PHYSICS INVESTIGATORY PROJECT

TOPIC: CYCLOTRON

Submitted By:

Name: Tharun M

School: Aditya Vidyashram

Class: XII Science

Session: 2024-2025

Under the Guidance of:

Physics Mentor: ____________________

Date of Submission: ____________________

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 CERTIFICATE

This is to certify that Tharun M, student of Class XII, Aditya Vidyashram, has successfully completed
the Physics Investigatory Project on the topic 'Cyclotron' during the academic session 2024-2025
under my supervision.

Signature of Guide: ____________________

Date: ____________________

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Acknowledgment

I would like to express my sincere gratitude to my Physics mentor for their invaluable guidance and support.
Their insights and encouragement have been instrumental in completing this project. I also extend my thanks
to the staff of the Physics Department at Aditya Vidyashram for their cooperation and assistance throughout
the research and preparation of this investigatory project.

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Index

1. Acknowledgment....................................................2
2. Introduction.......................................................3
3. Objective..........................................................4
4. Theory and Principle...............................................5
5. Detailed Derivation of Cyclotron Frequency.........................7
6. Construction and Components of a Cyclotron.........................9
7. Working of a Cyclotron............................................11
8. Cyclotron Diagrams (Labeled)......................................13
9. Cyclotron Radiation................................................15
10. Real-Life Applications of Cyclotron................................17
11. Advantages and Limitations........................................20
12. Safety Precautions and Precautions in Experiment...................22
13. Future Scope and Advancements.....................................23
14. Conclusion........................................................24
15. Bibliography.......................................................25

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Introduction

A cyclotron is a type of particle accelerator that was invented in the early 1930s by Ernest O. Lawrence and
his graduate student M. Stanley Livingston at the University of California, Berkeley. It revolutionized
experimental nuclear and particle physics by enabling charged particles, such as protons, to be accelerated
to high energies in a relatively compact device. The term 'cyclotron' is derived from the combination of 'cycle,'
referring to the particle's circular trajectory, and 'electron,' emphasizing the charged nature of the particles
involved.

The cyclotron works on the principle that a charged particle moving perpendicular to a uniform magnetic field
experiences a magnetic force that acts as a centripetal force. As the particle moves in a circular path within a
vacuum chamber, an alternating electric field applied between two D-shaped electrodes (called 'dees')
accelerates the particle each time it crosses the gap between the dees. With each crossing, the particle gains
kinetic energy, causing its spiral radius to increase until it reaches the desired energy level and is extracted
from the cyclotron.

Cyclotrons have played a crucial role in nuclear physics research, the production of medical isotopes, and
cancer therapy through proton beams. Their relatively small size, compared to linear accelerators that
achieve similar energies, makes them a cost-effective and accessible tool in both academic and clinical
settings.

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Objective

The primary objectives of this investigatory project are:

1. To understand the structural design and fundamental components of a cyclotron.
2. To derive and analyze the theoretical basis of cyclotron frequency and particle motion.
3. To explain the working mechanism of the cyclotron with detailed diagrams.
4. To investigate the phenomenon of cyclotron radiation and its implications.
5. To explore the real-life applications, advantages, and limitations of cyclotron technology.
6. To discuss safety precautions required when operating or experimenting with a cyclotron.

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Theory and Principle

The operation of a cyclotron is governed by the interplay between magnetic and electric fields acting on
charged particles. When a particle with charge q and mass m moves with velocity v perpendicular to a
uniform magnetic field B, it experiences the Lorentz force given by:

F=q*v*B (1)

This force acts as a centripetal force, causing the particle to move in a circular path of radius r, where:

F_c = (m * v^2) / r (2)

Equating (1) and (2), we get:

q * v * B = (m * v^2) / r -> r = (m * v) / (q * B) (3)

For the particle to remain in a stable circular path, the magnetic force must always be perpendicular to its
velocity, ensuring uniform circular motion.

The frequency of revolution (cyclotron frequency) is defined as the number of times the particle completes a
full circle per second. Since the circumference is 2pir and velocity is v, the time period T for one revolution is:

T = (2pir) / v. (4)

Substituting r from equation (3) into (4):

T = (2pi * (m * v) / (q * B)) / v = (2pim) / (q * B). (5)

Hence, the cyclotron frequency f (which is 1/T) becomes:

f = q * B / (2pim). (6)

This shows that the cyclotron frequency is independent of the velocity and radius of the particle's path (as
long as speeds remain non-relativistic). This is a key advantage because it allows a constant-frequency
alternating electric field to accelerate the particle at each gap crossing.

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Detailed Derivation of Cyclotron Frequency

To understand the derivation in depth, consider a proton (charge q = +e, mass m = m_p) moving in a
perpendicular magnetic field B. As the proton accelerates, its speed increases but as long as v << c (speed of
light), we neglect relativistic mass increase.

From equation (6), f = (e * B) / (2pim_p). Plugging in known constants for a proton:

- e ~ 1.602 x 10^-19 C
- m_p ~ 1.673 x 10^-27 kg

Assume B = 1.5 T (a typical cyclotron magnetic field). Then:

f = (1.602 x 10^-19 * 1.5) / (2pi * 1.673 x 10^-27) Hz

f ~ 2.28 x 10^7 Hz (approximately 22.8 MHz)

This frequency dictates the alternating voltage applied across the dees. The voltage source must oscillate at
this frequency to ensure each time the proton returns to the gap, the electric field direction changes sign in
synchrony, providing the appropriate acceleration.

As the proton gains energy, its speed v increases. From equation (3), r = (m * v) / (q * B). Thus, the radius
increases proportionally with speed. In practice, the maximum radius r_max is determined by the physical
size of the cyclotron dees, often about 0.2 to 0.5 meters. When the proton reaches r_max, it is deflected by a
deflector plate and extracted for experimental use.

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Construction and Components of a Cyclotron

A typical cyclotron consists of the following main components:

1. **Magnetic Pole Pieces and Yoke:** Two large electromagnets generate a uniform magnetic field
perpendicular to the plane of the dees. - The pole gap is designed to hold the dees and maintain field
uniformity.

2. **Dees (D-shaped Electrodes):** Two hollow, metallic, D-shaped electrodes placed face-to-face inside a
vacuum chamber.
- They serve as containers for the particles to travel along a semi-circular path.
- The inner surfaces of the dees are polished to maintain high vacuum and minimize particle collisions.

3. **Vacuum Chamber:** A sealed chamber housing the dees, maintained at pressures around 10^-6 Torr
using vacuum pumps. - Low pressure reduces collision with residual gas molecules.

4. **Ion Source:** Located at the center of the dees, it produces charged particles (e.g., protons or alpha
particles) using techniques like ionization via filament or gas discharge.

5. **Radio-Frequency (RF) Oscillator:** Provides an alternating potential difference between the dees at the
cyclotron frequency (e.g., ~22 MHz for protons). - The voltage amplitude is typically several kilovolts
(around 30 kV) to impart sufficient energy per gap crossing.

6. **Deflector Mechanism:** A set of electrodes or plates that create a transverse electric field near the edge
of the spiral path to deflect particles outward once they reach the maximum radius.

7. **Extraction and Beam Transport System:** After deflection, particles enter a beamline equipped with
focusing magnets and steering coils, guiding them to experimental targets or clinical areas (for medical
cyclotrons).

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Working of a Cyclotron

The working mechanism can be described step-by-step as follows:

1. **Particle Injection:** Charged particles (e.g., protons) are produced in the ion source at the geometric
center of the cyclotron.
- The source typically uses ionization of hydrogen gas or other methods to create protons.

2. **Initial Acceleration:** An alternating voltage from the RF oscillator is applied between the dees.
- When the proton is just outside the source, it experiences an electric field across the gap between two
dees, accelerating it towards the opposite dee.

3. **Spiral Path Formation:** Upon entering the dee, the proton moves in a semi-circular path due to the
perpendicular magnetic field.
- Inside the metallic, hollow dee, the electric field is essentially zero, so the proton travels along the curved
path without further acceleration.

4. **Phase Synchronization:** While the proton completes its semicircle, the RF oscillator reverses the
polarity of the voltage.
- When the proton exits the dee and returns to the gap, the field is oriented to accelerate it further,
increasing its kinetic energy.

5. **Radial Expansion:** As the proton gains energy each time it crosses the gap, its speed increases.
According to equation (3), r = (m * v) / (q * B), so the radius of its circular path increases, forming a spiral
trajectory.

6. **Repetition of Acceleration:** Steps 3-5 repeat; the proton spirals outward with increasing energy. The RF
frequency remains constant, matching the cyclotron frequency until relativistic effects become significant.

7. **Extraction:** Once the proton reaches the maximum radius (limited by the physical size of the dees), it
approaches the edge of the vacuum chamber.
- A deflector plate applies a transverse electric field that diverts the proton outwards into the extraction
channel.
- Focused magnetic fields guide the extracted proton beam towards a target or beamline.

8. **Beam Utilization:** The high-energy proton beam can be used for various purposes, such as bombarding
a target to produce isotopes, conducting nuclear physics experiments, or delivering therapeutic radiation in
medical applications.

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Cyclotron Diagrams (Labeled)

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Cyclotron Radiation

Cyclotron radiation, also known as synchrotron radiation in its relativistic form, is the electromagnetic
radiation emitted by charged particles undergoing centripetal acceleration in a magnetic field.

When a charged particle travels in a circular path, it experiences acceleration perpendicular to its velocity.
According to classical electrodynamics, any accelerating charge emits radiation. In a non-relativistic
cyclotron, the frequency of emitted radiation corresponds to the cyclotron frequency:

f_emitted = q * B / (2pim).

As the particle energy increases and its velocity approaches relativistic speeds, the radiation becomes more
intense and shifts in frequency, leading to synchrotron radiation. This phenomenon is utilized in synchrotron
light sources for material science and biological research.

However, in medical cyclotrons used for isotope production or proton therapy, cyclotron radiation is relatively
weak due to lower energy levels. Nonetheless, radiation shielding and safety protocols are essential to
protect operators and surrounding equipment from bremsstrahlung X-rays and secondary radiation.

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Real-Life Applications of Cyclotron

**1. Medical Applications:**

- **Proton Therapy:** Cyclotron-produced protons are used in cancer therapy to deliver highly focused
radiation doses to tumors while sparing healthy tissue. Proton beams have a distinct Bragg peak, depositing
maximum energy at a specific depth.
- **Radioisotope Production:** Cyclotrons generate positron-emitting isotopes such as Fluorine-18 (used in
PET scans), Carbon-11, Oxygen-15, and Nitrogen-13. These radioisotopes have short half-lives and are
crucial for diagnostic imaging.

**2. Industrial and Materials Research:**

- **Non-Destructive Testing (NDT):** High-energy particles from cyclotrons can inspect welds and materials
for flaws without causing damage.
- **Ion Implantation:** Cyclotrons can be used to implant ions into semiconductors, modifying their electrical
properties for electronics manufacturing.

**3. Scientific Research:**

- **Nuclear Physics Experiments:** Cyclotrons serve as injectors for larger accelerators or function
independently to study nuclear reactions, cross-sections, and fundamental particle properties.
- **Particle Collider Injector:** Some cyclotrons provide pre-accelerated particles to synchrotrons or colliders
for high-energy physics experiments, contributing to discoveries in subatomic particles.

**4. Space Science:**

- **Simulation of Cosmic Radiation:** Cyclotrons reproduce space radiation conditions to test the radiation
hardness of spacecraft materials and electronics.

**5. Other Applications:**

- **Sterilization:** Cyclotron-produced radiation can sterilize medical equipment, food packaging, and other
materials by disrupting microbial DNA.

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Advantages and Limitations

**Advantages:**
1. **Compact Design:** Compared to linear accelerators with similar energy output, cyclotrons occupy less
space, making them suitable for hospitals and laboratories.
2. **Continuous Beam:** Cyclotrons produce a continuous stream of particles, which is ideal for medical
applications and certain experiments requiring steady beam intensity.
3. **High Beam Current:** The design allows for high-intensity beams, increasing efficiency in isotope
production.
4. **Cost-Effective:** Lower operational costs due to a single RF source and smaller magnet structures.

**Limitations:**
1. **Non-Relativistic Constraint:** Classical cyclotrons cannot accelerate particles beyond a few percent of
the speed of light because relativistic mass increase disrupts synchronization with the RF field.
2. **Energy Limit Ceiling:** Limited maximum energy (typically up to ~25 MeV for protons in compact medical
cyclotrons).
3. **Magnet Size and Weight:** Although smaller than synchrotrons, cyclotron magnets are still large and
heavy, requiring robust structural support.
4. **Limited Particle Types:** Most cyclotrons accelerate light ions (protons, deuterons, alpha particles).
Accelerating heavier ions requires modifications (e.g., synchrocyclotrons or isochronous cyclotrons).
5. **Radiation Hazards:** Secondary radiation (X-rays, neutrons) necessitates extensive shielding and safety
protocols.

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Safety Precautions and Precautions in Experiment

1. **Radiation Shielding:** Ensure adequate shielding (concrete walls, lead barriers) around the cyclotron to
protect operators and nearby personnel from stray radiation.
2. **Vacuum Integrity:** Regularly check vacuum chamber seals and monitor pressure to prevent air leaks,
which can reduce beam quality and increase radiation from unintended collisions.
3. **Electrical Safety:** High-voltage RF systems pose electrical hazards. Interlocks should be installed to
shut down the system if doors to the cyclotron vault are opened.
4. **Magnetic Field Precautions:** Strong magnetic fields can affect nearby electronic devices and can be
hazardous to individuals with pacemakers. Restricted access zones should be established.
5. **Personal Protective Equipment (PPE):** Operators should use dosimeters, lab coats, and, if necessary,
lead aprons when working near the beamline during maintenance.
6. **Emergency Procedures:** Develop protocols for beam shutdown, fire hazards, and radiation leaks.
Regular drills should be conducted.
7. **Training and Authorization:** Only qualified personnel should operate or maintain the cyclotron.
Unauthorized access should be strictly prohibited.

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Future Scope and Advancements

1. **Advances in Superconducting Magnets:** Emerging cyclotrons use superconducting magnets, reducing

size and power consumption. These compact designs can reach higher magnetic fields (~5-6 T) and
energies.
2. **Isochronous Cyclotrons:** These designs compensate for relativistic effects by varying magnetic field
strength across the radius, enabling acceleration to higher energies for research applications.
3. **Integration with PET Facilities:** On-site cyclotrons in hospitals streamline radioisotope production,
reducing decay losses and enabling real-time imaging.
4. **Proton Therapy Innovations:** Pencil beam scanning and intensity-modulated proton therapy (IMPT) rely
on cyclotrons for precise tumor targeting, minimizing side effects.
5. **Compact Cyclotrons for Space Missions:** Development of portable cyclotrons to produce medical
isotopes in remote locations on space missions or remote research stations.

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Conclusion

In conclusion, the cyclotron remains a cornerstone of particle accelerator technology. Its unique combination
of compact design, continuous beam output, and relative cost-effectiveness has made it indispensable in
research, medical, and industrial settings. While classical cyclotrons face limitations due to relativistic
constraints, modern advancements in superconductivity, isochronous design, and medical integration
continue to expand its capabilities. This investigatory project has provided an in-depth analysis of the
principles, construction, operation, and applications of the cyclotron, highlighting its enduring relevance in
science and technology.

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Bibliography

1. NCERT Physics Textbook - Class XII, Chapters on Electromagnetic Induction and Alternating Currents.
2. D.J. Griffiths, Introduction to Electrodynamics, 4th Edition, Pearson Education.
3. HyperPhysics, Georgia State University, "Cyclotron" section, accessed May 2025.
4. Britannica Online Encyclopedia, "Cyclotron" article, accessed May 2025.
5. Sears & Zemansky's University Physics, 14th Edition, Pearson Education.
6. Khan Academy, "Particle Accelerators", accessed May 2025.
7. Livingston, M.S., and Lawrence, E.O., "The Production of High-Speed Protons by Dissociation of Hydrogen
Molecules" (Physical Review, 1932).
8. Knoll, G.F., Radiation Detection and Measurement, 4th Edition.
9. Wikipedia, "Cyclotron" entry, accessed May 2025.
10. Nuclear-Power.com, "Cyclotron" section, accessed May 2025.

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