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 Two “bandoliers” cut by the natives from the striped part of the skin
(the haunches) and at first supposed to be bits of the hide of a new
kind of Zebra. These were sent home by Sir Harry Johnston in 1900.

The main result of a good deal of such investigation is measured

by our increased knowledge of the pedigree of organisms, what
used to be called ‘classification.’ The anatomical study by the
Australian professors, Hill and Wilson, of the teeth and the fœtus of
the Australian group of pouched mammals—the marsupials—has
entirely upset previous notions, to the effect that these are a
primitive group, and has shown that their possession of only one
replacing tooth is a retention of one out of many such teeth (the
germs of which are present), as in placental mammals; and further
that many of these marsupials have the nourishing outgrowth of the
fœtus called the placenta fairly well developed, so that they must be
regarded as a degenerate side-branch of the placental mammals,
and not as primitive forerunners of that dominant series.
 Fig. 19.

Photograph of the skull of a male Okapi—showing the paired boney

horn-cores—similar to those of the Giraffe, but connected with the
frontal bones and not with the parietals as the horn-cores of Giraffes
are.
 Fig. 20.

Drawings by Professor Grassi, of Rome, of the young of the common

Eel and its metamorphosis. All of the natural size. The uppermost figure
represents a transparent glass-like creature—which was known as a rare
“find” to marine naturalists, and received the name Leptocephalus.
Really it lives in vast numbers in great depths of the sea—five hundred
fathoms and more. It is hatched here from the eggs of the common Eel
which descends from the ponds, lakes, and rivers of Europe in order to
 breed in these great depths. The gradual change of the Leptocephalus
into a young Eel or “Elver” is shown, and was discovered by Grassi. The
young Eels leave the great depth of the ocean and ascend the rivers in
immense shoals of many hundred thousand individuals, and wriggle
their way up banks and rocks into the small streams and pools of the
continent.
The above figures were published by Professor Grassi in November
1896, in the Quarterly Journal of Microscopical Science, edited by E. Ray
Lankester and published by Churchill & Sons.

Speculations as to the ancestral connection of the great group of

vertebrates with other great groups have been varied and ingenious;
but most naturalists are now inclined to the view that it is a mistake
to assume any such connection in the case of vertebrates of a more
definite character than we admit in the case of starfishes, shell-fish,
and insects. All these groups are ultimately connected by very
simple, remote, and not by proximate ancestors, with one another
and with the ancestors of vertebrates.
 Fig. 21.

The unicellular parasite Benedenia, from the gut of the common Poulp
or Octopus. 1 is the normal male individual; 2 and 3 show stages in the
production of spermatozoa on its surface by budding; 4, 5 and 6 show a
female parasite with spermatozoa approaching it.
 Fig. 22.

Production of spermatozoa on the surface of the unicellular parasite

Coccidium oviforme, from the Rabbit’s intestines.

The origin of the limbs of vertebrates is now generally agreed to

be correctly indicated in the Thatcher-Mivart-Balfour theory to the
effect that they are derived from a pair of continuous lateral fins, in
fish-like ancestors, similar in every way to the continuous median
dorsal fin of fishes.
 Fig. 23.

Spermatozoa (often called “microgametes”) of the unicellular parasite

Echinospora found in the gut of the small Centipede Lithobius mutabilis.

The discovery of the formation of true spermatozoa by simple

unicellular animals of the group Protozoa is a startling thing, for it
had always been supposed that these peculiar reproductive elements
were only formed by multicellular organisms (figs. 21, 22, and 23).
They have been discovered in some of the gregarina-like
animalcules, the Coccidia, and also in the blood-parasites.
Among plants one of the most important discoveries relates to
these same reproductive elements, the spermatozoa, which by
botanists are called antherozoids. A great difference between the
whole higher series of plants, the flowering plants or phanerogams,
and the cryptogams or lower plants, including ferns, mosses, and
algae, was held to be that the latter produce vibratile spermatozoa
like those of animals which swim in liquid and fertilise the motionless
egg-cell of the plant. Two Japanese botanists (and the origin of this
discovery from Japan, from the University of Tokio, in itself marks an
era in the history of science), Hirase and Ikeno, astonished the
botanical world fifteen years ago by showing that motile
antherozoids or spermatozoa are produced by two gymnosperms,
the ging-ko tree (or Salisburya) and the cycads (fig. 24). The pollen-
tube, which is the fertilising agent in all other phanerogams,
develops in these cone-bearing trees, beautiful motile spermatozoa,
which swim in a cup of liquid provided for them in connection with
the ovules. Thus a great distinction between phanerogams and
cryptogams was broken down, and the actual nature of the pollen-
tube as a potential parent of spermatozoids demonstrated.

Fig. 24.

Spermatozoa (antherozoids) of Cycas revoluta, seen from the side

and from above. The spermatozoon is spherical, carrying a spiral band
of minute vibratile hairs (cilia) by which it is propelled.
 When we come to the results of the digging out and study of
extinct plants and animals, the most remarkable results of all in
regard to the affinities and pedigree of organisms have been
obtained. Among plants the transition between cryptogams and
phanerogams has been practically bridged over by the discovery that
certain fern-like plants of the Coal Measures—the Cycadofilices,
supposed to be true ferns, are really seed-bearing plants and not
ferns at all, but phanerogams of a primitive type, allied to the cycads
and gymnosperms. They have been re-christened Pteridosperms by
Scott, who, together with F. Oliver and Seward, has been the chief
discoverer in this most interesting field.

Fig. 25.

The gigantic three-horned Reptile, Triceratops, as large as an

Elephant, found in Jurassic strata in North America. A model of the
skeleton may be seen in the Natural History Museum in London.
 By their fossil remains whole series of new genera of extinct
mammals have been traced through the tertiary strata of North
America and their genetic connections established; and from yet
older strata of the same prolific source we have almost complete
knowledge of several genera of huge extinct Dinosauria of great
variety of form and habit (fig. 25).

Fig. 26.

Photograph of the skeleton of a large carnivorous Reptile from Triassic

strata in North Russia, discovered by Professor Amalitzky and named by
him, Inostransevia. The head alone is two feet in length.
 Fig. 27.

Photographs of completed models of the Devonian fish Drepanaspis,

from Devonian slates of North Germany, worked out by Professor
Traquair. The models are in the Natural History Museum, London.
 Fig. 28.

The oldest fossil fish known—discovered in the Upper Silurian strata

of Scotland, and named Birkenia by Professor Traquair.

The discoveries by Seeley at the Cape, and by Amalitzky in North

Russia of identical genera of Triassic reptiles, which in many respects
resemble the Mammalia and constitute the group Theromorpha, is
also a prominent feature in the palæontology of the past twenty-five
years (fig. 26). Nor must we forget the extraordinary Devonian and
Silurian fishes discovered and described by Professor Traquair (figs.
27 and 28). The most important discovery of the kind of late years
has been that of the Upper Eocene and Miocene Mammals of the
Egyptian Fayum, excavated by the Egyptian Geological Survey and
by Dr. Andrews of the Natural History Museum, who has described
and figured the remains. They include a huge four-horned animal as
big as a rhinoceros, but quite peculiar in its characters—the
Arisinoïtherium—and the ancestors of the elephants, a group which
was abundant in Miocene and Pliocene times in Europe and Asia,
and in still later times in America, and survives at the present day in
its representatives the African and Indian elephant. One of the
European extinct elephants—the Tetrabelodon—had, we have long
known, an immensely long lower jaw with large chisel-shaped
terminal teeth. It had been suggested by me that the modern
elephant’s trunk must have been derived from the soft upper jaw
and nasal area, which rested on this elongated lower jaw, by the
shortening (in the course of natural selection and modification by
descent) of this long lower jaw, to the present small dimensions of
the elephant’s lower jaw, and the consequent down-dropping of the
unshortened upper jaw and lips, which thus become the proboscis.
Dr. Andrews has described from Egypt and placed in the Museum in
London specimens of two new genera—one Palæomastodon, in
which there is a long, powerful jaw, an elongated face, and an
increased number of molar teeth (see figs. 29 and 30); the second,
Meritherium (fig. 31), an animal with a hippopotamus-like head,
comparatively minute tusks, and a well-developed complement of
incisor, canine, and molar teeth, like a typical ungulate mammal.
Undoubtedly we have in these two forms the indications of the steps
by which the elephants have been evolved from ordinary-looking
pig-like creatures of moderate size, devoid of trunk or tusks. Other
remains belonging to this great mid-African Eocene fauna indicate
that not only the Elephants but the Sirenia (the Dugong and
Manatee) took their origin in this area. Amongst them are also
gigantic forms of Hyrax, like the little Syrian coney and many other
new mammals and reptiles.
 Fig. 29.

Photograph of a complete model of the skull and lower jaw of the

ancestral elephant, Palæomastodon, discovered by Dr. Andrews in the
Upper Eocene of the Fayum Desert, Egypt, and modelled and restored
under his direction in the Natural History Museum, London. The
comparatively short trunk or snout rested on the broad front teeth of
the long lower jaw. The face is elongated, and the cheek-teeth are
numerous.
 Fig. 30.

Photograph of the lower face of the skull of a specimen of

Palæomastodon brought from Egypt in April, 1906, by Dr. Andrews, and
now in the Natural History Museum, London. The six characteristic
cheek-teeth on each side, and the pair of sabre-like tusks in front, are
well seen.

Fig. 31.
 Drawing of the skull and lower jaw of the Meritherium, discovered by
Dr. Andrews in the Upper Eocene of the Fayum Desert. The shape of the
skull and proportions of face and jaw are like those of an ordinary
hoofed mammal such as the pig; but the cheek-teeth are similar to
those of the Mastodon, and whilst the full complement of teeth is
present in the front of the upper jaw, we can distinguish the big tusk-
like incisor which alone survives on each side in Palæomastodon,
Mastodon, and the elephants, as the great pair of tusks.

Another great area of exploration and source of new things has

been the southern part of Argentina and Patagonia, where
Ameghino, Moreno, and Scott of Princeton have brought to light a
wonderful series of extinct ant-eaters, armadilloes, huge sloths, and
strange ungulates, reaching back into early Tertiary times. But most
remarkable has been the discovery in this area of remains which
indicate a former connection with the Australian land surface. This
connection is suggested by the discovery in the Santa Cruz strata,
considered to be of early Tertiary date, of remains of a huge horned
tortoise which is generically identical with one found fossil in the
Australian area of later date, and known as Miolania. In the same
wonderful area we have the discovery in a cave of the fresh bones,
hairy skin, and dung of animals supposed to be extinct, viz., the
giant sloth, Mylodon, and the peculiar horse, Onohippidium. These
remains seem to belong to survivors from the last submergence of
this strangely mobile land-surface, and it is not improbable that
some individuals of this ‘extinct’ fauna are still living in Patagonia.
The region is still unexplored and those who set out to examine it
have, by some strange fatality, hitherto failed to carry out the
professed purpose of their expeditions.
I cannot quit this immense field of gathered fact and growing
generalisation without alluding to the study of animal embryology
and the germ-layer theory, which has to some extent been
superseded by the study of embryonic cell-lineage, so well pursued
by some American microscopists. The great generalisation of the
study of the germ-layers and their formation seems to be now firmly
established—namely, that the earliest multicellular animals were
possessed of one structural cavity, the enteron, surrounded by a
double layer of cells, the ectoderm and endoderm. These
Enterocœla or Cœlentera gave rise to forms having a second great
body-cavity, the cœlom, which originated not as a split between the
two layers, as was supposed twenty-five years ago by Haeckel and
Gegenbaur and their pupils, but by a pouching of the enteron to
form one or more cavities in which the reproductive cells should
develop—pouchings which became nipped off from the cavity of
their origin, and formed thus the independent cœlom. The animals
so provided are the Cœlomocœla (as opposed to the Enterocœla),
and comprise all animals above the polyps, jelly-fish, corals, and
sea-anemones. It has been established in these twenty-five years
that the cœlom is a definite structural unit of the higher groups, and
that outgrowths from it to the exterior (cœlomoducts) form the
genital passages, and may become renal excretory organs also. The
vascular system has not, as it was formerly supposed to have, any
connection of origin with the cœlom, but is independent of it, in
origin and development, as also are the primitive and superficial
renal tubes known as nephridia. These general statements seem to
me to cover the most important advance in the general morphology
of animals which we owe to embryological research in the past
quarter of a century.[16]
Before leaving the subject of animal morphology I must apologise
for my inability to give space and time to a consideration of the
growing and important science of anthropology, which ranges from
the history of human institutions and language to the earliest
prehistoric bones and implements. Let me therefore note here the
discovery of the cranial dome of Pithecanthropus in a river gravel in
Java—undoubtedly the most ape-like of human remains, and of
great age (see figs. 1 and 2); and, further, the Eoliths of Prestwich
(see figs. 3 and 4), in the human authorship of which I am inclined
to believe, though I should be sorry to say the same of all the
broken flints to which the name ‘Eolith’ has been applied. The
systematic investigation and record of savage races have taken on a
new and scientific character. Such work as Baldwin Spencer’s and
Haddon’s in Australasia furnish examples of what is being done in
this way.
Bacillus radicola, the parasite which infests
the roots of leguminous plants and causes the
growth of nodules whilst assisting the plant in
the assimilation of nitrogen: (a) Nodule of the
roots of the common Lupine, natural size; (b)
longitudinal section through a Lupine root and
nodule; (c) a single cell from a Lupine nodule
showing the bacteria or bacilli, as black particles
in the protoplasm, magnified 600 diameters; (d)
bacilli from the root nodule of the Lupine; (e)
triangular forms of the bacillus from the root
nodules of the Vetch; (f) oval forms from the
root nodules of the Lupine; (d e f) are
magnified 1,500 diameters.

Fig. 32.

Physiology of Plants and Animals.—Since I have not space to do

more than pick out the most important advances in each subject for
brief mention, I must signalize in regard to the physiology of plants
the better understanding of the function of leaf-green or chlorophyll
due to Pringsheim and to the Russian Timiriaseff, the new facts as to
the activity of stomata in transpiration discovered by Horace Brown,
and the fixation of free nitrogen by living organisms in the soil and
by organisms (Bacillus radicola) parasitic in the rootlets of
leguminous plants (see fig. 32), which thus benefit by a supply of
nitrogenous compounds which they can assimilate.
Great progress in the knowledge of the chemistry of the living
cells or protoplasm of both plants and animals has been made by
the discovery of the fact that ferments or enzymes are not only
secreted externally by cells, but exist active and preformed inside
cells. Büchner’s final conquest of the secret of the yeast-cell by
heroic mechanical methods—the actual grinding to powder of these
already very minute bodies—first established this, and now
successive discoveries of intracellular ferments have led to the
conclusion that it is probable that the cell respires by means of a
respiratory ‘oxydase,’ builds up new compounds and destroys
existing ones, contracts and accomplishes its own internal life by
ferments. Life thus (from the chemical point of view) becomes a
chain of ferment actions. Another most significant advance in animal
physiology has been the sequel (as it were) of Bernard’s discovery of
the formation of glycogen in the liver, a substance not to be
excreted, but to be taken up by the blood and lymph, and in many
ways more important than the more obvious formation of bile which
is thrown out of the gland into the alimentary canal. It has been
discovered that many glands, such as the kidney and pancreas and
the ductless glands, the suprarenals, thyroid, and others, secrete
indispensable products into the blood and lymph. Hence
myxœdema, exophthalmic goitre, Addison’s disease, and other
disorders have been traced to a deficiency or excess of internal
secretions from glands formerly regarded as interesting but
unimportant vestigial structures. From these glands have in
consequence been extracted remarkable substances on which their
peculiar activity depends. From the suprarenals a substance has
been extracted which causes activity of all those structures which
the sympathetic nerve-system can excite to action; the thyroid yields
a substance which influences the growth of the skin, hair, bones,
&c.; the pituitary gland, an extract which is a specific urinary
stimulant. Quite lately the mammalian ovary has been shown by
Starling to yield a secretion which influences the state of nutrition of
the uterus and mammæ. A great deal more might be said here on
topics such as these—topics of almost infinite importance; but the
fact is that the mere enumeration of the most important lines of
progress in any one science would occupy many pages.
Nerve-physiology has made
immensely important advances.
There is now good evidence that
all excitation of one group of
nerve-centres is accompanied by
the concurrent inhibition of a
whole series of groups of other
 Fig. 33. centres, whose activity might
interfere with that of the group
The continuity of the excited to action. In a simple
protoplasm
of neighbouring vegetable cells,
reflex flexure of the knee the
by motor-neurones to the flexor
means of threads which perforate muscles are excited, but
the concurrently the motor-neurones
cell-walls. Drawing (after to the extensor muscles are
Gardiner)
of cells from the pulvinus of
thrown into a state of inhibition,
Robinia. and so equally with all the varied
excitations of the nervous
system controlling the movements and activities of the entire body.

Fig. 34.
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