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CHAPTER FM1
Pediatric Dentistry
INFANCY THROUGH ADOLESCENCE
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FI FTH ED I T I O N
Pediatric Dentistry
INFANCY THROUGH ADOLESCENCE
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Notices
Knowledge and best practice in this ield are constantly changing. As new research and experience broaden
our understanding, changes in research methods, professional practices, or medical treatment may become
necessary.
Practitioners and researchers must always rely on their own experience and knowledge in evaluating and
using any information, methods, compounds, or experiments described herein. In using such information
or methods they should be mindful of their own safety and the safety of others, including parties for
whom they have a professional responsibility.
With respect to any drug or pharmaceutical products identiied, readers are advised to check the most
current information provided (i) on procedures featured or (ii) by the manufacturer of each product to be
administered, to verify the recommended dose or formula, the method and duration of administration,
and contraindications. It is the responsibility of practitioners, relying on their own experience and
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contained in the material herein.
v
vi CONTRIBUTORS
viii
CON TEN TS
PAR T 1 PAR T 2
Fundamentals of Pediatric Conception to Age Three 149
Dentistry 1 CH AP TE R 1 2
CH AP TE R 6
Nonpharmacologic Issues in Pain Perception PAR T 3
and Control 88
Stephen Wilson
The Primary Dentition Years: Three to
CH AP TE R 7 Six Years 247
Pain Perception Control 98 CH AP TE R 1 7
Stephen Wilson, Steven I. Ganzberg
The Dynamics of Change 248
CH AP TE R 8 Paul S. Casamassimo, Steven M. Adair
Pain Reaction Control: Sedation 105 CH AP TE R 1 8
Stephen Wilson, Steven I. Ganzberg
Examination, Diagnosis, and
CH AP TE R 9 Treatment Planning 258
Antimicrobials in Pediatric Dentistry 118 Paul S. Casamassimo, John R. Christensen,
Wendi Slaughter Henry W. Fields, Jr.
CH AP TE R 1 0 CH AP TE R 1 9
Medical Emergencies 126 Prevention of Dental Disease 279
Steven I. Ganzberg Arthur J. Nowak, Tad R. Mabry
CH AP TE R 1 1 CH AP TE R 20
Dental Public Health Issues in Dental Materials 291
Pediatric Dentistry 139 Kevin James Donly
Jonathan D. Shenkin, Homa Amini
ix
x CONTENTS
CH AP TE R 21 CH AP TE R 31
Restorative Dentistry for the Prevention of Dental Disease 460
Primary Dentition 304 Arthur J. Nowak, Tad R. Mabry
William F. Waggoner CH AP TE R 32
CH AP TE R 22 Pit and Fissure Sealants: Scientiic and
Pulp Therapy for the Primary Dentition 333 Clinical Rationale 467
Anna Blinder Fuks, Ari Kupietzki, Martha H. Wells
Marcio Guelmann CH AP TE R 33
CH AP TE R 23 Pulp Therapy for the Young
Behavior Guidance of the Pediatric Permanent Dentition 490
Dental Patient 352 Anna Blinder Fuks, Ilana Heling, Eyal Nuni
Janice Alisa Townsend CH AP TE R 34
CH AP TE R 24 Managing Traumatic Injuries in the Young
Periodontal Problems in Children Permanent Dentition 503
and Adolescents 371 Dennis J. McTigue
Ann L. Griffen, Dimitris N. Tatakis CH AP TE R 35
CH AP TE R 25 Treatment Planning and Management of
Space Maintenance in the Orthodontic Problems 518
Primary Dentition 379 John R. Christensen, Henry W. Fields, Jr.
John R. Christensen, Henry W. Fields, Jr.
CH AP TE R 26
PAR T 5
Oral Habits 385
John R. Christensen, Henry W. Fields, Jr., Adolescence 557
Steven M. Adair
CH AP TE R 36
CH AP TE R 27
The Dynamics of Change 558
Orthodontic Treatment in the Deborah Studen-Pavlovich
Primary Dentition 393
CH AP TE R 37
John R. Christensen, Henry W. Fields, Jr.
Examination, Diagnosis, and Treatment
CH AP TE R 28
Local Anesthesia and Oral Surgery Planning for General and
Orthodontic Problems 566
in Children 398 Paul S. Casamassimo, John R. Christensen,
Stephen Wilson
Henry W. Fields, Jr., Steven I. Ganzberg
CH AP TE R 38
PAR T 4 Prevention of Dental Disease 586
Tad R. Mabry, Arthur J. Nowak, Henry W. Fields, Jr.
The Transitional Years: Six to
CH AP TE R 39
Twelve Years 411 Aesthetic Restorative Dentistry for
CH AP TE R 29 the Adolescent 597
The Dynamics of Change 412 Kaaren G. Vargas, Marcos A. Vargas,
Henry W. Fields, Jr., Steven M. Adair Stephen F. Rosenstiel
CH AP TE R 4 0
CH AP TE R 30
Examination, Diagnosis, and Sports Dentistry and Mouth Protection 609
Dennis N. Ranalli
Treatment Planning 423
Paul S. Casamassimo, John R. Christensen,
Henry W. Fields, Jr. Appendix 618
PA RT ON E
Fundamentals of
Pediatric Dentistry
1 The Practical Importance of Pediatric 6 Nonpharmacologic Issues in Pain
Dentistry Perception and Control
2 Differential Diagnosis of Oral Lesions 7 Pain Perception Control
and Developmental Anomalies
8 Pain Reaction Control: Sedation
3 Anomalies of the Developing Dentition 9 Antimicrobials in Pediatric Dentistry
4 Oral and Dental Care of Local and 10 Medical Emergencies
Systemic Diseases
11 Dental Public Health Issues in Pediatric
5 Topics in Pediatric Physiology Dentistry
The first section of this textbook deals with information and themes pertinent
to dentistry for children at all ages. Much of this information is covered in other fields
of dental education, but because of the differences between children and adults,
including their physiology and active growth and development, no textbook on
pediatric dentistry would be complete without a discussion of the topics covered in
this section of the textbook as they relate to children.
1
The Practical Importance
1 of Pediatric Dentistry
Paul S. Casamassimo
Historical Perspective
unquestionably grew out of the need to manage dental
caries and its sequelae of pulpitis, inlammation, and pain Milestones in Dentistry for Children in the
associated with infected pulpal tissue and suppuration in United States
alveolar bone. Challenges for Pediatric Dentistry in the 21st
It was logical that from its extraction-oriented begin- Century
nings, pediatric dentistry grew to include caries interception Child Abuse and Neglect
with an emphasis on diagnostic procedures and the mainte- Children of Poverty
nance of arch integrity in instances of tooth loss due to decay
or trauma. The malocclusion consequences of unbridled Informed Consent and Risk Management
tooth removal were soon determined to be preventable. Evidence-Based Dental Practice
Restorative techniques, pulpal therapy, space maintenance, Technology and Materials
and interceptive orthodontics were the main themes of this Health Care Delivery and Payment Strategies
era, which sadly is still not over. Because of the lingering
problem of early childhood caries and its recent increase, Caries Risk Assessment
these treatment techniques are covered in detail in this book. Advocacy
Pediatric dentistry today emphasizes prevention of dental
diseases, which is a primary focus of this book, and it is
addressed speciically for each of the four age groups that
relect the organization of this book. Caries risk assessment,
as it relates to individualized prevention, is also featured in
this edition to relect the evolution of evidence-based oral The historical premise that dental care should begin at 3
health care. years of age or later was based on the belief that a child under
3 years was too dificult to treat, except by a specialist and
often using pharmacologic techniques, readily available to
Historical Perspective only a few specialists. Though it is true that treatment is
often dificult, the threshold of age 3 years meant that many
Until the mid-1950s, in at least one state of the United States, children would experience dental caries and enter the dental
a major dental supplier gave all new clients opening dental ofice with restorative and pain management needs. The
ofices a very handsome sign that said: No children under age American Academy of Pediatric Dentistry today advocates a
13 treated in this ofice. Fortunately, such attitudes are now dental visit on or before the irst birthday.1 In May 2003, the
gone, the result of improved education and science as they American Academy of Pediatrics (AAP) issued guidance to
relate to pediatric dentistry. Speciic educational guidelines its membership of more than 50,000 pediatricians to perform
for pediatric dentistry are now an integral part of the fabric oral health assessment at 6 months of age during well child
of dental education imposed on all dental schools accredited visits along with application of luoride varnish.10 Unques-
by the Commission on Dental Accreditation. Graduates of tionably, the appropriateness of this recommendation for
all accredited dental schools in the United States have both earlier attention to dental care by health professionals is
didactic and clinical education in dentistry for children. Fur- due to the recognition today that early childhood caries
thermore, through the efforts of organized dentistry and cannot be eliminated through restoration or selected tooth
other advocates of the oral health of children, the notion that extraction, and that children aflicted with early childhood
the “baby teeth don’t deserve care because you lose them caries are more prone to dental caries in their permanent
anyway” has largely disappeared. dentition.
2
CHAPTER 1 The Practical Importance of Pediatric Dentistry 3
n TABLE 1-1
but in practice, many adults with disabilities remained in the • Early orthodontic diagnosis and treatment, which has
care of pediatric dentists and do so today because of the dif- been shown to beneit many children in terms of guiding
iculties in transitioning to general practitioners. occlusal development and minimizing lengthy treatment
For several reasons, the general dentist community later
remains the overwhelming provider of oral health care for • More sophisticated pain and anxiety control, such as
children. Most children simply need basic dental services, sedation techniques, and the requisite understanding and
predominantly diagnostic and preventive in nature. This is consideration of contemporary guidelines for safe and
true for very young children and infants who have no dental effective use
disease and simply need a dental home. Graduates of today’s • Expanding problems with luorosis due to the ubiquitous
dental education system are well-prepared to address all but presence of luoride in the environment and changes in
the most dificult of pediatric oral health issues. Another dosing and luoride therapy as a result
important reason is that pediatric dentists are not plentiful, • Obesity and other eating disorders and their implications
and even with a major effort to educate more pediatric den- for oral health and care of patients in the dental setting
tists over the last two decades, the number practicing is well • Sophistication of radiographic techniques as digital and
below 10,000 nationally, compared with over 200,000 general three-dimensional imaging become more common and
dentists. Convenience and compliance also strongly support provide advanced detailed diagnostic information along
the concept of family dentistry, whereby all family members with concerns about exposure of children to radiation
can have the same dental home. during their growing years
• Substance abuse, including smokeless tobacco use, recre-
ational drug use in teens and preadolescents, and abuse of
Challenges for Pediatric Dentistry prescription pain medication, which is epidemic in many
in the 21st Century areas
• Digitization of health information, its management and
With the recent recognition of the increase in early child- transportability, and the rules and opportunities available
hood caries in the United States and other industrialized in today’s electronic environment
nations, and the localization of this disease in poor and • Advocacy outside the dental ofice to support oral health
minority children, the focus of pediatric dentistry has shifted. at a community level, including dentist participation on
A dentist treating children needs to be aware of the new health boards, school sports teams, Head Start Program
challenges in keeping a child caries-free throughout child- consultancy, and other out-of-ofice roles requiring oral
hood. Dental disease initiation and conversely, its prevention health care expertise
and control, are now believed to be highly inluenced by • Societal changes relected in signiicant alterations in
factors beyond the biological ones traditionally attributed to parental acceptance of traditional behavior guidance tech-
the Keyes model of interaction of bacteria, sugar, and teeth. niques and the legal implications of these changes and
These other factors include the effect of the community, the attitudes
system, and the family and are not biological in nature. What
this means is that the dentist treating children must consider Eight phenomena that will have to be addressed in the
many different elements, and not just the child and family 21st century are deemed important enough to be reviewed
and the biology of the mouth. Preventive dentistry includes in this introductory chapter. These are child abuse and
understanding the role of exogenous, nonbiological factors neglect, the children of poverty, informed consent and risk
in caries initiation and progression, especially for poor and management, evidence-based dental practice, technology,
diverse populations. Important in today’s care of children are health care delivery and payment strategies, caries risk
these considerations: assessment, and emergence of pediatric dentistry in the
world community.
• The importance of infant oral health as the best opportu-
nity to prevent early childhood caries by providing fami- CHILD ABUSE AND NEGLECT
lies with preventive information and the general dentist’s Child abuse and child neglect are ugly and emotionally
role working with nondental professionals charged aspects of the more general problem of family dys-
• Acid-etch techniques, sealants, and composite resins and function in our society. Since the 1960s these themes have
their place in pediatric dentistry, which now also includes received increased attention from the legal and health pro-
consideration of relative life span compared with other fessions. By 1966, each of the 50 states had drafted legislation
restorative approaches and concerns about toxicity in describing the responsibilities of professionals to report sus-
dental materials pected abuse of children. The same laws that mandate den-
• Dentistry for the disabled patient and other children with tists to report suspected abuse often also protect them from
special needs who are now living longer because of medical legal litigation brought by angry and vengeful parents.
advances, but whose dental treatment often requires con- These laws also spell out the legal implications for the
sideration of medications, organ function, and other dentist who knowingly and willfully fails to report suspected
medical needs child abuse. Although laws vary from state to state, in general,
CHAPTER 1 The Practical Importance of Pediatric Dentistry 5
the dentist who fails to report such cases is considered guilty 50 years. Recent data from the Centers for Disease Control
of a simple misdemeanor and is subject to a ine or jail sen- and Prevention7 show a signiicant increase in primary
tence. The law usually also makes the dentist civilly liable for dental caries for children and conirm a lingering predisposi-
any damages to the child caused by a failure to report abuse. tion for both primary and permanent dental caries to occur
The technical aspects of identifying and documenting abuse in those children from lower socioeconomic status (Figure
are well-established, and a dental ofice should include a 1-2). Unfortunately, the number of children in poverty is
policy describing procedures related to its identiication. The increasing. Generational poverty refers to the perpetuation
American Academy of Pediatric Dentistry offers dentists of poverty across multiple generations, whereas situational
educational material about management of child abuse if poverty means a change in circumstances that drives families
encountered in the course of dental treatment.2 While exam- into inancial problems due to divorce, recession job loss, or
ining a child, the dentist may encounter a bruise or another other life-altering problems.6
suspicious lesion, prompting an interview with the child for The concentration of social dysfunction factors affecting
an explanation of the injury. After the examination is com- children from poverty has been well delineated, and it shows
pleted, the parents should be interviewed separately from the that as these dysfunctional factors increase, so do systemic
child to see whether their stories correlate. If discrepancies and dental diseases.12 The children of poverty have always
arise between the two accounts of the injury, the dentist presented challenges to the dental profession.13 Their lack of
would make a judgment, and if abuse is suspected, the resources makes compliance with preventive recommenda-
appropriate authorities would be informed. tions dificult; even the cost of toothbrushes and luoride
Physical abuse can be caused by burning, slapping, dentifrice can challenge some poor families. Transportation
hitting, choking, twisting, pulling, and pinching; broken to dental appointments may be dificult as well, so that the
teeth, burns in unlikely places or in patterns, and lacerations appointment failure rate of Medicaid-covered children
and bruises in various stages of healing should alert the becomes a recurring complaint by dentists.15 Diets predis-
dentist. Figure 1-1 depicts some examples of physical abuse posed to cariogenicity as well as obesity are characterized by
possibly noticeable during a dental examination. Sexual a propensity toward high-calorie prepared foods because
abuse is far more dificult to identify and may be beyond those options are within the inancial resources of the poor,
the purview of the dentist. Areas affected by sexual abuse and their access to fresh foods and ability to cook may be
would not be readily seen by the dentist; however, the sexu- limited. Dentists often compensate for the increased caries
ally abused child may demonstrate inappropriate behaviors risk of poor children by more aggressive treatment such as
with the dentist, be suggestive in speech, or alternatively stainless steel crowns rather than complex composites or
seem withdrawn. amalgams. The cost of orthodontic treatment may also be
Neglect may be more subtle and less easily identiied. out of reach for many poor children, challenging the dentist
Often, poor oral health is the trigger that prompts a dentist to make the most of space management when dental caries
to investigate further the possibility of neglect. The dentist require removal of teeth.
should look at the child’s overall hygiene and clothing as well The Affordable Care Act of 2009 made oral health care for
as dental hygiene. Suspicion of poor nutrition may arise from children an integral piece of health care reform in the United
dry and unkempt hair, dirty clothing, and apparent lack of States, and more children have access to oral health care than
medical care as evidenced by skin lesions such as impetigo. before its passage. This will challenge the dental health care
The dentist is responsible for taking the same approach to system and likely change the patterns of care delivery, the
neglect as to abuse; reporting of such cases is mandatory. The essential dental services covered by both private and govern-
American Academy of Pediatric Dentistry deines dental ment health plans, and the availability of adjunctive enabling
neglect as failure of the parent or guardian to seek treatment services such as sedation and general anesthesia. At the pub-
for caries, oral infections, or oral pain, or failure of the parent lication of this edition, the details of a national pediatric oral
or guardian to follow through with treatment once he or she health plan are scant and inancial limitations of government
is informed that the aforementioned conditions exist.2 Social may make essentials services for children less than those now
service agencies may become involved to assist families or to available in Medicaid or Children’s Health Insurance Program
move the child from both an abusive and neglectful situation (CHIP) under Early Periodic Screening, Diagnosis, and
into a safer environment. While reporting is both an ethical Treatment Program (EPSDT) (see Chapter 11). The dental
and legal mandate, in the case of neglect, the dentist may profession and other advocacy organizations concerned with
ind that dental neglect is but one problem area for that child child health are working to ensure that all children, including
and should not become frustrated with the inability of social those living in poverty, have access to necessary dental care.
services to effect dental care immediately when more serious
issues are yet to be resolved.
INFORMED CONSENT AND
CHILDREN OF POVERTY RISK MANAGEMENT
Children who come from the circumstances of poverty are Informed consent is the legal mechanism that protects a
at increased risk for development of dental caries despite patient’s right not to be touched or in any way treated
all the preventive dentistry accomplishments of the last without authorization. The issue assumes that it is a right of
6 PART 1 Fundamentals of Pediatric Dentistry
A B
C D
E F
n FIGURE 1-1 A, Frenum tear due to pulling on the lip in a baby with cleft palate. B, Dental trauma that has gone untreated in the primary
dentition. C, Loss of hair on scalp due to pulling by abuser. D, Eye injuries from beating, which should also involve the bridge of the nose if
received from an accidental fall (such as from a bicycle), but does not. E, Bite mark on the cheek showing imprints of maxillary and mandibular
teeth in a characteristic pattern. F, Bruises from a slap showing inger pattern.
CHAPTER 1 The Practical Importance of Pediatric Dentistry 7
5
This may also be the case with domestic partners. Dentists
4
3.3 should have ofice policies, vetted by sound legal advice, to
3 2.3 deal with these circumstances and others, such as when they
2
1.0 identify a pregnant teen whose parents are unaware of her
1
status or when they deal with families who do not speak
0
2-4 Years 6-8 Years English well enough to understand consent information and
Below FPL At/Above FPL require a trained health translator.
Risk management is a broad term that describes the atti-
n FIGURE 1-2 Decayed and illed surfaces in primary teeth (dfs)
tudes, processes, and techniques that a dentist and the staff
by age group (ages 2 to 4 and 6 to 8 years) and federal poverty level
(FPL). (Data from the Third National Health and Nutrition Examina-
can have and can do to minimize legal involvement and
tion Survey [NHANES III] 1988-1994, National Center for Health Sta- includes considerations and procedures previously described.
tistics, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention.) Obviously, in pediatric dentistry, risk management involves
not only how the dentist and child interact but also, impor-
tantly, how the dentist and child’s parents or guardians
a mentally competent adult human being to determine what, interact.
if anything, a practitioner may do to his or her body. The practice of informed consent is basic to risk manage-
There are two kinds of consent: expressed and implied. ment. However, risk management involves issues other than
Implied consent is determined by the behavior of the patient. those that are technically legal. It involves a satisfaction in
For instance, the patient sits in the dental chair, opens his communication between the clinician and the public, com-
mouth, but says nothing, and the implication is that the munity, or individuals with whom he or she works. In the
patient knows what is going to happen and agrees to let area of dentistry for children, risk management encourages
it happen. Expressed consent is written or oral. A signed open dialogue between the dentist and the people who bring
written consent to treatment is the most substantial consent children to the clinic. Over the last several decades, parenting
for protecting the patient from undue treatment or harm has changed5 as have parents’ expectations for what happens
and a dentist from subsequent litigation. with their child in the dental ofice.8 Much of the change
Informed consent also implies that the patient is aware of centers around behavior guidance used in pediatric den-
the nature of the treatment, alternatives to treatment includ- tistry. Parents used to shy away from general anesthesia and
ing doing nothing for a condition, probable sequelae of pharmacologic management of their children, but today
treatment, and potential beneits and possible risks of any they want the pediatric dentistry experience to be painless
treatment. In other words, an “uninformed” patient is inca- and as pleasant as possible. This is a signiicant shift in
pable of giving informed consent. A signature, if the patient parental attitude. Further, parents want to be present during
is uninformed, is legally useless also. treatment encounters rather than wait in the reception area.
Minors cannot take the responsibility for giving informed Finally, parents are far less willing to allow use of restraint,
consent. To avoid liability, the dentist must secure consent now called protective stabilization, in care of their child, and
from the parent or the person acting in loco parentis. An this may even extend to use of voice control by the dentist
exception to this would be rendering emergency care that to gain the child’s attention. Other less common issues rela-
preserves life or prevents severe compromise to the child’s tive to pediatric dentistry today that may affect consent are
health when the parents cannot be located in the time avail- cultural, related to touching patients, or safety, related to use
able. This extends to the attainment of adulthood at age 18 of materials or techniques that parents feel present a threat
years, when the person can determine whether he or she will of toxicity, such as luoride, amalgam, composites, or radia-
accept treatment. In many states, persons with limited intel- tion. The dentist needs to understand these issues and have
lectual capacity are their own guardians and can determine information for families who express concern.
whether they will accept treatment, even if they are under
the care of a social service or their parents. EVIDENCE-BASED DENTAL PRACTICE
Obtaining informed consent can challenge the dentist Much of dental practice is based on historically sound prac-
who treats children. Older children and adolescents may tices wherein practitioners and scientists have de facto war-
come to the dental ofice unaccompanied by a parent or in ranted such treatments the “standards of care,” based on
the company of an older sibling or relative. Immigrants may their longevity and prevalence of use in the practice com-
not understand the need for adult parent approval of care munity. Eficacy may have little scientiic support, and use
and send children with family friends with no legal relation- of the techniques may have been based simply on no benei-
ship to the child, because that is acceptable in their culture. cial alternative. Today there is a stronger call for practice
Foster parents may have limited legal powers, especially if a based on scientiic evidence collected in prospective clinical
child is in their custody temporarily, which may be an issue trials designed to scrutinize the techniques. In spite of the
8 PART 1 Fundamentals of Pediatric Dentistry
call for evidence, it is well known that not all clinically used
practices can be entirely based on the highest levels of evi- HEALTH CARE DELIVERY AND
dence, and many will always be based on expert opinion. In PAYMENT STRATEGIES
fact, most of today’s dental treatments are based on lower Health care delivery and payment strategies were not themes
quality evidence. Dentists are challenged to design practices in the irst or second edition of this book; however, health
around evidence-based concepts when evidence does not care reform in the United States demands that a responsible
exist. If the so-called standard of care in a community education in pediatric dentistry today includes these themes.
includes a procedure not strongly supported by evidence but Three major changes in pediatric dentistry related to systems
is commonly provided to children, the dentist is at risk if it of care are the rise in corporate dentistry, the shift to managed
is not performed on patients. Conversely, a newer but rigor- care organizations for publically funded programs such as
ously tested procedure may not be covered by payment Medicaid, and growing reliance on federally qualiied health
plans, whereas another more common and long-standing centers (FQHCs). Corporate dentistry is growing in both
technique may be covered, so the dentist is left in a quandary. public and private sectors because of the loss of dentists
Today’s practitioners must have a good understanding of the through retirement, increase in population, the ability to
levels of evidence behind their treatments and the scientiic recruit and retain newly graduated dentists because of their
research leading to that treatment. Further, the dentist educational debt, and a desire by existing senior practitio-
should be sure that a treatment does no harm and is at least ners to sell practices. The latter frees them from business
better than the alternatives or doing nothing for any condi- management yet still allows them to be employed. Corporate
tion. Finally, a dentist’s practice should include internal entities have emerged that focus on children covered by
quality assurance processes to evaluate the effectiveness of Medicaid in states where reimbursement favors a proit.
those procedures within the practice for whether evidence is Although these entities provide good care to many children,
lacking. they have been plagued by bad publicity about their business
practices, which often require employed dentists to render
TECHNOLOGY AND MATERIALS large amounts of care at each visit. This practice stresses the
Technology is rapidly changing and its spin-off to dental child and family and has led to legal repercussions for some
practice is immense. Digital systems abound, materials are of these organizations.
constantly changing, and record keeping is now far more The growth of managed care organizations (MCOs) that
amenable to tracking patient care and other ofice functions oversee populations of children and adults has resulted from
like billing and scheduling. The 21st century promises new the desire of states to control ever increasing Medicaid
materials based on bioactive substances rather than the inert expenditures by allowing MCOs to control care allocation
materials now comprising most restorative and pulp thera- and by reducing the state’s need to employ workers on their
pies. Pulp therapy is one area of pediatric dentistry that has payrolls. The impact on care of children has been variable
enjoyed constant change to reach improved eficacy. Practi- from state to state. Some states have used the intermediary
tioners continue to use accepted materials like formocresol, MCO to require dentists to request preauthorization or
but mineral trioxide aggregate (MTA) and dentin-inducing approval before performing certain procedures. These agen-
bioactive substances have been tried with some success. Laser cies have also done retroactive review of treatment patterns
dentistry has been slow to catch on in mainstream pediatric and sought return of revenue from dentists who the MCO
dentistry, most likely because of its cost and limited use in felt had provided unnecessary treatment. Some MCOs have
only a small part of dental treatment, thus requiring practi- reduced fees or limited procedures that can be provided. The
tioners to still use rotary instruments. overall impact has been a declining participation by dentists
The electronic dental record has also led to reinements and more dificult access for children covered by the Medic-
in practice function. In addition to minimizing paper and aid system in those states. Claims are made that more chil-
copying, the improved data management with current elec- dren have gained access, but many children simply gain
tronic systems allows dentists to use quality assurance in coverage due to expansion of the Medicaid program and, in
practice without needing to manipulate numbers by hand. reality, with declining or limited dentist participation, cannot
As health care moves into a quality-required era, this capa- ind a dentist willing to care for them.
bility will likely play a major role. Electronic billing functions The FQHC movement has resulted in more community-
means less devotion of staff time to those activities, leading based clinics providing dental services, often in areas that
to reduced costs. Finally, scheduling functions that include will not support a private practice because of a patient mix
contacting patients automatically before appointments, skewed to low income. The FQHCs’ novel reimbursement
alerting them to any special circumstances like dietary mechanism, which is based on visits rather than procedures,
restrictions or billing requirements, also save staff time and enables them to exist in situations where Medicaid-based
reduce costs. practices cannot. However, FQHCs are limited in their com-
Other technological advances like biologic testing, electric pensation of dentists and are often located in rural or
handpieces, patient-distracting audiovisual entertainment, depressed areas, so they often have dificulty retaining pro-
and online instruction have all entered the ield of pediatric viders. FQHCs also provide very little care to children across
dentistry and should lead to improved and less costly care. the country.
CHAPTER 1 The Practical Importance of Pediatric Dentistry 9
n TABLE 1-2
Timeline for Milestones in the American Recognition and Approach to Family Dysfunction and Other
Cruelties to Children
1800s House of refuge movement occurred in many major cities and enabled the state to place abandoned or neglected
children somewhere safe.
1870s The New York Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Children is formed. It is the irst of many groups that worked in
cooperation with the houses of refuge to rescue endangered children.
1899-1920 Juvenile courts are established, with the irst juvenile court begun in Illinois in 1899; by 1920, all but three states had
such courts.
1946 A paper by Caffey4 documents medical discovery of child abuse; it concludes that the origin of many long bone fractures
in children could not be speciically documented.
1957 Caffey asserts that injuries such as fractures in long bones of infants have often been deliberately inlicted.
1961 The irst conference on the battered child syndrome is held.
1962 An article on battered children11 is published in the Journal of the American Medical Association, and the concept of
parental cruelty is made public. So by this time, there is a movement to do something about this problem.
1966 All 50 states have passed laws describing the responsibilities of health science professionals in reporting suspected abuse.
1971 Fontana9 proposes a more global deinition of the mistreatment of children, so neglect is now considered a potential
parental shortcoming.
1974 A National Center on Child Abuse and Neglect is established by Congress to provide further leadership in improving the
potential protection of children; sexual abuse is added as a category of child abuse.
1976-1979 The number of cases of child abuse reported nationally rises 71% from 1976 to 1979, when 711,142 cases are reported.3
1995 The number of reported cases of child abuse continues to increase to approximately 1 million, and it is estimated that
approximately 2000 children die from abuse each year.
1996 Nearly all states have child death review teams, and mental injury and passive exposure of children to illegal drugs are
increasingly recognized as additional forms of child abuse.
10 PART 1 Fundamentals of Pediatric Dentistry
brochures, audio announcements on their phones while 2. American Academy of Pediatric Dentistry: Guideline on oral and
patients hold, and by having health-oriented reading materi- dental aspects of child abuse and neglect, Pediatr Dent 33:147–150,
2011.
als and videos available for waiting parents. Just outside the 3. American Humane Association: National analysis of oficial child
ofice, in the local community, dentists can participate on neglect and abuse reporting (1979). DHHS Publication No. (OHDS)
school health boards, act as a school sports team dentist, 81-30232, revised 1981, Washington, DC, 1981, U.S. Government
make mouth guards for teams, and participate in local health Printing Ofice.
fairs, Head Start Program screenings, and a number of other 4. Caffey J: Multiple fractures in the long bones of infants suffering
from chronic subdural hematoma, Am J Roentgenol 56:163–173, 1946.
activities. Usually through the legislative activity of the 5. Casamassimo PS, Wilson S, Gross LC: Effects of changing U.S.
dental societies, dentists can work with elected and appointed parenting styles on dental practice: a study of Diplomates of the
oficials and provide technical advice on oral health issues, American Board of Pediatric Dentistry, Pediatr Dent 23:46–50, 2001.
safety, and public education. At the state and national level, 6. daFonseca MA: The effects of poverty on children’s development and
dentists can engage in the work of political action commit- oral health, Pediatr Dent 34:32–38, 2012.
7. Dye BA, Arevalo O, Vargas CM: Trends in paediatric dental caries by
tees and participate in lobbying for pediatric oral health. poverty status in the United States, 1988-1994 and 1999-2004, Int J
This is not an experience that many dentists have had, but Paediatr Dent 20:132–143, 2010.
in our political system, elected and appointed oficials are 8. Eaton J, McTigue D, Fields H et al: Attitudes of contemporary parents
expected to make decisions about a myriad of issues and toward behavior management techniques used in pediatric dentistry,
need information to make the best decisions. Oral health is Pediatr Dent 27:107–113, 2005.
9. Fontana V: The maltreated child: the maltreatment syndrome in
also often a low priority in legislative health matters, so accu- children, Springield, Ill, 1971, Charles C Thomas.
rate portrayal of the importance of oral health is critical. 10. Hale KJ, American Academy of Pediatrics Section on Pediatric
Because many decision-makers enjoy good oral health and Dentistry: Oral health risk assessment timing and establishment of
have insurance, they may not appreciate the prevalence of the dental home, Pediatrics 111(5):1113–1116, 2003.
dental disease in their poorer constituents. 11. Kempe CH, Silverman EN, Steele BF et al: The battered child
syndrome, JAMA 181:17–24, 1962.
Advocacy in pediatric dentistry is considered an equiva- 12. Larson K, Russ SA, Crall JJ et al: Inluence of multiple social risks on
lent part of the dentist’s responsibility in protecting the children’s health, Pediatrics 121:337–341, 2008.
health of children. Training programs in pediatric dentistry 13. Pinkham JR, Casamassimo P, Levy S: Dentistry and the children of
are now expected to teach residents about advocacy and are poverty, ASDC J Dent Child 55(1):17–23, 1988.
encouraged to let them participate in community-based 14. Tagliaferro E, Pardi V, Ambrosano G et al: An overview of caries risk
assessment in 0-18 year-olds over the last ten years (1997-2007), Braz
activities. If dentists truly understand the political and health J Oral Sci 7:1678–1681, 2008.
systems we have in the United States, they realize that without 15. U.S. General Accounting Ofice: Oral health: factors contributing to
advocacy at all levels, the health of the children of this low use of dental services by low-income populations. GAO/
country is at risk. HEHS-00-149, Washington, DC, September 11, 2000.
REFERENCES
1. American Academy of Pediatric Dentistry: Guideline on infant oral
health care, Pediatr Dent 33:124–128, 2011.
Differential Diagnosis
of Oral Lesions and 2
Developmental Anomalies
Catherine M. Flaitz
11
12 PART 1 Fundamentals of Pediatric Dentistry
n TABLE 2-1
n TABLE 2-1
B C
D E
n FIGURE 2-1 Developmental anomalies. A, Fissured tongue. B and C, Partial ankyloglossia with lingual frenum attachment at the tip of
the tongue (B). Note the restricted mobility of the tongue with extension (C). D, Lingual thyroid of the midline base of the tongue. E, Thyroglos-
sal duct cyst with sinus tract, midline neck.
CHAPTER 2 Differential Diagnosis of Oral Lesions and Developmental Anomalies 15
F G
H I
J K
L M
n FIGURE 2-1, cont’d F and G, Commissural lip pit (F) with depth illustrated by periodontal probe (G). H, Paramedian lip pits. I, Retro-
cuspid papilla of the lingual mandibular gingiva. J, Biid uvula. K, Hyperplastic maxillary labial frenum. L, Torus palatinus of the midline
hard palate. M, Small exostosis of the anterior mandibular alveolus, facial aspect. (D courtesy Dr. G. E. Lilly, University of Iowa College of
Dentistry.)
16
PART 1
Fundamentals of Pediatric Dentistry
n TABLE 2-2
Pediatric
Age and Treatment and Differential
Lesion Gender Clinical Findings Location Pediatric Significance Prognosis Diagnosis
White Surface Thickening Lesions
Frictional keratosis First and Localized to diffuse, white, Mucosa adjacent to Caused by chronic biting or Elimination of cause; Leukoedema
second rough or shredded occlusal plane, sucking habits, irritation lesion regresses Linea alba
decades patches; adherent; including buccal, from orthodontic Smokeless tobacco
No gender asymptomatic labial mucosa, appliances, fractured teeth keratosis
predilection lateral tongue; and improper tooth Cinnamon contact
attached gingiva brushing stomatitis
Lupus erythematosus
Smokeless tobacco Second decade Diffuse, white, wrinkled Vestibular, labial and Highly addictive habit; lesions Discontinuation of Leukoedema
keratosis Male patch; adherent; buccal mucosa; develop after 1-5 years of habit results in Frictional keratosis
predilection asymptomatic; gingival usually mandibular use; increased risk for lesion reversal; Cinnamon contact
recession; tooth staining site periodontal disease, dental biopsy of persistent stomatitis
caries, tooth sensitivity, and lesions; low risk Chronic hyperplastic
halitosis for malignant candidiasis
transformation
Leukoedema First and Widespread, ilmy white, Bilateral buccal, labial Most prominent in black None required; Frictional keratosis
second wrinkled mucosa; mucosa and soft children; condition increases common variant of Linea alba
decades adherent; disappears palate with age; more pronounced normal mucosa White sponge nevus
No gender when stretched in cigarette smokers
predilection
Cinnamon contact Second decade Oblong to broadly linear, Gingiva, mucosa Cinnamon lavoring in candy, Identify and Cheek-biting keratosis
stomatitis No gender white plaques with a adjacent to occlusal chewing gum, toothpaste, discontinue use of Hyperplastic candidiasis
predilection shaggy, thickened surface; plane, including mouth rinses offending product Smokeless tobacco
diffuse erythema; tender buccal mucosa and keratosis
lateral tongue Hairy leukoplakia
Pediatric
Age and Treatment and Differential
Lesion Gender Clinical Findings Location Pediatric Significance Prognosis Diagnosis
Linea alba Any age Smooth or shaggy white Bilateral buccal Associated with biting None required; may Cinnamon contact
following line; may be scalloped; mucosa, along irritation or sucking habit; spontaneously stomatitis
the eruption asymptomatic occlusal plane may be associated with regress Scar formation
of teeth leukoedema Cheek-biting keratosis
No gender
predilection
Hairy tongue Second decade Cream to brown Dorsal tongue Contributes to halitosis; Eliminate cause; Coated tongue
No gender discoloration; diffuse associated with cigarette brush tongue Frictional keratosis
predilection elongation of iliform smoking, poor oral hygiene, Hyperplastic candidiasis
papillae antibiotics, dry mouth,
CHAPTER 2
overuse of mouth rinses;
coated tongue is more
common in children
White sponge nevus First decade, Diffuse, symmetric, Bilateral buccal Autosomal dominant skin None required; Leukoedema
Continued
17
18
PART 1
Fundamentals of Pediatric Dentistry
n TABLE 2-2
CHAPTER 2
obstructive disease of the gland gland; lithotripsy;
duct stone may recur
Palatal cysts of the Neonates Solitary or multiple, discrete Epstein pearls: median Cysts occur in up to 85% of None required; Soft tissue abscess
newborn No gender or clustered papules with palatal raphe neonates keratin-illed cysts Oral lymphoepithelial
19
20 PART 1 Fundamentals of Pediatric Dentistry
A B
C E
n FIGURE 2-2 White soft tissue lesions. A and B, Frictional keratosis of the lateral tongue (A) and buccal mucosa (B) from chronic biting
of the tissues. C, Smokeless tobacco keratosis of the posterior mandibular vestibule. D and E, Leukoedema of the buccal mucosa, bilaterally.
CHAPTER 2 Differential Diagnosis of Oral Lesions and Developmental Anomalies 21
F G
H I
J K
n FIGURE 2-2, cont’d F to I, White sponge nevus of the buccal mucosa (F and G) and lateral tongue (H and I). J, Ulcerated linea alba from
L M
P O
Q R
n FIGURE 2-2, cont’d L, Chemical burn from overuse of a topical anesthetic. M, Coated tongue in a child who is mouth breathing.
N, Fan-shaped scar at the corners of the mouth due to an electrical burn. O, Cluster of Fordyce granules of the anterior buccal mucosa. P, Oral
lymphoepithelial cyst of the posterior lateral tongue. Q, Single palatal cyst of the newborn on the midline hard palate. R, Cluster of gingival
cysts of the newborn on the mandibular alveolar mucosa.
n TABLE 2-3
Dark Soft Tissue Lesions (See Figure 2-3)
Pediatric
Age
and Pediatric Treatment and Differential
Lesion Gender Clinical Findings Location Significance Prognosis Diagnosis
Red or Purple-Blue Lesions
Port-wine stain Infancy Localized to diffuse, red Face, along Occurs in about 1% of Laser treatment; Hemangioma
(capillary No gender to purple macular distribution of newborns; may be sign of persistent lesion Arterial and
CHAPTER 2
vascular predilection lesions; variable trigeminal nerve, Sturge-Weber angiomatosis; that may become arteriovenous
malformation) blanching; bleeds is most common bleeding is complication; darker in color and malformation
freely; gingival and site; may have lip possible neurologic disease nodular with age Ecchymosis
bony enlargement; and oral mucosal Hereditary
pyogenic granuloma; involvement hemorrhagic
23
Continued
Other documents randomly have
different content
— Niitä miehiä nyt ei kannata itkeä, ei ollenkaan! Mutta sinä olet
vielä niin lapsi, et tunne heitä. Vaan kun "meillekin" saakka pääset,
kyllä itkut vähempään jäävät. Kymmenen vuotta olisin miestäni itkeä
saanut jos itkeä olisin tahtonut ja kukaties kuinka kauvan
eteenkinpäin; mutta minä en itke, en. Ameriikkaan meni, mutta
menköön! Me vaimot, kyllä me elämme täällä Suomessakin, joskaan
se elämä ei niin hääviä ole; mutta elämää se on sekin.
— Sitä loppuapa onkin niin vaikea arvata, minä sitä niin kovin
pelkään.
Liisu saapui siihen taloon missä Matti oli edellisen viikon työssä
ollut. Sieltä luuli hän nyt miehensä tapaavan, — mutta turhaan.
Emäntä selitteli miesten lähteneen pitäjälle, josta on turha vaiva
heitä etsimään lähteä.
*****
Varhain maanantai-aamuna jyskytetään ovea, Liisu käy avaamaan
ja sisälle astuu Matti. Vaimo ei ole miestään tuntea. Viikko sitten lähti
tämä iloisena, reippaana ja siistinä; mutta nyt hän palaa
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— En minä osaa…
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— En minä osaa…
— No minä sanon: olen ajatellut, että jos lähdettäisiin tästä
Ameriikkaan.
*****
On lähtöhetki. Matkakumppanit, suuren saattojoukon kera ovat
hevosineen saapuneet Matin mökin kohdalle. Kauvan ei siinä
seisottaa tarvitse, kunnes Matti, istuen Liisunsa rinnalla, ajaa
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tekisi mieli jotain Liisulle puhua, mutta hän ei saa sanaa, hän ei voi
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mutta silloin kuuluu veikkojen hurja laulu:
Niistä on Liisu yksi, tuo turvaton vaimo, joka tuossa itkien, vilussa
värjötellen seisoo. Hän ei voi osaa ottaa toisten jäähyväisheittoon, ei
voi katsella miehensä menoa. Kauvas yli peltojen katsoo, katsoo,
tietämättä mihin ja mitä. Vasta kun hiljaisuus jälleen palaa, kun
junan kaukainen jyrinä välille väsyy, vasta silloin herää mietteistään
Liisu. Etsivän katseen heittää pitkin tietä, minne kaikkein
kalleimpansa kulki… mutta sieltä ei näy mitään, eikä mitään kuulu,
kaikukaan ei jaksa ääntä kantaa… tyhjää on kaikki… Liisu tyrskähtää
uudelleen itkuun, itkee kauvan ja katkerasti…
*****
Keväällä sai Liisu kylältä runsaasti työtä. Hän oli tunnettu hyväksi
kankuriksi, hyväksi ompelijaksi, ja se tieto oli hänelle suurena apuna.
Palkat kyllä olivat niin mitättömän pienet, ettei ahkerinkaan päivätyö
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puutteet, ankarat kylmät, ne ne alkoivat syksyn tullen Liisua
uhkaavasti pelottaa. Polttopuut olivat niin kalliita, kun metsiä ei ollut,
ettei Liisu voinut ajatellakaan niitten ostamista. Ei ollut muuta
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äärettömät alat joka puolella. Sellaisen Liisu saikin, läheltä mökkiään,
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ankaran raskasta ja neva puista köyhää.
*****
*****
*****
Liisu myy kaikki mitä ei sovi mukaan ottaa, ja niin saa hän
matkarahansa kuntoon.
*****
— Minun se on.
— Ja kahdenko aijotte lähteä?
— Niin.
— On.
— Niin…
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METSÄJÄRVENI
Ja tätä hän tekee joka päivä, joka aamu ja ilta, niin kauvan kuin
kevättä kestää ja suvituulet puhaltavat…
— Sentähden, sentähden…
Ja kun tulee talvi, kun pakkanen laineesi kytkee, kun vilu laulusi
salpaa ja lumi silmäsi peittää, silloin minä lylylle nousen, vahvat,
syvät ladut peittoosi hiihdän; ristiin rastiin kuljen ja sieltä sitte
mökilleni palaan.
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