Geo-Informatics:

Concept, Tools and

techniques, common
issues and concerns

Asst. Prof. Lalit Pandey

Soil Science
School Of Agriculture, FWU
Geoinformatics

➢ Geoinformatics was defined as ‘art, science or technology dealing with the

acquisition, storage, processing, production, presentation, and dissemination of
geoinformation’ (Ehlers 1993).
➢ The term geo informatics consists of two words, geo (Earth) and informatics (the
study of information processing).
➢ Geoinformatics is one of the advanced applications of images and their processing to
study the earth's features (Schoen-Phelan, 2020).
➢ It is a multidisciplinary science that integrates the technologies and principles of
digital cartography, remote sensing, photogrammetry, surveying, Global Positioning
Systems (GPS), and Geographic Information Systems (GIS).
➢ Geography and earth science increasingly rely on digital spatial data acquired from
remotely sensed images analyzed by geographical information systems (GIS), photo
interpretation of aerial photographs.
Tools and techniques of Geo-Informatics

• Cartography
• Geodesy
• Satellite navigation
• Photogrammetry
• Remote sensing
• Spatial analysis
• Web mapping
• Navigation
Cartography

Study and practice of making and using maps. Combining

science and aesthetics and technique, cartography builds on
the premise that reality can be modeled in ways that
communicate spatial information effectively.

Objectives of traditional cartography:

• Set the map agenda and select traits (roads, land masses,
political boundaries) of the object to be mapped.

• Represent the terrain of the mapped object on flat media

(projection)

• Reduce the complexity (generalization).

• Organize the elements of the map to best convey its

message (map design).

Coordinate reference system defines how the visual mapping of spatial data should be done. CRS has projection
parameters, which is configurable giving a variation in mapping. Modern cartography constitutes theoretical and
practical foundations of GIS and Geographic information science
Map types
General Cartography:
• Intended for general audience and
containing a variety of features. Bear
many reference and location systems.

Thematic Cartography:
• Specific geographic themes
• Oriented toward specific audiences
• Dot map showing corn production in
different districts of Nepal divided
into numerical choropleth (represent
statistical data using the color mapping
symbology) classes.

• With the increasing volume of

geographic data, thematic
cartography has become increasingly
useful and necessary to interpret
spatial, cultural and social data.
Geodesy

• Geodesy is made from the two greek word

geo means earth and desia means division.
• Geodesy is the science of accurately
measuring and understanding earth’s
geometric shape , orientation in space and
gravity field.
• Modern definition of geodesy “geodesy is the
discipline that deals with the measurement
and representation (geometry, physics,
temporal variations) of the earth and other
celestial bodies (moon and other planet).
• The three pillars of geodesy are
• The earth’s time dependent geometric shape
• The earth’s gravitational field.
• The earth’s rotation
Principles of Geodesy

• The Earth is an Irregular Shape

• Reference Ellipsoid
• Gravitational Field and the Geoid
• Coordinate Systems
• Datums
• Global Positioning System (GPS)
• Geodetic Networks
• Time and Space Relationships
• Gravity and Earth's Deformation Together, these principles allow geodesy to provide the
• Spherical Trigonometry foundation for accurate mapping, navigation, and
understanding of Earth’s physical characteristics.
The Geoid
An equipotential surface to which gravity is normal and most closely approximates Mean Sea Level over the entire
Earth.

Figure: Relationship between the Ellipsoid and the Geoid. H = Orthometric height (NAD 88), h = Ellipsoid height (NAD 83 (2011)), N = Geoid
height (GEOID12A/B)
Geodetic datum

• A set of constants specifying the

coordinate system used for geodetic
control, i.e., for calculating coordinates Horizontal/geometric datums
8 basic constants
and elevations of points on the Earth. • 3 specify the location of the origin
• Specific geodetic datums are usually of the coordinate system
• 3 specify the orientation of the
given distinctive names. (e.g., North coordinate system
American Datum of 1983, Old Hawaiian • 2 specify the dimensions of the
Datum, National Geodetic Vertical reference ellipsoid
Datum of 1929, etc.) Vertical datums
Set of fundamental elevations to which
• Characterized by some realization: other elevations are referred
• a set of passive and/or active physical
monuments with published horizontal and/or
vertical coordinates
• Reference system is the idealized VLBI (Very Long Baseline Interferometry)
concepts of an ideal ellipsoid,
VLBI is a space geodetic technique based on radio astronomy. Radio
coordinate system origin, and Earth
signals emitted by extragalactic sources (quasars: quasi-stellar radio
orientation (Chandler wooble), nutation, sources, radio galaxies) are captured by a pair of directional antennas
precession and plate tectonics. (radio telescopes) located on the Earth’s surface.

• Reference frame is the realization of

the reference system through
observation.
• GNSS (Global Navigation Satellite System)
• VLBI (Very Long Baseline Interferometry)
• SLR
Coordinate reference system

✓ A coordinate reference system (CRS) or Spatial Reference System (SRS) is a

framework used to precisely measure locations on the surface of the Earth as
coordinates.

✓ CRS is crucial for various purposes, including cartography, geographic information

systems, surveying, remote sensing, and civil engineering
✓ The goal of any spatial reference system is to create a common reference frame in
which locations can be measured precisely and consistently as coordinates, which can
then be shared unambiguously.
Types of CRS

✓ CRS can be divided into two main types:

I. Geographic coordinate systems and
II. Projected coordinate systems

✓ Geographic coordinate systems use latitude and longitude to specify locations on the
Earth's surface, while projected coordinate systems use Cartesian coordinates (x and y)
to define locations on a flat surface
 GCS PCS
• A geographic coordinate system (GCS) is a • A projected coordinate system (PCS) is flat. It contains a
GCS, but it converts that GCS into a flat surface, using
reference framework that defines the
math (the projection algorithm) and other parameters. Its
locations of features on a model of the earth. units are linear, most commonly in meters.
It's shaped like a globe-spherical. Its units are • UTM (Universal Transverse Mercator)
angular, usually degrees.
• WGS84 (World Geodetic System 1984)

Degrees (Angular Unit)

3D Surface/Globe Flat Surface/ 2D

 GCS PCS

• A GCS is necessary for data to know • A PCS is necessary to draw the data on a
where exactly on earth's surface it is flat map.
located. • A PCS tells the data how to draw on a flat
• A GCS defines where the data is surface, like on a paper map or a computer
located on the earth's surface screen.
GCS
✓ A geographic coordinate system (GCS) is used to define locations on a model of the
surface of the earth.
✓ The GCS uses a network of imaginary lines (longitude and latitude) to define locations.
✓ This network is called a graticule.

Called as LONGITUDE on Flat Paper

LATITUDE
 Datum Actual Shape of Earth is GEOID

• A datum is one parameter in a geographic coordinate system

(GCS).
• The datum is the part of the GCS that determines which model
(spheroid) is used to represent the earth's surface and where
it is positioned relative to the surface. Since the earth's
surface is not perfectly smooth or round, there are many
different datums designed for different parts of the world.
• A GCS is the full definition of how to tie coordinate values to
real locations on the earth. In addition to a datum, a GCS
includes a prime meridian_(which specifies the location of 0°
longitude), and an angular unit (often degrees).
• The datum includes a spheroid, which is defined by its
semimajor axis, semiminor axis, and inverse flattening values.
 PCS Shape , Direction, Area, Scale

✓ You can't draw the round earth on a flat surface without deforming it.
✓ Imagine peeling an orange and trying to lay the peel flat on a table. You can get close, but only if
you start tearing the peel apart. This is where map projections come in. They tell you how to
distort the earth— how to tear and stretch that orange peel-so the parts that are most important
to your map get the least distorted and are displayed best on the flat surface of the map.
✓ A projected coordinate system (PCS) is a GCS that has been flattened using a map projection.

1. AZIMUTHAL Map Projection

2. CONICAL Map Projection
3. CYLINDRICAL Map Projection

Bigger Area = More Distortion

Smaller Area = Less Distortion
 Projection
• A projection is one parameter in a projected coordinate
system (PCS).
• The projection is the mathematical algorithm that
defines how to present the round earth on a flat map. A
• PCS is the full definition of how a specific round earth
model is projected onto a flat map. In addition to a
projection, a PCS includes a geographic coordinate
system (which defines the earth model), a unit (often
meters), and a set of parameter values which vary
depending on the Central Meridian projection (false
easting, central meridian, standard parallel, and so on).
These can be used to center the PCS on different parts
of the world.
• As its name implies, a PCS is a coordinate system. A
projection is not a coordinate system; it's an algorithm
that is used to create a PCS.
 Projections

• Projections map the spherical 3D space to a flat 2D space.

• Projections are coordinate operations that are technically conversions but since projections
are so fundamental to PROJ we differentiate them from conversions.
• Projections are generally given a name so that they can be easily identified and referenced on
a map.
• named after the person(s) who invented them (eg Mercator); or aspects of the projection
(eg: Equidistant Conic); or a combination of the two (eg Lambert Conformal Conic).

• All projections result in some distortion of the relationships between features on the sphere
when they are projected onto a flat surface. These distortions include:
• direction between a feature and surrounding features
• distance between a feature and surrounding features
• shape of any feature
• size of any feature
 Basic Projection Types

• This describes how a map shows the positional

relationship between two features, and their size and
shape.
• Depending on their intended use, projections are chosen
to preserve a particular relationship or characteristic.
These include:
• Equal-Area: correctly shows the size of a feature
• Conformal: correctly shows the shape of features (A map can not
be both equal-area or conformal – it can only be one; or the other;
or neither.)
• Equidistant: correctly shows the distance between two features
• True Direction: correctly shows the direction between two
features
Basic Projection Techniques

• For an imaginary ‘piece of paper’

touching the Earth, there are 3 basic
techniques used to create a projection
and therefore a map.
• These are:
• Azimuthal: the imaginary ’piece of paper’
is flat, this is usually used over Polar areas
• Conical: the imaginary ’piece of paper’ is
rolled into a cone, this is usually used in
mid-latitude areas (approximately 20◦ - 60◦
North and South)
• Cylindrical: the imaginary ’piece of paper’
is rolled into a cylinder, this is usually used
over Equatorial areas or for World Maps Figure: Azimuth is a mathematical concept with relates to the relationship
between a point and the ’flat piece of paper’ that ’touches’ the Earth. Maps
• Each of the basic techniques have produced using Azimuthal Projections (often called polar projections) techniques
different distortions and therefore have lines of longitude fanning out from the centre and lines of latitude as
limitations to their use. concentric circles. It is usually measured as an angle. The projection have
distortions increasing away from the central point.
Mercator projection

• Standard map projection for nautical purposes because of its ability to represent lines of
constant true direction.
• The cylinder is usually positioned over the Equator, but this is not essential (but always has
the Equator as its Standard Parallel).
• Its construction is such that the lines of longitude and latitude are at right angles to each
other - this means that a world map is always a rectangle.
• The lines of longitude are evenly spaced apart. But the distance between the lines of latitude
increase away from the Equator.
• Despite some distortions the Mercator projection is generally regarded as being a conformal
projection. This is because within small areas shapes are essentially true.
• Tiles from Google Maps, Open Street Maps, Stamen map are projected in Mercator (assigned
EPSG code: 3857)
Universal Traverse Mercator (UTM) projection

• UTM coordinate comprises a zone number, a hemisphere (N/S), an easting and a northing.
• Eastings are referenced from the central meridian of each zone, & northings from the
equator, both in metres. To avoid negative numbers, ‘false eastings’ and ‘false northings’ are
used:
• Eastings are measured from 500,000 metres west of the central meridian. Eastings (at the
equator) range from 166,021m to 833,978m (the range decreases moving away from the
equator); a point on the the central meridian has the value 500,000m.
• In the northern hemisphere, northings are measured from the equator - ranging from 0 at the
equator to 9,329,005m at 84 degree N). In the southern hemisphere they are measured from
10,000,000 metres south of the equator (close to the pole) - ranging from 1,116,915m at 80
degree S to 10,000,000m at the equator.
• Nepal lies in the UTM zone of 440N and 450N. The scale factor is 0.9996 for the central
meridian. 10 49’ east or west of central meridian has the scale factor of 1.
Geographic Transformation

• These are calculations that convert coordinates from one GCS to another.
• They are sometimes referred to as datum transformations.
Photogrammetry

• Photogrammetry is a scientific technique used to obtain precise measurements and

three-dimensional information about objects or landscapes through the analysis of
photographic images. The word "photogrammetry" is derived from the Greek words
"photos," meaning light, and "gramma," meaning drawing or measurement.
• This field has applications in various industries, including mapping, surveying,
architecture, archaeology, and environmental monitoring.
• The process of photogrammetry involves capturing overlapping images of a target or
area from different perspectives. These images are typically obtained using aerial
photography, satellite imagery, or ground-based photography.
Types of photogrammetry / photographs

1. Aerial Photogrammetry:
Vertical Aerial Photography: Captured from an elevated position, typically an aircraft or a drone,
looking straight down.
Oblique Aerial Photography: Captured at an angle, providing a more three-dimensional perspective.

2. Terrestrial Photogrammetry:
Close-Range Photogrammetry: Involves capturing images from a relatively short distance, often used
in industrial and architectural applications.
Ground-Based Photogrammetry: Captures images from the ground, such as street-level photographs
used in urban planning

3. Satellite Photogrammetry:
Space-Based Photogrammetry: Uses imagery from satellites orbiting the Earth, providing a broad view
and large-scale coverage.

4. Mobile Photogrammetry:
Smartphone Photogrammetry: Takes advantage of the cameras on smartphones to capture images for
3D modeling and measurement purposes.
Characteristics of photogrammetry

1. Image-Based Measurement: Photogrammetry relies on the analysis of photographs or images captured from
different perspectives. These images can be obtained using various devices such as cameras, drones, or
satellites.
2. Three-Dimensional Data: Photogrammetry is capable of creating detailed and accurate three-dimensional
models of objects or landscapes. By triangulating features in multiple images, the software can reconstruct
the spatial information.
3. Precision and Accuracy: Photogrammetry allows for high precision and accuracy in measurements. Advanced
algorithms and computational techniques are employed to minimize errors and ensure reliable results.
4. Non-Contact Method: One of the key advantages of photogrammetry is that it is a non-contact method. It
allows for the measurement of objects without physically touching them, which is especially useful for delicate
or inaccessible environments.
5. Versatility: Photogrammetry is versatile and can be applied in various fields, including geology, cartography,
forestry, architecture, archaeology, and environmental monitoring. It is used for applications such as land
surveying, urban planning, and cultural heritage documentation.
6. Cost-Effective: Compared to traditional surveying methods, photogrammetry can be a cost-effective solution.
It eliminates the need for extensive fieldwork and manual measurements, reducing both time and labor costs.
7. Remote Sensing: Photogrammetry plays a crucial role in remote sensing applications. Satellite or aerial
imagery is often used to gather data for large-scale mapping, environmental monitoring, and disaster
assessment.
Geo-Informatics: Use in precision agriculture

1. Agricultural mapping 6. Increased interaction

• Current and future variations in the rainfall • Humans have better sense of space and time
than any other variables
• Crop output and temperature of the soil
• Using machinery and GIS (including on-ground
• Farm resource and structure mapping data), interventions could be more efficiently
2. Soil analysis and effectively applied.

• Mapping of soil type and crop suitability 7. Assembly of information to develop systems
based models
• Nutrient and fertilizer status mapping
• Various layers of information such as soil
3. Data combination moisture, nutrients, elevation, topography,
irradiance, cloud cover, etc. could aid in feeding
• Realistic appraisal of farm production to assist
into growth models
insurance
• These could be translated into recommendation
• Farmers could access data of their crops across
systems for precise implementation.
the seasons to compare and contrast
8. Real-time mapping
4. Raising alert and disaster mapping
9. Boosting production
5. Historical data comparison
 Current state Issues and concerns

• GIS based technology has already • Although input availability and use are major factors affecting production,
permeated through engineering decision making on farmer level regarding these issues are still not informed
by data
discipline and seen its applications.
• Most farmers are resource poor and non-commercial cultivators
• Recently, natural resource • only heavily mechanized farmholds can exploit technology at fullest.
management (forest, watershed) • geoinformatic technologies only provides benefit at scales
operations also have begun making • Data management and computational environments are not tailored for use
use of geo-spatial data. among farmers in Nepal
• tracking of forest and shrubland
• Only limited open database provide contextual data relevant for Nepal
coverage using geo-spatial data
• monitoring of wildlife species using GPS • Data publications by government institution are very unorganized and
tracker contingent.

• Agriculture have a long experience • Data privacy issues

of poor information management • Most farmers are reluctant to trust computer or digital systems for decision
system, which is in-part responsible making, due to
for its dwindling state. • farmers do not have knowledge of how information systems work
• systems being still immature have sometimes produced unreliable outcomes
• Initiation of Digital Soil Mapping
• Government is still ignorant of the possibilities geo-informatics has for
has been done by NARC agriculture system
 Spatial data and their management in GIS

1. Introduction
2. Geographic Information System
3. Data Modeling in GIS
4. Attribute Data
5. Components of GIS
 1. Introduction
Spatial data : Data referring to locations on the surface of the earth or
planet projected on planes or on arbitrary 2D spaces (Pistocchi, 2014).
Geospatial data → different structure and function.
Objects in the spatial universe- identity, location, shape and
orientation, points, lines, tables and polygon: the tabular portion of
geospatial data that are stored as coordinates and topology (Reddy,
2018)
✓ GIS technology accommodates : unstructured data (raster imagery)
→ tagged, geocoded & integrated by GIS software with the other
kinds of map data.
✓ RS. GIS, GPS: widely used tool for spatial data collection and decision
support system(Kumar, 2022).
✓ Raw GIS data : meaningless, hence, GIS → map.
 2. Geographic Information System

✓ GIS: a computer-based tool for mapping and analyzing things that exist and
events that happen on earth; integrates common database operations such as
query and statistical analysis with the unique visualization and geographic
analysis benefits offered by maps →DS
✓ Value: events, predicting outcomes and planning strategies.
✓ Mapmaking and geographic analysis : better and faster than manual
✓ How GIS works- Information as thematic layer linking to geography.
✓ Geographic References - Explicit geographic reference (latitude and
longitude or national grid coordinate) or implicit reference (an address,
postal code, census tract name, forest stand identifier or road name).
✓ Geo-coding: create explicit geographic references (multiple locations) from
implicit references (descriptions such as addresses)
✓ Earth’s surface for analysis.
 3. Data Modeling in GIS
✓ GIS work with two fundamentally different types of geographic models -
the “vector” model and the “raster” model.

Vector model: information about Raster model: used to represent

points, lines and polygons is encoded continuous data (e.g., temperature,
and stored as a collection of x, y elevation). Raster can also be used
coordinates. Linear features to represent discrete data (e.g.,
(coordinates). Polygonal features land cover type).
(closed loop of coordinates) Raster data uses equal-sized pixels
Represent geographic features (cells) arranged in a grid to
with discrete boundaries (e.g., represent geographic data.
streets, land parcels, administrative Examples of raster data include
boundaries, etc.). aerial photographs, satellite
Each geographic feature has imagery; digital elevation models
associated tabular/spreadsheet (DEMs), etc.
data (i.e., attribute information).
3. Data Modeling in GIS
3. Data Modeling in GIS
 3. Data Modeling in GIS

Soil PH

Souce, DSM/NARC
 4. Attribute Data
Attribute table: additional information about the data set; used to
perform queries and analyses, join data sets, visualize specific variables on
a map, etc.
Uploaded to GIS software as a standalone table and/or converted into
spatial data using location information within the attribute table (e.g.,
geographic coordinates, street addresses, etc.)
Formats: shapefiles (.shp), file geodatabases (.gdb), Keyhole Markup
Language (.kml or .kmz), GeoTIFF (.tiff), comma-separated values(.csv),
GeoJSON (.json), GPS Exchange Format (.gpx), LiDAR point cloud data
(.las)
S.N GIS GPS RS
i ArcGIS Traccar ERDAS IMAGINE
ii QGIS OpenGTS ENVI
Iii GRASS GIS Trackit by Flespi PCI Geomatica
Convert File iv Esri Track My Ride RemoteView
v SAGA GIS Navit TNTmips
vi gvSIG GPS Trace ILWIS
vii MapWindow GIS Trackme eCognition
viii GeoServer ClearPath GPS Geomatica
4. Attribute Data
 6. Components of GIS

Tools for the input and manipulation

of geographic information, DBMS,
Tools that support geographic
query, analysis and visualization and
A graphical user interface (GUI) for
easy access to tools.

Network allows rapid

communication and
sharing of digital
information.

a well-designed plan and

business rules are the models
and operating practices unique
to each organization
Remote Sensing: Concepts and applications

• Remote sensing provides data at a synoptic global level that

is impossible to replicate with in situ measurements.
• Remote sensing imagery used for the identification of
earth surface features is dependent upon measurable
variations in electromagnetic field strength. Variations are
mainly three types:
• Spectral
• Spatial
• Temporal

• Simply, the measurement of an object by a device that is

not in physical contact is remote sensing.
• Active remote sensing involves transmission and reception of radiation,
such as radar/lida (CLOUDSAT/CALIPSO)
• Passive remote sensing only receives radiation from a target of
interest, such as MODIS, Sentinel, Landsat and majority of earth
orbiting sensor systems
• The principal source for the images is the electromagnetic (EM) energy spectrum.
• The spectral bands are grouped according to energy per photon ranging form the gamma rays
(highest energy) to the radio waves (lowest energy)
• As developments in novel image processing algorithms and community around use and
communication of image data continue, scientific value of remotely sensed data grow to the
extent that never anticipated information are extracted.
• However, there are tradeoffs between the local detail of the measurements (radiometric
resolution, number of spectral bands) and the spatial scale of the area being measured.
• Remote sensing is a more rapid means to sample multiple crop parameters from spectral
indices such as NDVI.
• Productive canopy surface (LAI)
• Productivity and yield potential
• Photosynthetic capacity
Figure 8: Uninhabited aerial vehicles (UAVs) used for environmental applications of remote sensing. (a) NASA’s Ikhana UAV, with imaging sensor in pod under left wing.
Landsat imagery

• 2022 marks 50th anniversary of the continuous planetary land coverage gathered by the
Landsat imaging system.
• Instruments on the Landsat satellites have acquired millions of images and can be viewed
through the U.S. Geological Survey (USGS) “EarthExplorer” 1 website.
• Current version of the landsat (Landsat-9) was launched in September 27, 2021
• Currently Landsat program is managed jointly by:
• NASA
• USGS

• Landsat 7 data has eight spectral bands with spatial resolutions ranging from 15 to 60 m (49
to 197 ft); the temporal resolution is 16 days.
• Landsat images are usually divided into scenes for easy downloading. Each Landsat scene is
about 115 miles long and 115 miles wide (or 185 kilometers long and 185 kilometers wide).
• Landsat imagery is coarse in spatial resolution compared to using other remote sensing
methods, such as imagery from airplanes.
Applications of Landsat imagery

• Agriculture risk management

• Government mapping
• Agricultural water use monitoring
• Global security monitoring
• Support for fire management
• Detection of forest fragmentation
• Detection of forest change
• World agriculture supply and demand estimates
• Vineyard management and water conservation
• Flood mitigation mapping
• Agricultural commodities mapping
• Waterfowl habitat mapping and monitoring
• Coastal change analysis
• Forest health monitoring
• Wildfire risk assessment
• Fisheries, forestry, shrinking inland water bodies, fire damage, glacier retreat, urban development,
and discovery of new species
Image bands, resolution and features of Landsat

Table: Landsat 8 Operational Land Imager (OLI) and Thermal Infrared Sensor (TIRS). TIRS bands are acquired at 100 meter resolution, but
are resampled to 30 meter in delivered data product.
 Moderate Resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer (MODIS)

• An imaging sensor built by Santa Barbara Remote

Sensing that was launched into Earth orbit by NASA
in 1999 on board the Terra (EOS AM) satellite, and in
2002 on board the Aqua (EOS PM) satellite.
• Wide spectral band
• High frequency and temporal coverage

• MODIS captures data in 36 spectral bands, ranging

from visible to thermal infrared wavelengths. This
wide spectral coverage enables comprehensive
observations of the Earth's surface, atmosphere, and
oceans.
• The MODIS instrument requirements are derived
from a diverse set of oceanographic, terrestrial, and
atmospheric science observational needs.
• Mostly useful for measuring atmospheric variables,
including cloud cover, the size of cloud droplets in
both liquid water and ice particles, aerosols and
pollution from natural and man-made sources like
industry emissions, dust storms, volcanic eruptions
and forest fires.
Fig. MODIS in a spacecraft
Image

Casual definition
• Is a visual representation of something. It can be two-dimensional, three-
dimensional, or somehow otherwise feed into the visual system to convey
information.
Mathematical definition
• An image is a two-dimensional function f(x, y), where x and y are the spatial (plane)
coordinates, and the amplitude of f at any pair of coordinates (x, y) is called the
intensity of the image at that level.
Digital image
• If x, y and the amplitude values of f are finite and discrete quantities, we call the
image a digital image. A digital image is composed of a finite number of elements
called pixels, each of which has a particular location and value.
• An image is generic term for any pictorial representation of data.
• a pictorial record from a “thermal scanner” (electronic scanner) would be called a “thermal image.”

• Not all images are photographs. (Try calling a ‘thermal image’ a ‘thermal photograph!’)
• Spectral characteristics are not always fully evaluated in visual interpretation
efforts because of the limited ability of the eye to discern tonal values on an image
and the difficulty of simultaneously analyzing numerous spectral images.
• In applications where spectral patterns are highly informative, it is therefore
preferable to analyze digital, rather than pictorial.
 Image acquisition
• Images are generated by the combination of an illumination source and the reflection or
absorption of energy from that source by the elements of the scene being imaged.
• Imaging sensors are used to transform the illumination energy into digital images.

Figure: An example of the digital image acquisition process. Stages: (a) Energy (’illumination’) source. (b) An element of a scene. (c) Imaging system. (d)
Projection of the scene onto the image plane. (e) Digitized image.
Area calculation

• Process of measuring areas using aerial photographs can be accomplished in many

ways.
• Accuracy of area measurement is a function of not only the measuring device used,
but also the degree of image scale variation due to relief in the terrain and tilt in
the photography.
• accurate measurements are obtained from vertical photos of areas of low relief
• Simple scales may be used to measure the are of simply shaped features
• area of a rectangular field can be determined by simply measuring its length and width
• area of circular feature can be computed after measuring its radius or diameter
Numerical problem
• A rectangular agricultural field measures 8.65 cm long and 5.13 cm
wide on a vertical photograph having a scale of 1:20000. Find the area
of the field at ground level.
Solution,
Ground length = Photo length × 1/S = 0.0865m × 20, 000 = 1730m
Ground width = Photo width × 1/S = 0.0513m × 20, 000 = 1026m
Ground area = 1730m × 1026m = 1, 774, 980m2 = 177ha
Image Processing
The image shown in upper left is actually
composed of a two-dimensional array of discrete
picture elements, or pixels. The intensity of each
pixel corresponds to the average brightness, or
radiance, measured electronically over the ground
area corresponding to each pixel. A total of 500
rows and 400 columns of pixels are shown.
Whereas the individual pixels are virtually
impossible to discern in first image, they are
readily observable in the enlargements shown in
upper right (100 row x 80 column) and lower left
(10 row x 8 column). These enlargements
correspond to sub-areas located near the center
of the first image. In the lower right is shown the
individual digital number (DN) also referred to as
’brightness value’ or ’pixel value’ – corresponding to
the average radiance measured in each pixel
shown on the left. These values result from
quantizing the original signal from the sensor into
positive integer values using a process called
’analog-to-digital (A-to-D) signal conversion’.
Preprocessing

• To remove noise and increase the interpretability of image data (essential when a
time series of imagery is used or when multiple image operation such as join is
required to account for an area encompassed by many images to make these images
compatible spatially and spectrally).
• All images after image preprocessing should appear as if they were acquired from
the same sensor (Hall et al. 1991).
• Image processing sensors are usually categorized into levels (0, 1A, 1B, 2A, 2B, 3A,
3B with image quality gradually increased). For example, for most sensors, level 3A
means that radiometric correction, geometric correction and orthorectification have
been processed for the images.
• Factors such as seasonal phenology, ground conditions and atmospheric conditions
can contribute to variability in multi-temporal spectral responses that may have
little to do with the remote sensed objects themselves (Song and Woodcock 2003).
• Image preprocessing commonly comprises a series of
operations,
• including but not limited to bad lines replacement,
• radiometric correction,
• geometric correction,
• image enhancement and masking (e.g. for clouds, water, irrelevant features)
although variations may exist for images acquired by different sensors.
• bad line replacement (fills in missing lines with the line above, below or with an
average of the two) to determine the overall quality of the images (e.g. missing
data lines) through visually previewing the images band-by-band
• cloud imposes a big noise in mapping vegetation cover for identifying and thus
has to be removed or masked.
• neural network to detect cloud in SPOT VEGETATION images
• cloud-free space shuttle photograph to detect and remove (mask) unwanted cloud covers in
Landsat TM scenes
Image pre-processing: Radiometric

• radiometric correction normally involves the process of correcting

radiometric errors or distortions of digital images to improve the
fidelity of the brightness values. Radiometric correction methods
(absolute and relative correction):
• complex mathematical models that describe the main interactions involved (certain
parameters (i.e. the atmospheric composition) must be known before applying them).
• methods based on the observations of reference targets (e.g. water or desert land)
whose radiometry is known.
 Image pre-processing: Geometric correction

• Geometric correction to
avoid geometric distortions
from a distorted image and
is achieved by establishing
the relationship between
the image coordinate
system and the geographic
coordinate system using
the calibration data of the
sensor, the measured data
of position and altitude and
the ground control points.
Image pre-processing: Image enhancement

• Image enhancement is aimed to emphasize and sharpen particular

image features (i.e. particular species of vegetation) for visualization
purpose
• gray scale conversion,
• histogram conversion,
• color composition,
• color conversion between red-green-blue (RGB), and
• hue–saturation–intensity transform (HSI), etc.
 Global positioning system (GPS)

• Global navigation satellite system (GNSS)

determines the location of field-observed
reference data.
• GNSS has applications in
• navigating aircraft during sensor data acquisition
• geometrically correcting and referencing raw image
data
• US Global Positioning System (GPS) was
originally developed for military purposes,
but soon became ubiquitous in many civil
applications worldwide – vehicle navigation,
surveying, location based services and
cellular phones.
• The system consists of at least 24 satellite
rotating around the earth in precisely known orbits Figure: The U.S. Space Force’s Global Positioning System was the first
• Typically, these satellites revolve around the earth global satellite navigation system and was the first to be provided as a
approximately once every 12 hours, at an altitude free global service.
of approximately 20,200 km. Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Satellite_navi
• With their positions in space precisely known at all times, the satellites transmit
time-encoded radio signals that are recorded by ground-based receivers and can
be used to aid in positioning and navigation.
• A comprehensive European GNSS constellation, Galileo as well as the Russian
GLONASS and Chinese Compass system are operational counterparts to the US
GPS system.
• The means by which GNSS signals are used to determine ground positions is called
satellite ranging.
• Conceptually, it involves measuring the time required for signals transmitted by at
least four satellites to reach the ground receiver.
• Knowing that the signals travel at the speed of light (3 × 10^8m/sec in vaccum),
the distance from each satellite to the receiver can be computed using a form of
three-dimensional triangulation.
• GNSS measurements are potentially subject to sources of errors such as clock
bias, uncertainties in the satellite orbits (satellite ephemeris errors) and errors
due to atmospheric conditions.
• In recent years, there have been efforts to improve the accuracy of GNSS
positioning through the development of regional networks of high-precision base
stations, generally referred to as satellite-based augmentation systems (SBAS).
Applications of GPS navigation

• Automobile
• Air navigation usually having a moving map display and often connected to the autopilot for en-
route navigation
• Boats and ships (Maritime GNSS)
• Construction and mining
• Precision agriculture – Agricultural equipment may use GNSS to steer automatically, or as a
visual aid displayed on a screen for the driver. This is useful for controlled traffic and row
crop operations and when spraying. Harvesters with yield monitors can also use GNSS to
create a yield map.
• Cycling and sports for touring and plotting the course
• Exploration, hiking and climbing make use of GNSS to enable locating precisely in isolated
areas.
• Spacecraft GNSS
Simulation modelling
• Simulation is the imitation of the operation of a real-world process or system over time.

• Requires the use of models; the model represents the key characteristics or behaviors of the selected
system or process, whereas the simulation represents the evolution of the model over time.

• A thing used as an example to follow or imitate

• A simplified description, especially a mathematical one, of a system or process, → assist calculations and
predictions → serve a specific aim.

• Never contain all features of reality.

• A system model is a representation of a system, many different expression that vary in degree of
formalism could be considered models.
• A picture
• A text description

• Primary focus of system modeling is to use models supported by a well-defined modeling language.

• ∴ ↑ the formalism better will be the description of the system fitting as a model.
Crop (and cropping system) models

• Simplification of a crop
• Depending upon the model’s goal, several formulations
are available.
• Increasing importance:
• Complexity of ecological problems
• Improved understanding of quantitative relationships in
crops
• Improved computing power

Figure 2: A diagram of proposed maize ideotype with specific shoot and root
traits. Leaf angle (a < b < c) to maximize light capture; Uniform and moderate
plant and ear height, etc. to enable mechanized harvest and lodging
resistance; Steep, cheap and deep root system to improve water and nutrient
uptake. (The roots in shades of different intensities; dark to light represent,
respectively, primary roots, seminal roots, crown roots and brace roots.)
Selected types of models

• Static A model that does not include the time dimension

• Dynamic A model that includes the time dimension
• Descriptive/functional A model that shows the relationship between the element of
a system without any explanation. It is usually unrelated to system structure.
• Explanatory/mechanistic A model that explains the behavior of a system at an upper
integration level by integrating processes of a lower integration level.
Representation of the essential system structure.
• Deterministic The predicted values are computed exactly.
• Stochastic The predicted values depend on probability distribution.
Figure: Crop models simulate crop growth and development (outputs) as influenced by climate conditions (typically solar radiation,
temperature, and rainfall), soil characteristics (e.g., rooting depth, water holding capacity, nitrogen mineralization capacity) and crop
management (e.g., sowing date, plant density, fertilization, irrigation) (inputs) based on mathematical equations and cultivar-specific
parameters (inputs). While modern wheat crop models vary in their complexity, most simulate crop growth and development at a daily
time-step to ultimately estimate grain yield. Crop processes include phenology driven by temperature and photoperiod, the
establishment of the canopy that transpires water and intercepts light to produce the crop biomass, and the partitioning of this
biomass into differnt organs including grains. Modeling of soil water and nutrient varies between models, and ranges from simple
approaches with no soil description to more complex approaches where soil layers are each described with specific properties.
Source: Chenu et al. (2017).
Components of crop models

• First examples of crop growth models, mostly intended for use by the
agriculture research community, were available during the 1970s.
• applications oriented to management or field decisions (irrigation scheduling, pest and disease
control, etc.)
• Now several modeling systems simulate,
• soil water budget,
• soil-plant nitrogen budget,
• crop phenology,
These processes are affected by weather, soil
• canopy and root growth,
characteristics, crop characteristics, and
• biomass production, cropping system management options including
• crop yield, crop rotation, cultivar selection, irrigation,
• residue production and decomposition, nitrogen fertilization, soil and irrigation, water
• soil erosion by water, salinity, tillage operations, and residue
• and salinity management.
Process based modeling
• Crop models need to be complete and responsive.
• Process based models are easy to describe, most flexible (in terms of component
addition and substitution).
• Biomass accumulation based models are not always sufficient as changes depend on earlier effects
(fallow period, previous crop, etc.)

Figure: Response of yield to management can be simulated by an example response to crop yield by doses of Nitrogen.
Quality of the interaction is generally same but the quantitative nature of interaction is complex.
Example of a crop model

Figure: Diagram of database, application, and support software components and their use with crop models for
applications in DSSAT.
Thank you