remains the same despite
 The size of an image on the retina changes in its orientation and hence in the shape
depends directly on the distance of of its retinal image.
that object from the eye.  Achieving shape constancy in our perception is
 An example of size constancy is the easier for us when an object is symmetrical than
Müller-Lyer illusion when it is not because symmetry provides a cue
to object orientation

Depth Perception

Depth is the distance from a surface, usually using your own body as a reference surface
when speaking in terms of depth perception. Depth cues are visual cues that provide
information about the 3D structure of a scene and the relative distances of objects within it.

 Monocular depth cues can be represented in just two dimensions and observed with
just one eye.
These are Texture gradients (Grain of item), Relative size (Bigger is closer),
Object Overlap/Interposition (Closer are in front of other objects), Linear
perspective (Parallel lines converge in distance), Atmospheric
Attenuation/Aerial perspective (Images seem blurry farther away), Motion
parallax (Objects get smaller at decreasing speed in distance), Shadowing &
Shading
 Binocular depth cues are based on the receipt of sensory information in three
dimensions from both eyes.
These are Binocular convergence (Convergence Angles of Optical Axes of the
Two Eyes), Binocular disparity (Retinal Disparity)

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 Deficits in Perception

1. Disruption of the “what” pathway

Agnosia: People who suffer from an agnosia have trouble perceiving sensory
information. Agnosias often are caused by damage to the border of the temporal and
occipital lobes or restricted oxygen flow to areas of the brain, sometimes because of
traumatic brain. They can perceive the colours and shapes of objects and persons, but
they cannot recognize what the objects are. They have trouble with the ‘what’
pathway. E.g., one gnostic patient, on seeing a pair of eyeglasses, noted first that there
was a circle, then that there was another circle, then that there was a crossbar, and
finally guessed that he was looking at a bicycle.

Simultagnosia: Disturbance in the temporal region of the cortex can lead to

simultagnosia. In simultagnosia, an individual is unable to pay attention to more than
one object at a time. A person with simultagnosia would not see each of the objects
depicted in figure. Rather, the person might report seeing the hammer but not the
other objects.

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 Prosopagnosia: Prosopagnosia results in a severely impaired ability to recognize
human faces. A person with prosopagnosia might not recognize her or his own face in
the mirror. This fascinating disorder has spawned much research on face identification,
a popular topic in visual perception. The functioning of the right-hemisphere fusiform
gyrus is strongly implicated in prosopagnosia.

3. Disruption of the “how” pathway

Optic ataxia: It is an impaired ability to use the visual system to guide movement.
People with this deficit have trouble reaching for things. Ataxia results from a
processing failure in the posterior parietal cortex, where sensorimotor information is
processed. All of us have had the experience of coming home at night and trying to find
the keyhole in the front door. It is too dark to see, and we have to grope with our key
for the keyhole, often taking a while to find it. Someone with optic ataxia has this
problem even with a fully lit visual field. The ‘how’ pathway is impaired.

4. Anomalies in Colour Perception

 Achromacy or rod monochromacy - No color vision, only shades of gray. Cones

nonfunctional. Very rare.
 Dichromacy - Only two color mechanisms work, one malfunctioning. Three types:
o Red-green color blindness - Most common, difficulty distinguishing red and
green hues. Protanopia is the extreme form.
o Deuteranopia - Difficulty seeing greens, similar to protanopia.
o Tritanopia - Confusion between blues/greens and yellows/reds. Yellows
disappear.

Colour-blindness is more common in men due to sex-linked genetic factors. It can also result
from brain lesions. Most color-blind people retain some color vision, despite the term "color
blindness.” More accurately called color vision deficiencies.

Attention

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 [Attention] is the taking possession of the mind, in clear and vivid
form, of one out of what seem several simultaneously possible
objects or trains of thoughts. . . . It implies withdrawal from some
things in order to deal effectively with others.

—William James, Principles of Psychology

Attention is the means by which we actively select and process a limited amount of
information from all of the information captured by our senses, our stored memories, and our
other cognitive processes.

 Attention includes both conscious (easier to study by researchers) and unconscious

processes (harder to study).
 If you attended to every detail of your environment, you would feel quickly
overwhelmed. Thus, Attention allows us to use our limited mental resources judiciously.
 This heightened focus increases the likelihood that we can respond speedily and
accurately to interesting stimuli.
 Heightened attention also paves the way for memory processes. We are more likely to
remember information to which we paid attention than information we ignored.

# Attention is not equal to Consciousness

 At one time, psychologists believed that attention was the same thing as
consciousness. Now they acknowledge that we attend to and process some sensory
information and memories without our conscious awareness.
 Consciousness includes both the feeling of awareness and the content of awareness,
some of which may be under the focus of attention. Attention and consciousness,
therefore, form two partially overlapping sets.

# Conscious attention plays a causal role in cognition, and serves three purposes:

 It helps monitor our interactions with the environment.

 It assists us in linking our past (memories) and our present (sensations) to give us a
sense of continuity of experience.
 It helps us control and plan for our future actions based on the information from
monitoring and from the links between past memories and present sensations.

Functions of Attention (along with theories to explain each function)

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 1. Signal detection and vigilance

 Stimulus > noise

 Main Factors Affecting Attention and Vigilance: Time on task, Rest to activity
ratio, Signal frequency, Environment (Noise), Temperature, Sleep Loss, Motivation

Signal Detection:

 Signal detection involves the ability to discern specific important stimuli (signals) from
a myriad of distractions or background noise.
 It emphasizes the immediate identification and discrimination of relevant signals from
irrelevant information.
 It's often associated with quick, precise responses to critical events or stimuli, requiring
acute discrimination abilities to identify, for instance, a distress signal among a
crowded beach.
 Signal detection focuses on the instantaneous identification and differentiation of
pertinent information from the surrounding background.
 Signal-detection theory (SDT) is a framework to explain how people pick out the
important stimuli embedded in a wealth of irrelevant, distracting stimuli. SDT often is
used to measure sensitivity to a target’s presence. When we try to detect a target
stimulus (signal), there are four possible outcomes (refer figure).
 Signal-detection theory was one of the first theories to suggest an interaction between
the physical sensation of a stimulus and cognitive processes such as decision-making.

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Vigilance AKA Sustained Attention:

 Vigilance refers to a person’s ability to attend to a field of stimulation over a prolonged

period, during which the person seeks to detect the appearance of a particular target
stimulus of interest.
 Vigilance is about remaining consistently attuned to the environment, anticipating
potential threats or important stimuli, and staying alert for an extended time without
succumbing to distractions or lulls.
 Vigilance is needed in settings in which a given stimulus occurs only rarely but requires
immediate attention as soon as it does occur.
 In vigilance tasks, expectations regarding stimulus location strongly affect response
efficiency.
 Unlike signal detection, which emphasizes immediate discrimination of signals,
vigilance concerns the ability to sustain attention and awareness over prolonged
periods, ensuring continuous monitoring and readiness for unexpected events or
stimuli.
 Neuroscience and Vigilance: Both the amygdala and thalamus are involved in
vigilance. The amygdala particularly plays a pivotal role in the recognition of emotional
stimuli. An electroencephalogram (EEG) will show less low frequency activity and
bigger event-related potentials (ERPs) the more vigilant a person is.

In essence, while signal detection focuses on immediate discernment and discrimination of

specific stimuli from a background of distractions, vigilance revolves around the endurance of
attention and sustained readiness over extended periods, ensuring continuous awareness and
preparedness.

2. Search

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  Search refers to a scan of the environment for particular features—actively looking for
something when you are not sure where it will appear.
 Distracters: Non-target stimuli that divert our attention away from the target stimulus

Types of Search

o Feature Search: We look for just one feature (e.g., colour, shape, or size) that
makes our search object different from all others. Therefore, the number of
distracters does not really play a role in slowing us down.
o Conjunction Search: We have to combine two or more features to find the
stimulus we are looking for. Because in conjunction searches we look for a
combination of features, these searches are more difficult than feature searches
that look for just one feature. The number of targets and distracters affects the
difficulty of conjunction searches.

The work just reviewed on visual search tasks often involves “pop out” phenomena in which
certain stimuli seem to jump off the page or screen at the viewer, demanding attention.
Experimental psychologists have called this phenomenon Attentional Capture. By this, they
mean to imply that certain stimuli “cause an involuntary shift of attention.” Many have
described this phenomenon as a bottom-up process, driven almost entirely by properties of a
stimulus, rather than by the perceiver’s goals or objectives. Hence, the term attentional
capture, which implies that the stimulus somehow automatically attracts the perceiver’s
attention.

Theories of Attention explaining Search Processes

1. Feature-Integration Theory

 Anne Treisman (1986)

 Explains why it is relatively easy to conduct feature searches and relatively
difficult to conduct conjunction searches.
 Suggested that two stages are involved when we perceive objects:
1. We perceive features of objects, including colour and size; automatic; does
not need our conscious attention; occurs in feature searches. We can
recognize a stimulus immediately and do not need additional time for
cognitive processing.
2. Involves our connecting two or more features with some sort of “mental
glue”; requires our conscious attention; takes longer to search for a given
stimulus if there is a larger number of items in the search panel.

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 2. Similarity Theory

 According to similarity theory, the more similar target and distracters are, the
more difficult it is to find the target.
 The difficulty of search tasks depends on how different distracters are from each
other. But it does not depend on the number of features to be integrated.
 For instance, it is easier to read long strings of text written in lowercase letters
than text written in capital letters because capital letters tend to be more similar
to one another in appearance. Lowercase letters, in contrast, have more
distinguishing features.

3. Selective Attention

 Selective Attention involves being able to choose and selectively attend to certain
stimuli in the environment while at the same time tuning other things out.
 It refers the fact that we usually focus our attention on one or a few tasks or events
rather than on many. To say we mentally focus our resources implies that we shut out
(or at least process less information from) other, competing tasks.
 Colin Cherry (1953) gave the Cocktail party problem (in Galotti, apparently it is
Moray who gave this in 1959). He devised a task known as shadowing. In shadowing,
you listen to two different messages. Cherry presented a separate message to each
ear, known as dichotic presentation.
o The participants were also able to notice physical, sensory changes in the
unattended message—for example, when the message was changed to a tone or
the voice changed from a male to a female speaker. However, they did not
notice semantic changes in the unattended message. When their name is
presented in the unattended channel, they will switch their attention to their
name. Some researchers have noted that those who hear their name in the
unattended message tend to have limited working-memory capacity. As a result,
they are easily distracted

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Theories of Attention explaining Selective Attention

The models differ in two ways: (1) whether or not they have a distinct filter for incoming
information, and (2) if the filter occurs early or late in the processing of information.

1. Early Filter Model

 Donald E. Broadbent (1958)

 Here, it is proposed that we filter information right after we notice it at the
sensory level
 Sensory memory only stores the information for a split second and then forwards
it to a filter that allows only one message to move forward to be processed in
more detail. That message is distinguished by characteristics such as loudness,
pitch, or accent. The stimuli that are filtered out at the sensory level may never
reach the level of perception. Except for the one message that will be further
processed, all other information is being processed. Short-term memory then
enables us to respond to the message and to store necessary information for
future use in long-term memory.
 The above paragraph is useless so just see the diagram

2. Selective Filter Model

 Moray (1959)
 He found that even when participants ignore most other high-level (e.g.,
semantic) aspects of an unattended message, they frequently still recognize
their names in an unattended ear.
 Moray suggested that the reason for this effect is that messages that are of high
importance to a person may break through the filter of selective attention.
 Some personally important messages are so powerful that they burst through
the filtering mechanism.

3. Attenuation Model

 Anne Treisman (1960)

 Treisman proposed a theory of selective attention that involves an attenuating
mechanism. Instead of blocking out stimuli, the filter (attenuator) merely
weakens (attenuates) the strength of all stimuli other than the target stimulus.
So when the stimuli reach us, we analyse them at a low level for target
properties such as loudness and pitch. If the stimuli possess those target
properties, we pass the signal on to the next stage; if they do not possess those
target properties, we pass on a weakened version of the stimulus.
 In a next step, we perceptually analyse the meaning of the stimuli and their
relevance to us. If a message from the unattended ear contains some

26
 information that is important to us (e.g., our name), it will be picked up, even
though the signal has been weakened by the attenuator.
 Because the unattended messages are weaker, only parts will be picked up that
are of significance, whereas the rest will go unnoticed.
 Only a few words have permanently lowered thresholds. However, the context of
a word in a message can temporarily lower its threshold. If a person hears “The
dog chased the . . . ,” the word cat is primed—that is, especially ready to be
recognized. Even if the word cat were to occur in the unattended channel, little
effort would be needed to hear and process it.

4. Late Filter Model

 Deutsch and Deutsch (1963), expanded upon by Norman (1968)

 They suggested that stimuli are filtered out only after they have been analysed
for both their physical properties and their meaning. This later filtering would
allow people to recognize information entering the unattended ear.
 Later elaborated and extended by Norman (1968), this theory holds that all
messages are routinely processed for at least some aspects of meaning—that
selection of which message to respond to, thus, happens “late” in processing.
 Late-selection theory also describes a bottleneck but locates it later in the
processing, after certain aspects of the meaning have been extracted.

Neuroscience and selective attention

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ERPs emerged as a tool in the 1970s. Hillyard et al. (1973) conducted a notable study using
different tones in each ear, revealing that the N1 component of the ERP was more pronounced
when the target was in the attended ear, suggesting heightened processing of the target
while suppressing other stimuli. Subsequent research (Woldorff & Hillyard, 1991) identified an
earlier positive wave in the auditory cortex post-target onset. Modern studies continue to
leverage ERPs, exploring diverse topics such as how a mother's socioeconomic status affects
a child's selective attention, revealing that lower maternal education correlates with reduced
selective attention effects on neural processing in children. Similarly, in visual attention, the
occipital P1 wave is larger when the target appears in an attended visual field region
compared to an unattended one.

4. Divided Attention

 Divided Attention refers to the ability to focus on multiple tasks or stimulus

simultaneously.
 Thus, it is observed when an individual engages in more than one tasks at a time,
shifting attentional resources and allocating them as needed
 It can also be referred to as multitasking, as it involves managing multiple tasks or
stimulus simultaneously.

In early research, investigators used a dual-task paradigm to study divided attention during
the simultaneous performance of two activities and found that improvements in performance
eventually would have occurred because of practice. They also hypothesized that the
performance of multiple tasks was based on skill resulting from practice. They believed it not
to be based on special cognitive mechanisms.

In later experiments, participants could perform both tasks at the same time without a loss in
performance. Spelke suggested that these findings showed that controlled task could be
automatized so that they consume fewer attentional resources. Furthermore, two discrete
controlled tasks may be automatized to function together as a unit. However, the tasks do not
become fully automatic. For one thing, they continue to be intentional and conscious. For
another, they involve relatively high levels of cognitive processing.

The psychological refractory period (PRP) effect explores how our ability to perform two
speedy tasks simultaneously is impacted. When faced with overlapping speeded tasks, the
responses for one or both tasks tend to slow down, especially if the second task starts shortly
after the first. This delay in performance is termed the attentional blink or PRP effect. Studies
suggest that while people can efficiently process basic physical aspects of incoming
information when engaged in multiple speeded tasks, more complex processing like decision-
making or retrieving information from memory causes a decline in speed, leading to the PRP
effect.

Theories of Attention explaining Divided Attention

To understand our ability to divide our attention, researchers have developed capacity models
of attention. Two different perspectives were talked about which differed in terms of what the
source of attention is:

1. One model suggests that one single pool of attentional resources can be divided freely.
Daniel Kahneman (1973)
2. Another model suggests multiple sources of attention are available, one for each
modality (e.g., verbal or visual). Navon & Gopher (1979)

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Attention, Capacity, and Mental Effort

 Daniel Kahneman (1973) - Capacity Model of Attention

o He viewed attention as a set of cognitive processes for categorizing and
recognizing stimuli. The more complex the stimulus, the harder the
processing, and therefore the more resources are engaged. However, people
have some control over where they direct their mental resources: They can
often choose what to focus on and where to devote their mental effort.
o Essentially, this model depicts the allocation of mental resources to various
cognitive tasks.
o Many factors influence this allocation of capacity, which itself depends on the
extent and type of mental resources available. The availability of mental
resources, in turn, is affected by the overall level of arousal, or state of
alertness.
o He argued that one effect of being aroused is that more cognitive resources
are available to devote to various tasks. Paradoxically, however, the level of
arousal also depends on a task’s difficulty.
o This model predicts that we pay more attention to things we are interested in,
are in the mood for, or have judged important.

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Critiques & Limitations of Common Pool of Attentional Resources

 Single-pool models likely oversimplify what is going on: People are much
better at dividing their attention when competing tasks are in different modalities.
At least some attentional resources may be specific to the modality (e.g., verbal or
visual) in which a task is presented. For example, most people can easily listen to
music and concentrate on writing simultaneously. But it is harder to listen to the
news station and concentrate on writing at the same time. The reason is that both
are verbal tasks. The words from the news interfere with the words you are thinking
about. Similarly, two visual tasks are more likely to interfere with each other than
are a visual task coupled with an auditory one.
 Overly broad and vague in explaining all aspects of attention: These models
regarding allocation of attentional resources have been criticized severely as overly
broad and vague. Indeed, they may not stand alone in explaining all aspects of
attention, but they complement filter theories quite well.
 Insufficient Explanation of Search-Related Phenomena: Additionally, for
explaining search-related phenomena, theories specific to visual search, models
proposing guided search or similarity seem to have stronger explanatory power than
filter or resource theories.

Divided Attention in Everyday Life

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Divided attention is crucial in situations like driving, where missing a critical threat due to
divided focus can lead to accidents. Studies show talking on a cell phone significantly impairs
driving compared to listening to the radio, increasing the likelihood of misses and slower
reactions to crucial signals. Real-world data aligns with this, attributing accidents to cell
phone use, distractions within the vehicle, and external factors. Talking on a cell phone while
driving can be as dangerous as driving while intoxicated, leading to increased anger and
aggression, linked to more accidents. Interestingly, having a passenger appears safer than
talking on a cell phone, as passengers adjust their conversation based on traffic, unlike
distant callers. Texting while driving significantly decreases reaction time and increases
accident risk, despite most people being aware of its dangers.

Factors affecting Attention

 Anxiety: Being anxious, either by nature (trait-based anxiety) or by situation (state-

based anxiety), places constraints on attention.
 Arousal: Your overall state of arousal affects attention as well. You may be tired,
drowsy, or drugged, which may limit attention. Being excited sometimes enhances
attention.
 Task difficulty: If you are working on a task that is difficult or novel for you, you
will need more attentional resources than when you work on an easy or highly
familiar task. Task difficulty particularly influences performance during divided
attention.
 Skills: The more practiced and skilled you are in performing a task; the more your
attention is enhanced.
 Stimulus Characteristics: Intensity, timbre, vibrancy, etc.
 Environmental Factors: Distractions, noise levels, and environmental stimuli play
a role in attentional focus
 Cultural Influence: Cultural background can shape attentional preferences and
strategies
 Individual Differences: Factors like age, cognitive abilities, and personality traits
can influence attention span and patterns.
 Fatigue and Sleep: Lack of sleep or mental fatigue can reduce attention and
concentration levels

Neuroscience and Attention

Synthesizing diverse studies on attentional processes in the brain is challenging. Michael

Posner suggests attention is not solely tied to one brain region or the entire brain. Alongside
Mary Rothbart, Posner reviewed neuroimaging studies on attention, finding a
pattern that aligns with three sub-functions: alerting, orienting, and executive
attention. They linked specific brain areas, neurotransmitters, and dysfunctions within this
system to each function, offering a clearer understanding of attention's neural basis.

 Alerting: It is defined as being prepared to attend to some incoming event, and

maintaining this attention. Alerting also includes the process of getting to this state of
preparedness.
o Right frontal and parietal cortexes
o Locus coeruleus
o Neurotransmitter norepinephrine does maintenance of alertness.
o Dysfunction may lead to symptoms of ADHD

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  Orienting: It is defined as the selection of stimuli to attend to. This kind of attention is
needed when we perform a visual search. The orienting network develops during the
first year of life.
o The superior parietal lobe
o The temporal parietal junction
o The frontal eye fields
o The superior colliculus.
o The modulating neurotransmitter for orienting is acetylcholine.
o Dysfunction within this system can be associated with autism.

 Executive Attention: Executive attention includes processes for monitoring and

resolving conflicts that arise among internal processes. These processes include
thoughts, feelings, and responses.
o The anterior cingulate, lateral ventral
o The prefrontal cortex
o The basal ganglia
o The neurotransmitter most involved in the executive attention process is
dopamine.
o Dysfunction within this system is associated with Alzheimer’s disease, borderline
personality disorder, and schizophrenia

When Our Attention Fails Us

In the following sections, we will consider two examples of failing attention:

 Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD)

 Change Blindness/Inattentional Blindness.
 Spatial Neglect

Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD)

First described by Dr. Heinrich Hoffman in 1845

People with ADHD have difficulties in focusing their attention in ways that enable them to
adapt in optimal ways to their environment.

o Typically first displays itself during the preschool or early school years.
o The disorder does not typically end in adulthood, although it may vary in its severity,
becoming either more or less severe.
o An estimated 3% to 5% of the general school-age population has some form of ADHD.
o Approximately three times more common in boys than girls do.

As per Posner and Raichle’s disengage and move operations, ADHD clients suffer not so
much from an inability to be alert or to devote mental resources to a task, as from an inability
to sustain vigilance on dull, boring, repetitive tasks, such as “independent schoolwork,
homework, or chore performance”

Partial Suspected Causes of ADHD: It has been investigated widely, but no one knows for
sure the cause of ADHD.

o Maternal smoking and drinking during pregnancy

o Childhood exposure to lead

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 o Brain injury
o Food additives—in particular, sugar and certain dyes
o Differences in the frontal-subcortical cerebellar catecholaminergic circuits and in
dopamine regulation

The three primary symptoms of ADHD

o Inattention (i.e., difficulty staying focused and paying attention, easily distracted,
struggles to follow instructions)
o Hyperactivity (i.e., levels of activity that exceed what is normally shown by children of a
given age)
o Impulsiveness (i.e., acting without thinking, difficulty waiting for turn. interrupting or
intruding on others, blurting things out)

The three main types of ADHD, depending on which symptoms are predominant:

o Hyperactive-impulsive
o Inattentive
o A combination of hyperactive-impulsive and inattentive behaviour

Children with the inattentive type of ADHD show several distinctive symptoms:

o They are easily distracted by irrelevant sights and sounds.

o They often fail to pay attention to details.
o They are susceptible to making careless mistakes in their work.
o They often fail to read instructions completely or carefully.
o They are susceptible to forgetting or losing things they need for tasks, such as pencils or
books.
o They tend to jump from one incomplete task to another.
o Exhibit slower and more variable reaction times.
o An inability to inhibit an on-going response (for example, talking or playing a game
when asked to do homework), an inability that may be a part of Posner and Raichle’s
enhance operation.

ADHD (Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder) and Autism are two distinct conditions that
share some similarities but also have key differences:

o ADHD: This condition is primarily characterized by issues with attention, impulsivity,

and hyperactivity. According to research, children with ADHD have the most trouble in
attentional orienting, which means they may struggle to focus their attention, switch
attention between tasks, or hold attention on a task.
o Autism: Autism, or Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD), is a developmental disorder that
affects communication and behaviour. Children with autism show deficits in conflict
monitoring and response preparation. They often become fixed in their attention on
particular concepts or objects.

Treatment of ADHD: Most often treated with a combination of psychotherapy and drugs.

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 Drugs
o Ritalin (methylphenidate)
o Metadate (methylphenidate)
o Strattera (atomoxetine)

This last drug differs from other drugs used to treat ADHD in that it is not a stimulant. Rather,
it affects the neurotransmitter norepinephrine. The stimulants, in contrast, affect the
neurotransmitter dopamine.

A number of studies have noted that, although medication is a useful tool in the treatment of
ADHD, it is best used in combination with behavioural interventions.

 Psychotherapy

Gardner's theory proposes that intelligence is not a single, general ability but rather involves
multiple distinct intelligences or cognitive skills. The theory identifies eight types of
intelligence: linguistic, logical-mathematical, spatial, bodily-kinaesthetic, musical,
interpersonal, intrapersonal, and naturalist.

The text explains that this theory has been helpful for treating and supporting children with
ADHD. Rather than viewing these children as deficient in some general intelligence, the
multiple intelligences perspective recognizes that they may have strengths in some areas and
challenges in others.

For example, a child with ADHD may excel in bodily-kinaesthetic or musical intelligence but
struggle with linguistic or logical-mathematical intelligence. Educational interventions can
focus on utilizing and developing the child's areas of strength to boost their achievements.
Interventions tailored to a child's predominant intelligences can improve outcomes for
children with ADHD.

Change Blindness and Inattentional Blindness

People with ADHD have difficulties in focusing their attention in ways that enable them to
adapt in optimal ways to their environment.

Change Blindness is the inability to notice large changes to scenes when the scene is
somehow disrupted. Change blindness has been linked to another phenomenon known as
inattentional blindness.

Inattentional Blindness is the phenomenon of not perceiving a stimulus that might be

literally right in front of you, unless you are paying attention to it. It is the failure to notice the
existence of an unexpected item.

Earliest discovery was by the father of cognitive psychology Ulric Neisser and his fellow
researchers during the 1970s.

Reasons for Inattentional Blindness:

 Conspicuity - This refers to how noticeable or salient something is in our environment.

Objects or events that stand out and are conspicuous are more likely to capture our
attention, while inconspicuous, blend-in stimuli are more apt to be missed. If something
lacks conspicuity, we may not notice it due to inattentional blindness.

 Mental Workload - When our minds are overloaded with a demanding cognitive task,
it consumes most of our attention resources. This high mental workload leaves less

34
 attention available to notice other things around us. The heavy cognitive load
contributes to inattentional blindness.

 Working Memory - This system actively holds information in mind and manipulates it.
Working memory has limited capacity. When working memory is taxed by a difficult
task, fewer resources remain to process other information. This can lead to failures to
notice unexpected stimuli due to inattentional blindness. The limited capacity of
working memory reduces available attention.

Only 44% of participants ever reported seeing a gorilla, although this number was much
greater for the subjects watching the black team, who presumably shared more visual
features with the gorilla (dark colour) than did the white team.

Simons and Chabris (1999) concluded that unexpected events could be overlooked.
Presumably, we only perceive those events to which we attend, especially if the unexpected
event is dissimilar to the focus of our attention, and if our attention is tightly focused
somewhere else.

Spatial Neglect

Hemi-neglect/ Unilateral Neglect/ Unilateral Spatial Neglect/ Unilateral Inattention/ Hemi-

spatial Neglect

It is an attentional dysfunction in which participants ignore the half of their visual field that is
contralateral to (on the opposite side of) the hemisphere of the brain that has a lesion.

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Interestingly, when patients are presented with stimuli only to their right or their left side,
they often can perceive the stimuli, no matter which side they are on. This means that they
have no major visual-field defects. Thus, hemi-neglect is attentional, rather than sensory.

When stimuli are present in both sides of the visual field, people with hemi-neglect suddenly
ignore the stimuli that are contralateral to their lesion (i.e., if the lesion is in the right
hemisphere, they neglect stimuli in the left visual field).

This phenomenon is called extinction. The reason for extinction may be that patients are not
able to disengage their attention from the stimulus in the ipsilateral field (the part of the
visual field where the lesion is) in order then to shift their attention to the contralateral visual
field. Their attention is “stuck” on the ipsilateral object so that they cannot shift attention to
stimuli that appear on the contralateral side.

Automatic and Controlled Processes in Attention

 Proposed by Shiffrin and Schneider

 Postulates the existence of automatic and controlled search processes

Automatic Processes Controlled Processes

Posner and Snyder (1975) offered three These attention processes require an
criteria for cognitive processing to be called individual to draw upon central cognitive
automatic processing: resources or rather the controlled attention.
 It must occur without intention
 It must occur without involving It usually operates serially (with one set of
conscious awareness information processed at a time)
 It must not interfere with other mental  Requires attention
activity  Is capacity limited
 It is under conscious control.
Multiple automatic processes may occur at
once, or at least quickly, and in no It is an intentionally-initiated sequence of
particular sequence. Thus, they are termed cognitive activities
parallel processes.
These cannot be conducted
Processes can become automatic through simultaneously with other controlled
extensive practice. processes.

Automatic processing, Schneider and Shiffrin As per Schneider and Shiffrin (1977),
(1977) asserted, is used for easy tasks and Controlled Processing is used for difficult

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with familiar items and have lesser tasks and ones that involve unfamiliar
demands on concentration or attention. processes.

Automatic processes develop when the Controlled processing occurs when the
mapping between stimuli and responses mapping is varied
is consistent  In the varied-mapping condition, the
 In Schneider and Shiffrin’s experiments set of target letters or numbers, called
consistent-mapping condition, the the memory set, consisted of one or
target memory set consisted of more letters or numbers, and the
numbers and the frame consisted of stimuli in each frame were also letters
letters, or vice versa. Stimuli that were or numbers. Targets in one trial could
targets in one trial were never become distractors in subsequent
distractors in other trials. The task in trials. In this condition, the task was
this condition was expected to require expected to be hard and to require
less capacity concentration and effort.

Automatization: Many tasks that start-off as controlled processes eventually become

automatic ones because of practice. This process is called automatization (also termed
proceduralization). For example, driving a car is initially a controlled process. Once we
master driving, however, it becomes automatic under normal driving conditions. . When
conditions change, the same activity may again require conscious control. In the driving
example, if the roads become icy, you will likely need to pay attention to when you need to
brake or accelerate.

Reasons for Automatization

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  Practice: During the course of practice, implementation of the various steps becomes
more efficient. A person gradually combines individual effortful steps into integrated
components that are further integrated until the whole process is one single operation
that requires few or no cognitive resources
 Instance Theory – Logan (1988): He suggested that automatization occurs because
we gradually accumulate knowledge about specific responses to specific stimuli.
Essentially, one does not necessarily get better at something, they just retrieve the
appropriate & specific response to a situation, automatically, from an accumulated
wealth of specific experiences.

Pattern of Automatization: The effects of practice on automatization show a negatively

accelerated curve. In such a curve, early practice effects are great. Later practice effects
make less and less difference in the degree of automatization. A graph of improvement in
performance would show a steeply rising curve early on, and the curve would eventually level
off.

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