Tutoring n°1

Ana Cabrera-Tobar
 Introduction 2

Ana Cabrera-Tobar

[email protected]
https://politecnicomilano.webex.com/meet/anakarina.cabrera

Electric Power Systems

 Contents of the tutoring 3

1) Phasor Theory and AC network Analysis

2) Electrical Power in AC circuits

3) Magnetic circuits

4) Three Phase circuits Theory

Electric Power Systems

 Complex Numbers 4

An efficient notation to represent sinusoidal signals is by using complex number: this approach allows to
eliminate the need of solving differential equations during the electrical circuit resolution.
It is possible to define the imaginary units 𝑗𝑗:
𝑗𝑗 2 = −1 → 𝑗𝑗 = −1
A complex number (here represented by �𝑍𝑍 ) can be represented by the following equation:

𝑍𝑍̅ = 𝑅𝑅 + 𝑗𝑗 𝑋𝑋
Where both 𝑅𝑅 and 𝑋𝑋 are real numbers (𝑅𝑅, 𝑋𝑋 ∈ ℝ), so a complex number is composed by a real part (𝑅𝑅) and an
imaginary part (𝑋𝑋), expressed by:

𝑅𝑅 = 𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅 𝑍𝑍̅ = 𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅 𝑅𝑅 + 𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗

𝑋𝑋 = 𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼 𝑍𝑍̅ = 𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼 𝑅𝑅 + 𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗

Electric Power Systems

 Complex Numbers 5

Since a complex number is characterized by two coordinates (𝑅𝑅, 𝑋𝑋 ), it can be represented in Cartesian plane, in which the
horizontal axis is called real axis (𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅) and the vertical axis is called imaginary axis (𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼).

It is possible to uniquely identify a complex number using the

following form:

1) Algebraic form 𝑍𝑍̅ = 𝑅𝑅 + 𝑗𝑗 𝑋𝑋

2) Polar form 𝑍𝑍̅ = 𝑍𝑍∠φ

Where 𝑍𝑍 is the magnitude (module) of the complex number

𝑍𝑍 = 𝑍𝑍̅ = 𝑅𝑅 2 + 𝑋𝑋 2

φ is the phase of the complex number

𝑋𝑋
𝜑𝜑 = arctan
𝑅𝑅
Therefore 𝑍𝑍̅ = 𝑅𝑅 + 𝑗𝑗 𝑋𝑋= 𝑍𝑍 (𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 φ + 𝑗𝑗 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠(φ))

3) Exponential form
𝑍𝑍� = 𝑍𝑍𝑍𝑍 𝑗𝑗𝜑𝜑

Electric Power Systems

 Complex Numbers 6

Another important operator is the conjugate.

Given a complex number 𝑍𝑍̅ = 𝑅𝑅 + 𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗 it is possible to
define the complex conjugate, denoted by the symbol 𝑍𝑍 as:
𝑍𝑍 = 𝑅𝑅 − 𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗

Therefore
𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅 𝑍𝑍 = 𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅 𝑍𝑍̅ = 𝑅𝑅 and
𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼 𝑍𝑍 = −𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼 𝑍𝑍̅ = −𝑋𝑋

Hence, the complex conjugate of a complex number 𝑍𝑍,̅

is a complex number that has the same real part but
the immaginary part is reversed:

𝑍𝑍 = 𝑅𝑅 − 𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗 = 𝑍𝑍𝑍𝑍 −𝑗𝑗𝜑𝜑 = 𝑍𝑍𝑍(−𝜑𝜑)

Electric Power Systems

 Complex Numbers 7

Addition and subtraction of complex numbers take place according to the following equations:

𝑍𝑍1 + 𝑍𝑍2 = 𝑅𝑅1 + 𝑗𝑗𝑋𝑋1 + 𝑅𝑅2 + 𝑗𝑗𝑋𝑋2 = 𝑅𝑅1 + 𝑅𝑅2 + 𝑗𝑗 𝑋𝑋1 + 𝑋𝑋2

𝑍𝑍1 − 𝑍𝑍2 = 𝑅𝑅1 + 𝑗𝑗𝑋𝑋1 − 𝑅𝑅2 + 𝑗𝑗𝑋𝑋2 = 𝑅𝑅1 − 𝑅𝑅2 + 𝑗𝑗 𝑋𝑋1 − 𝑋𝑋2

Sum
Subtraction

𝑍𝑍1

𝑍𝑍1 − 𝑍𝑍2 -𝑍𝑍2

Electric Power Systems

 Complex Numbers 8

Concerning the multiplication and division, adopting the polar form allows to use the exponent’s formulas.
Therefore, for a multiplication, the magnitude of the product is the product of the individual magnitudes,
and the angle of the product is the sum of the individual angles:

𝑍𝑍1 𝑍𝑍2 = 𝑅𝑅1 + 𝑗𝑗𝑋𝑋1 𝑅𝑅2 + 𝑗𝑗𝑋𝑋2 = 𝑍𝑍1 𝑒𝑒 𝑗𝑗𝜑𝜑1 𝑍𝑍2 𝑒𝑒 𝑗𝑗𝜑𝜑2 = �𝑍𝑍1 𝑍𝑍2 )𝑒𝑒 𝑗𝑗 𝜑𝜑1 +𝜑𝜑2 = 𝑍𝑍1 𝑍𝑍2 ∠ 𝜑𝜑1 + 𝜑𝜑2

Similarly, the magnitude of the quotient is the quotient of the magnitudes, and the angle of the quotient is the
difference of the angles:
𝑍𝑍1 𝑅𝑅1 + 𝑗𝑗𝑋𝑋1 𝑍𝑍1 𝑒𝑒 𝑗𝑗𝜑𝜑1 𝑍𝑍1 𝑗𝑗 𝜑𝜑1 −𝜑𝜑2
𝑍𝑍1
= = 𝑗𝑗𝜑𝜑
= 𝑒𝑒 = ∠ 𝜑𝜑1 − 𝜑𝜑2
𝑍𝑍2 𝑅𝑅2 + 𝑗𝑗𝑋𝑋2 𝑍𝑍2 𝑒𝑒 2 𝑍𝑍2 𝑍𝑍2

Hence it is possible to define the reciprocal of a complex number as:

1 1 𝑗𝑗 −𝜑𝜑1
1
𝑍𝑍𝑅𝑅 = = 𝑒𝑒 = ∠ −𝜑𝜑1
𝑍𝑍� 𝑍𝑍 𝑍𝑍
Electric Power Systems
 AC network analysis 9

Almost all of the electric power used in the households and industries comes in the form of
sinusoidal voltage and currents. A sinusoidal signal can be generically written as:
𝑥𝑥 𝑡𝑡 = 𝑋𝑋𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀 cos 𝜔𝜔𝜔𝜔 + 𝜑𝜑 𝜋𝜋
Where: 𝜑𝜑 = −
3
XMax
-𝑋𝑋𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀 is the maximum value reached by the
periodic signal (called Amplitude); 𝑋𝑋𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀 cos(𝜑𝜑)
2𝜋𝜋
- 𝜔𝜔 = 2𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋 = is the pulsation [rad/s];
𝑇𝑇 0

x(t)
- 𝑇𝑇 is the period [s];
- 𝑓𝑓 frequency of the signal [Hz] (in Europe 50 Hz);
- 𝜑𝜑 is the initial phase of the signal [rad] and it
0− 𝜑𝜑 𝑇𝑇 T
represent the angle of the signal when t=0. 2𝜋𝜋 t
And it satisfies 𝑥𝑥 𝑡𝑡 = 𝑥𝑥(𝑡𝑡 + 𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛) with 𝑛𝑛 ∈ ℕ (Periodic signal)
Electric Power Systems
 AC network analysis 10

By definition the average value of a periodic signal during a period (𝑇𝑇) is equal to:
1 𝑇𝑇 1 𝑇𝑇
X𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 = � 𝑥𝑥 𝑡𝑡 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = � 𝑋𝑋𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀 cos(𝜔𝜔𝜔𝜔 + 𝜑𝜑) 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = 0
𝑇𝑇 0 𝑇𝑇 0

Another important characteristic of the Periodic Alternating Sinusoidal (PAS) signals is the root mean square value (rms).

1 𝑇𝑇 2 1 𝑇𝑇 2 1 𝑇𝑇 2 1
𝑋𝑋𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟 = � 𝑥𝑥 𝑡𝑡 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = ∫ 𝑋𝑋 cos 2 ( 𝜔𝜔𝜔𝜔) 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = ∫ 𝑋𝑋 + cos 2𝜔𝜔𝜔𝜔 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑=
𝑇𝑇 0 𝑇𝑇 0 𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀 𝑇𝑇 0 𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀 2
1 2 1 𝑋𝑋𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀 XMax
= 𝑋𝑋 (𝑇𝑇 − 0) + 0 = ≈ 0.707𝑋𝑋𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀
𝑇𝑇 𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀 2
Xrms
2
0

x(t)
𝑋𝑋𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀
So 𝑋𝑋𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟 =
2
0 T
t
The mean value of an alternating signal, can be equal to 0, but not always as it will depend if there is an offset or not
Electric Power Systems
 AC network analysis 11

Another important characteristic of the Periodic Alternating Sinusoidal (PAS) signals is the root mean square value (rms).

The root mean square value will be used to define the energy equivalence between
an AC circuit and a Direct current circuit. To prove this result, it is possible to
consider the power absorbed during the period T by an electrical resistance (R)
subjected to PAS current:

1 𝑇𝑇 2 1 𝑇𝑇 2 2
The mean power absorbed by a resistance
𝑝𝑝𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 = � 𝑅𝑅 𝑖𝑖 𝑡𝑡 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = 𝑅𝑅 � 𝑖𝑖 𝑡𝑡 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = 𝑅𝑅 𝐼𝐼𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟 in PAS regime, from the numerical point of
𝑇𝑇 0 𝑇𝑇 0 view, it is equal to power absorbed by a
resistance crossed by a DC signal with an
amplitude equal to 𝐼𝐼𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟

Electric Power Systems

 Complex Numbers 12

Ordinary differential
Time-dependent equations
Alternate
Domain
Current (AC) Circuit
Circuit Solution

Alternate Transformation Circuit

Phasor in the Solution
Current (AC)
Domain Complex System of linear
Circuit
Domain equations (time
independent)

Advantages:
Disadvantage:
Phasor • Time Independent equations;
Domain • Complex domain
• Same equations of Direct Current
circuit;

Electric Power Systems

 Phasors 13

A Periodic Alternate Sinusoidal signal (𝑥𝑥 𝑡𝑡 = 𝑋𝑋𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀 cos 𝜔𝜔𝜔𝜔 + 𝜑𝜑 ) can be also
represented as a rotating vector in the Cartesian plane, with an angular
velocity equal to 𝜔𝜔 = 2𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋.
Considering this rotating vector, it is possible to take a shot of the vector when
𝑡𝑡 = 0, and then draw this fixed vector in the complex plane.

Im

Re

Electric Power Systems

 Phasors 14

A Periodic Alternate Sinusoidal signal (𝑥𝑥 𝑡𝑡 = 𝑋𝑋𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀 cos 𝜔𝜔𝜔𝜔 + 𝜑𝜑 ) can be also
represented as a rotating vector in the Cartesian plane, with an angular
velocity equal to 𝜔𝜔 = 2𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋.
Considering this rotating vector, it is possible to take a shot of the vector when
𝑡𝑡 = 0, and then draw this fixed vector in the complex plane.
It is possible to define the phasor as a fixed vector in the complex plane
(𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅 − 𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼) obtained taking a shot in 𝑡𝑡 = 0 of the rotating vector.

The phasor is a complex number, consisting of:

-a magnitude equal to the rms value of the initial signal (or the amplitude of
the signal depends of the convention);
- a phase 𝜑𝜑 equal to the initial phase of the sinusoidal signal.
𝜑𝜑

TIME DOMAIN PHASOR DOMAIN

𝑥𝑥 𝑡𝑡 = 𝑋𝑋𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀 cos(𝜔𝜔𝜔𝜔 + 𝜑𝜑)) 𝑋𝑋� = 𝑋𝑋𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟 ∠𝜑𝜑

Electric Power Systems

 Phasors 15

The phasor is a complex number, consisting of:

-a magnitude equal to the rms value of the initial signal

(or the amplitude of the signal depends of the convention);
- a phase 𝜑𝜑 equal to the initial phase of the sinusoidal signal.

TIME DOMAIN PHASOR DOMAIN

𝑥𝑥 𝑡𝑡 = 𝑋𝑋𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀 cos(𝜔𝜔𝜔𝜔 + 𝜑𝜑)) 𝑋𝑋� = 𝑋𝑋𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟 ∠𝜑𝜑

𝜋𝜋
𝜑𝜑 =
6 We are not
explicitly
considering
the time
dependence
𝜋𝜋
𝜑𝜑 =
6

Electric Power Systems

 Phasors 16

Let’s define the phasors for the voltage and the current:

TIME DOMAIN PHASOR DOMAIN

𝑣𝑣 𝑡𝑡 = 2𝑉𝑉𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟 cos(𝜔𝜔𝜔𝜔 + 𝜑𝜑𝑣𝑣 ) 𝑉𝑉� = 𝑉𝑉𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟 ∠𝜑𝜑𝑣𝑣

𝑖𝑖 𝑡𝑡 = 2𝐼𝐼𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟 cos(𝜔𝜔𝜔𝜔 + 𝜑𝜑𝑖𝑖 ) 𝐼𝐼 ̅ = 𝐼𝐼𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟 ∠𝜑𝜑𝑖𝑖

It is possible to graphically represent these phasors in the complex plane.

In this case 𝜑𝜑𝑣𝑣 > 0 and 𝜑𝜑𝑖𝑖 < 0
𝜑𝜑𝑣𝑣
𝜑𝜑𝑖𝑖

Electric Power Systems

 Phasors 17

It is possible to define the Phase shift (Δ𝜑𝜑) as the difference between the voltage phase (𝜑𝜑𝑣𝑣 ) and the
current phase (𝜑𝜑𝑖𝑖 ):

Δ𝜑𝜑 = 𝜑𝜑𝑣𝑣 − 𝜑𝜑𝑖𝑖

If Δ𝜑𝜑<0 (i.e. 𝜑𝜑𝑖𝑖 > 𝜑𝜑𝑣𝑣 ) the current leads the voltage. If Δ𝜑𝜑>0 (i.e. 𝜑𝜑𝑖𝑖 < 𝜑𝜑𝑣𝑣 ) the current lags the voltage.

Electric Power Systems

 Impedances: Resistance 18

Considering an ideal circuit, composed by a sinusoidal generator that produces a Periodic Alternate
Sinusoidal signal (𝑣𝑣 𝑡𝑡 = 𝑉𝑉𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀 cos(𝜔𝜔𝜔𝜔 + 𝜑𝜑𝑣𝑣 )) and a resistance (𝑅𝑅). Appling the Ohm’s law, it is
possible to calculate the resulting current that flow through the resistor.

𝑣𝑣 𝑡𝑡 = 𝑉𝑉𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀 cos(𝜔𝜔𝜔𝜔 + 𝜑𝜑𝑣𝑣 )

Appling Ohm’s law

𝑣𝑣 𝑡𝑡 = 𝑅𝑅 𝑖𝑖(𝑡𝑡)
So the current that flows in the circuits is:
𝑣𝑣 𝑡𝑡 𝑉𝑉𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀
𝑖𝑖 𝑡𝑡 = = cos(𝜔𝜔𝜔𝜔 + 𝜑𝜑𝑣𝑣 )
𝑅𝑅 R

Therefore, using the time-dependent relationship, it is possible to obtain that in an AC circuit, the
current absorbed by a resistance is a sinusoidal wave that has the same frequency, the same phase
1
(𝜑𝜑𝑖𝑖 = 𝜑𝜑𝑣𝑣 → Δ𝜑𝜑 = 0) and a magnitude that is times the amplitude of the voltage.
𝑅𝑅

Electric Power Systems

 Impedances: Resistance 19

Considering the same analysis in the phasor domain. Let’s firstly define the voltage phasor:

1
𝑉𝑉� = 𝑉𝑉𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀 ∠𝜑𝜑𝑣𝑣 = 𝑉𝑉𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟 ∠𝜑𝜑𝑣𝑣
2
And applying the Ohm’s law (𝑉𝑉� = 𝑅𝑅𝐼𝐼):
̅

𝑉𝑉� 𝑉𝑉𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀 𝑉𝑉𝑟𝑟𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚

̅𝐼𝐼 = = ∠(𝜑𝜑𝑣𝑣 − 0°) = ∠𝜑𝜑𝑣𝑣 = 𝐼𝐼𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟 ∠𝜑𝜑𝑖𝑖
R 𝑅𝑅 2 𝑅𝑅

Also considering the phasor domain, we obtain a current that has the same phase of the voltage phase (𝜑𝜑𝑣𝑣 = 𝜑𝜑𝑖𝑖 )
1
and a magnitude that is times the magnitude of the voltage phasor (𝑉𝑉𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟 ).
𝑅𝑅

Electric Power Systems

 Impedances: Resistance 20

�).
It is possible to define a new parameter: the Impendence (𝒁𝒁
The impedance is a complex number (a phasor) defined by:
𝑉𝑉 �
̅
𝑍𝑍 = ̅ Therefore, the phasor Ohm’s law becomes : 𝑉𝑉� = 𝑍𝑍̅ 𝐼𝐼 ̅
𝐼𝐼
Considering the results previously obtained, the impedance of a resistor is:
1
� 𝑉𝑉 ∠𝜑𝜑𝑣𝑣 𝑉𝑉𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟 ∠𝜑𝜑𝑣𝑣
𝑉𝑉 2 𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀 𝑉𝑉
𝑍𝑍̅ = ̅ = 1 = 𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟
= 𝑉𝑉𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑠𝑠 ∠𝜑𝜑𝑣𝑣 - 𝜑𝜑𝑖𝑖 = R∠0° = R + j0 [𝛀𝛀]
𝐼𝐼 𝐼𝐼 ∠𝜑𝜑𝑖𝑖 𝐼𝐼𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟 ∠𝜑𝜑𝑖𝑖
2 𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀 𝑅𝑅

∠(𝑍𝑍𝑅𝑅 ) in case of a resistance = 0.

The phase shift (Δ𝜑𝜑) between voltage and current is =0.

∠(𝑍𝑍𝑅𝑅 ) =(Δ𝜑𝜑) =0.

Electric Power Systems

 Impedances: Inductor 21

Let’s now consider a similar elementary circuit but with an inductance. Once again, the generator
produces a sinusoidal waveform: 𝑣𝑣 𝑡𝑡 = 2 𝑉𝑉𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟 cos(𝜔𝜔𝜔𝜔)
The inductor is an element that has the ability to store energy in a magnetic field.
The unit of measurement of the inductor is Henry [H]
It is possible to demonstrate the relationship between the voltage and the current in an
inductor is the following:

𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑(𝑡𝑡) 1
𝑣𝑣 𝑡𝑡 = 𝐿𝐿  𝑖𝑖 𝑡𝑡 = ∫ 𝑣𝑣(𝑡𝑡)𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝐿𝐿

1 2 𝑉𝑉𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟 2 𝑉𝑉𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟 𝜋𝜋
𝑖𝑖 𝑡𝑡 = ∫ 𝑣𝑣 𝑡𝑡 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = sin(𝜔𝜔𝑡𝑡) = cos(𝜔𝜔𝑡𝑡 − )
𝐿𝐿 𝜔𝜔𝜔𝜔 𝜔𝜔𝜔𝜔 2

The current that flows in an inductor in PAS depends not

only on the value of the inductor (L) but also on the
90° frequency (𝜔𝜔). Considering the phase, the current lags
the voltage by 90° degrees.
Electric Power Systems
 Impedances: Inductor 22

Considering the phasor notation, it is possible to express the voltage waveform 𝑣𝑣 𝑡𝑡 = 2 𝑉𝑉𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟 cos(𝜔𝜔𝜔𝜔)
in phasor form:
𝑉𝑉� = 𝑉𝑉𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟 ∠0 = 𝑉𝑉𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟 + 𝑗𝑗 0 [V]
2 𝑉𝑉𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟 𝜋𝜋
The current waveform, previously obtained, 𝑖𝑖 𝑡𝑡 = cos(𝜔𝜔𝑡𝑡 − ) in a phasor notation becomes:
𝜔𝜔𝜔𝜔 2

𝑉𝑉𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟 𝜋𝜋 𝑉𝑉𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟 𝜋𝜋
𝐼𝐼 ̅ = 𝐼𝐼𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟 ∠ 𝜑𝜑𝑖𝑖 = ∠𝜙𝜙𝑣𝑣 − = ∠ − = 0 − 𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟 [𝐀𝐀]
𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿 2 𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿 2

𝑉𝑉 �
Applying the definition of the impedance 𝑍𝑍̅ = ̅ , in case of a pure inductive circuit, it is possible to
𝐼𝐼
obtain:

𝑉𝑉 �𝑉𝑉𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟 ∠𝜑𝜑𝑣𝑣 𝑉𝑉𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟 ∠0° 𝜋𝜋 𝜋𝜋

̅
𝑍𝑍 = ̅ = = 𝑉𝑉𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟 𝜋𝜋 = 𝐿𝐿𝜔𝜔∠(0 − − = 𝐿𝐿𝜔𝜔∠ + = 𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗 = 0 + 𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗
𝐼𝐼 𝐼𝐼𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟 ∠ 𝜑𝜑𝑖𝑖 ∠− 2 2 2
𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿

Electric Power Systems

 Impedances: Inductor 23

𝑉𝑉� = 𝑉𝑉𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟 ∠0 = 𝑉𝑉𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟 + 𝑗𝑗 0 [V]

𝑉𝑉𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟 𝜋𝜋
𝐼𝐼 ̅ = ∠ − = 0 − 𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟 [𝐀𝐀]
𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿 2

𝜋𝜋
̅
𝑍𝑍 = 𝐿𝐿𝜔𝜔∠ + = 𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗 = 0 + 𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗 [𝛀𝛀]
2

𝜋𝜋 𝜋𝜋
∠𝜑𝜑𝑍𝑍 = + = Δ𝜑𝜑 = +
2 2
WHY??
𝑉𝑉∠𝜑𝜑𝑣𝑣 𝑉𝑉 𝑉𝑉
𝑍𝑍̅ = = ∠ 𝜑𝜑𝑣𝑣 − 𝜑𝜑𝑖𝑖 = ∠ Δ𝜑𝜑
𝐼𝐼∠𝜑𝜑𝑖𝑖 𝐼𝐼 𝐼𝐼
Electric Power Systems
 Impedances: Capacitor 24

We can know consider the capacitor. The capacitor is an elementary element

that can store energy in an electric field. The unit of measurement of the
capacitor is Farad (F).
The fundamental relationship of a capacitor is:
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑡𝑡
𝑖𝑖 𝑡𝑡 = 𝐶𝐶
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
And considering a PAS voltage waveform (𝑉𝑉𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀 cos 𝜔𝜔𝜔𝜔 ), it is possible to obtain the current absorbed by
a capacitor:
𝑑𝑑 𝑉𝑉𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀 cos 𝜔𝜔𝜔𝜔 𝜋𝜋 𝜋𝜋
𝑖𝑖 𝑡𝑡 = 𝐶𝐶 = −𝐶𝐶 2𝑉𝑉𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟 𝜔𝜔 sin 𝜔𝜔𝜔𝜔 = 𝐶𝐶 2𝑉𝑉𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟 𝜔𝜔 cos 𝜔𝜔𝜔𝜔 + 𝜋𝜋 − = 2𝑉𝑉𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟 𝐶𝐶 𝜔𝜔 cos 𝜔𝜔𝜔𝜔 +
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 2 2

In case of a capacitor the current is shifted in phase by +90°

and the magnitude of the current depends on the frequency
(𝜔𝜔) and on the value of the capacitor.

The current leads the voltage.

90°
Electric Power Systems
 Impedances: Capacitor 25

Finally, using the phasor domain it is possible to define the impedance in case of capacitance.

𝑣𝑣 𝑡𝑡 = 2𝑉𝑉𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟 𝐶𝐶 𝜔𝜔 cos 𝜔𝜔𝜔𝜔 + 0 𝑉𝑉� = 𝑉𝑉𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟 ∠0

𝜋𝜋 𝜋𝜋 𝜋𝜋
𝑖𝑖 𝑡𝑡 = 2𝑉𝑉𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟 𝐶𝐶 𝜔𝜔 cos 𝜔𝜔𝜔𝜔 + 𝐼𝐼 ̅ = 𝐼𝐼𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟 ∠ = 𝑉𝑉𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟 𝐶𝐶 𝜔𝜔 ∠ + = +𝑗𝑗𝐼𝐼𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟
2 2 2

𝑉𝑉� 𝑉𝑉𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟 ∠0 1 1
̅
𝑍𝑍 = = = ∠ 𝜑𝜑𝑣𝑣 − 𝜑𝜑𝑖𝑖 = ∠ Δ𝜑𝜑
𝐼𝐼 ̅ 𝑉𝑉𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟 𝐶𝐶 𝜔𝜔 ∠ 𝜋𝜋 𝜔𝜔𝜔𝜔 𝜔𝜔𝜔𝜔
2
1 𝜋𝜋 𝑗𝑗 1
= ∠− =− = [𝛀𝛀]
𝜔𝜔𝜔𝜔 2 𝜔𝜔𝜔𝜔 𝑗𝑗𝜔𝜔𝜔𝜔
Δ𝜑𝜑 = −90° = 𝜑𝜑𝑍𝑍 = −90°

Electric Power Systems

 Summary 26

Keep in mind !!
Impedance phasors

Keep in mind !!
Unit of measurements

Voltage [Volts V]
Current [Ampere A]
Impedance [Ohm 𝛀𝛀]
Resistance [Ohm Ω]
Capacity [Farad F]
Inductor [Henry H]

Electric Power Systems

 General definition of impedance 28

Branches containing series and parallel elements may be reduced to a single equivalent impedance.

The general definition of impedance for an arbitrary circuit must allow the possibility of having both a real
and an imaginary part. In its most general form, the impedance of a circuit element is defined as the sum of a
real part and an imaginary part:
𝑍𝑍̅ = 𝑹𝑹 + 𝑗𝑗𝑿𝑿
Where R is resistance and X, which is the imaginary part of the impedance, is called reactance. Both these
parameters have units of ohms [Ω].
Δ𝜑𝜑

Δ𝜑𝜑

Electric Power Systems

 Impedance in series and parallel 29

Series Parallel

The equivalent impedance of N impedances in series is The equivalent impedance of N impedances in

defined using: parallel is defined using:

1 𝑁𝑁 1 −1
𝑍𝑍𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 =∑𝑁𝑁 𝑍𝑍 = ∑𝑁𝑁
𝑅𝑅 + 𝑗𝑗 ∑𝑁𝑁 𝑍𝑍𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 = = ∑𝑘𝑘=1
𝑘𝑘=1 𝑘𝑘 𝑘𝑘=1 𝑘𝑘 𝑘𝑘=1 𝑋𝑋𝑘𝑘 ∑𝑁𝑁
𝑘𝑘=1
1
𝑍𝑍𝑘𝑘
𝑍𝑍𝑘𝑘

Electric Power Systems

 Example 30

Find the equivalent impedance of the proposed circuit.

R=50 Ω
C=470μF
𝑓𝑓 =50 Hz

Electric Power Systems

 Example: phase diagram 31

𝑍𝑍𝑅𝑅 = 50 Ω
𝑍𝑍𝐶𝐶 = −𝑗𝑗6.77 Ω

𝑍𝑍𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 = 50 − 𝑗𝑗6.77
𝑍𝑍𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝 = 0.9 − 𝑗𝑗6.65

2
ZR
0

-2 Z ser
ZC Z par
Im

-4

-6

-8

-10
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50
Re

Electric Power Systems

 Exercise 2 32

Find the equivalent impedance of the proposed circuit.

𝜔𝜔=104 rad/s;𝑅𝑅1 =100 Ω; 𝑅𝑅2 =50 Ω; L=10mH; C=10μF

Electric Power Systems

 Exercise 2 33

SOLUTION
1 1 −1
𝑍𝑍𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 ̅
̅ = 𝑍𝑍𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 ̅
+ 𝑍𝑍𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝 = 𝑅𝑅1 + 𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗 + + 𝑗𝑗 =100+𝑗𝑗102 +1.92−𝑗𝑗9.62=101.92+𝑗𝑗90.38 Ω=136.2∠0.723 Ω
𝑅𝑅2 −
𝜔𝜔 𝐶𝐶

Electric Power Systems

 Kirchhoff's circuit laws 34

Most of the laws that can be applied in a DC circuit are also valid in the AC regime:
Kirchhoff’s voltage law (KVL)
The directed sum of the potential differences (voltages) around any closed loop in zero.
From the mathematical point of view, KVL for a generic AC circuit can be expressed using the
phasors voltages:
𝐵𝐵
� 𝑉𝑉𝑏𝑏 = 0
𝑏𝑏=1
1) Consider a closed loop;
2) Assuming a positive loop direction;

3) Calculate the potential differences across each element of the circuit.

The sign of the potential difference is positive if it is in concordance
with the positive loop direction defined, negative otherwise.

𝑽𝑽𝑮𝑮 − 𝑽𝑽𝑹𝑹 − 𝑽𝑽𝑳𝑳 − 𝑽𝑽𝑪𝑪 = 𝟎𝟎

Electric Power Systems
 Kirchhoff's circuit laws 35

Starting from the principle of charge conservation it is possible to define the Kirchhoff’s Current Law
(KCL).
The KCL states that the sum of the phasor currents that enter/exit from a node in an electrical circuit is
equal to zero. 𝑁𝑁
� 𝐼𝐼�𝑛𝑛 = 0
𝑛𝑛=1
Where each 𝐼𝐼�𝑛𝑛 is the phasor of 𝑛𝑛-th current reach the node and N is the total number of currents that flow in
the nodes.

1) Consider a Node
2) Assuming reference rule (e.g., positive if the current enters in the node);
3) Apply the KCL law. Node

Currents leaving

+𝑰𝑰�𝟏𝟏 + 𝑰𝑰�𝟐𝟐 − 𝑰𝑰�𝟑𝟑 − 𝑰𝑰�𝟒𝟒 − 𝑰𝑰�𝟓𝟓 + 𝑰𝑰�𝟔𝟔 = 𝟎𝟎

Currents entering
Electric Power Systems
 Kirchhoff's circuit laws 36

Let’s consider 1 alternated voltage generator and 2 impedences 𝑍𝑍1 and 𝑍𝑍2 in series
For the KVL, we can write
𝐼𝐼 ̅ 𝑉𝑉�
𝑉𝑉� − 𝑍𝑍1 𝐼𝐼 ̅ − 𝑍𝑍2 𝐼𝐼 ̅ = 0 ⟺ 𝐼𝐼 ̅ =
𝑍𝑍1 + 𝑍𝑍2
+ +
v(t) Or, equivalently, for the generalized Ohm’s law, we can also write
𝑉𝑉� 𝑉𝑉�
͠ 𝑍𝑍1 ∆𝑉𝑉1
̅𝐼𝐼 = =
- -
𝑍𝑍𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 𝑍𝑍1 + 𝑍𝑍2

+ So, the voltage drops are

𝑍𝑍1 𝑍𝑍2
𝑍𝑍2 ∆𝑉𝑉2 ̅
∆𝑉𝑉1 = 𝑍𝑍1 𝐼𝐼 = 𝑉𝑉� ∆𝑉𝑉2 = 𝑍𝑍2 𝐼𝐼 ̅ = 𝑉𝑉�
𝑍𝑍1 + 𝑍𝑍2 𝑍𝑍1 + 𝑍𝑍2
-
𝑍𝑍1 + 𝑍𝑍2 In general
𝑍𝑍�i
∆𝑉𝑉𝑖𝑖 = 𝑍𝑍�i 𝐼𝐼 ̅ = 𝑉𝑉�
�
∑𝑗𝑗 𝑍𝑍𝑗𝑗
Electric Power Systems
 Kirchhoff's circuit laws 37

Let’s consider 1 alternated current generator and 2 impedences 𝑍𝑍1 and 𝑍𝑍2 in parallel
For the KCL, we can write
i(t) −1
𝑉𝑉� 𝑉𝑉� 1 1
̅𝐼𝐼 − 𝐼𝐼�1 − 𝐼𝐼�2 = 0 ⟺ 𝐼𝐼 ̅ − − = 0 ⟺ 𝑉𝑉� = + 𝐼𝐼 ̅
͠ 𝑍𝑍1 𝑍𝑍2 𝑍𝑍1 𝑍𝑍2

Or, equivalently, for the generalized Ohm’s law, we can also write
−1
1 1
−1 � = 𝑍𝑍𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝 𝐼𝐼 ̅ =
V + 𝐼𝐼 ̅
1
+
1 𝑍𝑍1 𝑍𝑍2
𝑍𝑍1 𝑍𝑍2

𝐼𝐼�1 So, the branch currents are

𝑍𝑍1 𝑉𝑉� 𝑍𝑍2 𝑉𝑉� 𝑍𝑍1
�
𝐼𝐼1 = = 𝐼𝐼 ̅ �
𝐼𝐼2 = = 𝐼𝐼 ̅
𝐼𝐼�2 𝑍𝑍1 𝑍𝑍1 + 𝑍𝑍2 𝑍𝑍2 𝑍𝑍1 + 𝑍𝑍2
𝑍𝑍2
In general
- + �
𝑉𝑉 Gi 1
𝑉𝑉� 𝐼𝐼�𝑖𝑖 = =∑ 𝐼𝐼 ̅ with G�i =
𝑍𝑍𝑖𝑖 G
𝑗𝑗 𝑗𝑗 𝑍𝑍𝑖𝑖

Electric Power Systems

 Exercise 1 38

Find the voltage drops on each element of the circuit.

𝑣𝑣1 (t)= 2𝑉𝑉1 cos 𝜔𝜔𝜔𝜔 + 𝜑𝜑1

𝜋𝜋
𝑉𝑉1 =230 V; 𝑓𝑓=50 Hz; 𝜑𝜑1 =
6
𝑍𝑍1 𝑣𝑣2 (t)= 2𝑉𝑉2 𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬 𝜔𝜔𝜔𝜔 + 𝜑𝜑2
𝜋𝜋
𝑉𝑉2 =120 V; 𝑓𝑓=50 Hz; 𝜑𝜑2 =
4
𝑅𝑅1 =10 Ω;
𝑍𝑍2
𝑅𝑅2 =5 Ω;
𝐿𝐿1 =10 mH;
𝐿𝐿2 =50 mH;
𝐶𝐶3 =300 𝜇𝜇F
𝑍𝑍23

Electric Power Systems

 39

𝜋𝜋 𝜋𝜋 𝜋𝜋 𝜋𝜋
𝑉𝑉𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅,1 = 230𝑉𝑉 𝜑𝜑1 = , 𝑉𝑉𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅,2 = 120𝑉𝑉 𝜑𝜑2 = − = − , ω = 2𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋 = 314.16 𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟/𝑠𝑠
6 4 2 4

𝑍𝑍1 = 𝑅𝑅1 + 𝑗𝑗ω𝐿𝐿1 = 10 + 𝑗𝑗3.142 Ω,

𝑍𝑍2 = 𝑅𝑅2 + 𝑗𝑗ω𝐿𝐿2 = 5 + 𝑗𝑗15.708 Ω,
1 −1
𝑍𝑍23 = + 𝑗𝑗ω𝐶𝐶3 = 11.04 − 𝑗𝑗21.87 Ω
𝑍𝑍2

𝑉𝑉1 −𝑉𝑉2
From KVL: 𝑉𝑉�1 − 𝑍𝑍1 𝐼𝐼 ̅ − 𝑉𝑉2 − 𝑍𝑍23 𝐼𝐼 ̅ = 0 ⟺ 𝐼𝐼 ̅ = = −1.685 + 𝑗𝑗8.00𝐴𝐴 = 8.175∠ 1.78 𝐴𝐴
𝑍𝑍1 + 𝑍𝑍23

In the time domain 𝑖𝑖 𝑡𝑡 = 8.175 2 cos 𝜔𝜔𝜔𝜔 + 1.78 𝐴𝐴

Δ𝑉𝑉1 = 𝑍𝑍1 𝐼𝐼 ̅ = −41.98 + 𝑗𝑗74.7 𝑉𝑉

Δ𝑉𝑉R1 = 𝑅𝑅1 𝐼𝐼 ̅ = −16.85 + 𝑗𝑗80 𝑉𝑉
Δ𝑉𝑉L1 = 𝑗𝑗ω𝐿𝐿1 𝐼𝐼 ̅ = −25.13 − 𝑗𝑗5.3 𝑉𝑉 = Δ𝑉𝑉1 − Δ𝑉𝑉R1

Electric Power Systems

 40

Δ𝑉𝑉23 = 𝑍𝑍23 𝐼𝐼 ̅ = 156.3 + 𝑗𝑗125.2 𝑉𝑉 = Δ𝑉𝑉2 = Δ𝑉𝑉3

Or, equivalently
𝑍𝑍3
𝐼𝐼�2 = 𝐼𝐼 ̅ = 10.11 − 𝑗𝑗6.73 𝐴𝐴 Δ𝑉𝑉
𝑍𝑍2 +𝑍𝑍3 𝐼𝐼�2 = 2 = 10.11 − 𝑗𝑗6.73 𝐴𝐴
𝑍𝑍2
𝑍𝑍2
𝐼𝐼�3 = 𝐼𝐼 ̅ = −11.8 + 𝑗𝑗14.73 𝐴𝐴 = 𝐼𝐼 ̅ − 𝐼𝐼�2 Δ𝑉𝑉
𝑍𝑍2 +𝑍𝑍3 𝐼𝐼�3 = 3 = −11.8 + 𝑗𝑗14.73 𝐴𝐴 = 𝐼𝐼 ̅ − 𝐼𝐼�2
𝑍𝑍3

Δ𝑉𝑉R2 = 𝑅𝑅2 𝐼𝐼�2 = −50.55 − 33.67𝑉𝑉

Δ𝑉𝑉L2 = 𝑗𝑗ω𝐿𝐿2 𝐼𝐼�2 = −105.8 − 𝑗𝑗158.8 𝑉𝑉 = Δ𝑉𝑉2 − Δ𝑉𝑉R2

Electric Power Systems

 Exercise 3 41

Electric Power Systems