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 Chapter 8 Internal Flow

Solutions Manual for

Fluid Mechanics: Fundamentals and Applications

Third Edition

Yunus A. Çengel & John M. Cimbala

McGraw-Hill, 2013

Chapter 8
Internal Flow

PROPRIETARY AND CONFIDENTIAL

This Manual is the proprietary property of The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

(“McGraw-Hill”) and protected by copyright and other state and federal laws. By
opening and using this Manual the user agrees to the following restrictions, and if the
recipient does not agree to these restrictions, the Manual should be promptly returned
unopened to McGraw-Hill: This Manual is being provided only to authorized
professors and instructors for use in preparing for the classes using the affiliated
textbook. No other use or distribution of this Manual is permitted. This Manual
may not be sold and may not be distributed to or used by any student or other
third party. No part of this Manual may be reproduced, displayed or distributed
in any form or by any means, electronic or otherwise, without the prior written
permission of McGraw-Hill.

8-1
PROPRIETARY MATERIAL. © 2014 by McGraw-Hill Education. This is proprietary material solely for authorized instructor use.
Not authorized for sale or distribution in any manner. This document may not be copied, scanned, duplicated, forwarded, distributed, or
posted on a website, in whole or part.
 Chapter 8 Internal Flow

Laminar and Turbulent Flow

8-1C
Solution We are to compare pipe flow in air and water.

Analysis Reynolds number is inversely proportional to kinematic viscosity, which is much smaller for water than for
air (at 25C, air = 1.56210-5 m2/s and water =   = 0.89110-3/997 = 8.910-7 m2/s). Therefore, for the same diameter and
speed, the Reynolds number will be higher for water flow, and thus the flow is more likely to be turbulent for water.

Discussion The actual viscosity (dynamic viscosity)  is larger for water than for air, but the density of water is so
much greater than that of air that the kinematic viscosity of water ends up being smaller than that of air.

8-2C
Solution We are to compare the wall shear stress at the inlet and outlet of a pipe.

Analysis The wall shear stress w is highest at the tube inlet where the thickness of the boundary layer is nearly
zero, and decreases gradually to the fully developed value. The same is true for turbulent flow.

Discussion We are assuming that the entrance is well-rounded so that the inlet flow is nearly uniform.

8-3C
Solution We are to define and discuss hydraulic diameter.

Analysis For flow through non-circular tubes, the Reynolds number and the friction factor are based on the hydraulic
4 Ac
diameter Dh defined as Dh  where Ac is the cross-sectional area of the tube and p is its perimeter. The hydraulic
p
4 Ac 4D 2 / 4
diameter is defined such that it reduces to ordinary diameter D for circular tubes since D h   D.
p D

Discussion Hydraulic diameter is a useful tool for dealing with non-circular pipes (e.g., air conditioning and heating
ducts in buildings).

8-2
PROPRIETARY MATERIAL. © 2014 by McGraw-Hill Education. This is proprietary material solely for authorized instructor use.
Not authorized for sale or distribution in any manner. This document may not be copied, scanned, duplicated, forwarded, distributed, or
posted on a website, in whole or part.
 Chapter 8 Internal Flow
8-4C
Solution We are to define and discuss hydrodynamic entry length.

Analysis The region from the tube inlet to the point at which the boundary layer merges at the centerline is
called the hydrodynamic entrance region, and the length of this region is called hydrodynamic entry length. The entry
length is much longer in laminar flow than it is in turbulent flow. But at very low Reynolds numbers, Lh is very small
(e.g., Lh = 1.2D at Re = 20).

Discussion The entry length increases with increasing Reynolds number, but there is a significant change in entry
length when the flow changes from laminar to turbulent.

8-5C
Solution We are to discuss why pipes are usually circular in cross section.

Analysis Liquids are usually transported in circular pipes because pipes with a circular cross section can withstand
large pressure differences between the inside and the outside without undergoing any significant distortion.

Discussion Piping for gases at low pressure are often non-circular (e.g., air conditioning and heating ducts in buildings).

8-6C
Solution We are to define and discuss Reynolds number for pipe and duct flow.

Analysis Reynolds number is the ratio of the inertial forces to viscous forces, and it serves as a criterion for
determining the flow regime. At large Reynolds numbers, for example, the flow is turbulent since the inertia forces are
large relative to the viscous forces, and thus the viscous forces cannot prevent the random and rapid fluctuations of the
fluid. It is defined as follows:
a
VD
(a) For flow in a circular tube of inner diameter D: Re 
 b
VD h
(b) For flow in a rectangular duct of cross-section a × b: Re 

4 Ac 4ab 2ab
where Dh    is the hydraulic diameter.
p 2( a  b) ( a  b) D

Discussion Since pipe flows become fully developed far enough downstream, diameter is the
appropriate length scale for the Reynolds number. In boundary layer flows, however, the boundary layer
grows continually downstream, and therefore downstream distance is a more appropriate length scale.

8-3
PROPRIETARY MATERIAL. © 2014 by McGraw-Hill Education. This is proprietary material solely for authorized instructor use.
Not authorized for sale or distribution in any manner. This document may not be copied, scanned, duplicated, forwarded, distributed, or
posted on a website, in whole or part.
 Chapter 8 Internal Flow
8-7C
Solution We are to compare the Reynolds number in air and water.

Analysis Reynolds number is inversely proportional to kinematic viscosity, which is much smaller for water than for
air (at 25C, air = 1.56210-5 m2/s and water =   = 0.89110-3/997 = 8.910-7 m2/s). Therefore, noting that Re = VD/,
the Reynolds number is higher for motion in water for the same diameter and speed.

Discussion Of course, it is not possible to walk as fast in water as in air – try it!

8-8C
Solution We are to express the Reynolds number for a circular pipe in terms of mass flow rate.

Analysis Reynolds number for flow in a circular tube of diameter D is expressed as

V
VD m m 4m 
Re  where V  Vavg    and   m
  Ac   D 2 / 4   D 2 
D
Substituting,
VD 4mD
 4m 4m
Re    . Thus, Re 
  D 2   /    D  D

Discussion This result holds only for circular pipes.

8-9C
Solution We are to compare the pumping requirement for water and oil.

Analysis Engine oil requires a larger pump because of its much larger viscosity.

Discussion The density of oil is actually 10 to 15% smaller than that of water, and this makes the pumping requirement
smaller for oil than water. However, the viscosity of oil is orders of magnitude larger than that of water, and is therefore the
dominant factor in this comparison.

8-10C
Solution We are to discuss the Reynolds number for transition from laminar to turbulent flow.

Analysis The generally accepted value of the Reynolds number above which the flow in a smooth pipe is turbulent is
4000. In the range 2300 < Re < 4000, the flow is typically transitional between laminar and turbulent.

Discussion In actual practice, pipe flow may become turbulent at Re lower or higher than this value.

8-4
PROPRIETARY MATERIAL. © 2014 by McGraw-Hill Education. This is proprietary material solely for authorized instructor use.
Not authorized for sale or distribution in any manner. This document may not be copied, scanned, duplicated, forwarded, distributed, or
posted on a website, in whole or part.
 Chapter 8 Internal Flow
8-11C
Solution We are to discuss the effect of surface roughness on pressure drop in pipe flow.

Analysis In turbulent flow, tubes with rough surfaces have much higher friction factors than the tubes with smooth
surfaces, and thus surface roughness leads to a much larger pressure drop in turbulent pipe flow. In the case of
laminar flow, the effect of surface roughness on the friction factor and pressure drop is negligible.

Discussion The effect of roughness on pressure drop is significant for turbulent flow, as seen in the Moody chart.

8-12E
Solution We are to estimate the Reynolds number for flow through a
pipe, and determine if it is laminar or turbulent.

Assumptions 1 The water is at 20oC. 2 The discharge area is perfectly

round (we ignore the rim effects – there appear to be some protrusions
around the rim – three of them are visible in the picture).

Properties The density and viscosity of the water are  = 62.30 lbm/ft3,
and  = 6.733  10-4 lbm/fts, respectively.

Analysis We use the people to estimate the diameter of the pipe.

Assuming the guy in the blue shirt (who by the way is Secretary of the
Interior Dirk Kempthorne) is six feet tall, the pipe diameter is about 13.8 ft.
The average velocity is obtained from the given volume flow rate,

V 4V
Vavg  
A  D2

and the Reynolds number is estimated as

D  D 4V 4 V
Re  Vavg  
   D 2  D


 
4 62.30 lbm/ft 3  300, 000 gal/s   231 in 3 3
  1 ft 
  3.424  10  3.4  10
8 8
 
 
 6.733  104 lbm/ft  s 13.8 ft   1 gal   12 in 

where we give our final result to two significant digits. Since Re > 2300, this flow is definitely turbulent.

Discussion There is absolutely no doubt that this flow is turbulent! You can even see the unsteady turbulent
fluctuations in the photograph.

8-5
PROPRIETARY MATERIAL. © 2014 by McGraw-Hill Education. This is proprietary material solely for authorized instructor use.
Not authorized for sale or distribution in any manner. This document may not be copied, scanned, duplicated, forwarded, distributed, or
posted on a website, in whole or part.
 Chapter 8 Internal Flow

Fully Developed Flow in Pipes

8-13C
Solution We are to examine a claim about volume flow rate in laminar pipe flow.

Analysis Yes, the volume flow rate in a circular pipe with laminar flow can be determined by measuring the velocity
at the centerline in the fully developed region, multiplying it by the cross-sectional area, and dividing the result by 2. This
works for fully developed laminar pipe flow in round pipes since V  Vavg Ac  (V max / 2) Ac .

Discussion This is not true for turbulent flow, so one must be careful that the flow is laminar before trusting this
measurement. It is also not true if the pipe is not round, even if the flow is fully developed and laminar.

8-14C
Solution We are to examine a claim about volume flow rate in laminar pipe flow.

Analysis No, the average velocity in a circular pipe in fully developed laminar flow cannot be determined by simply
measuring the velocity at R/2 (midway between the wall surface and the centerline). The average velocity is Vmax/2, but the
velocity at R/2 is
 r2  3V
V ( R / 2)  V max 1  2   max , which is much larger than Vmax/2.
 R  r R / 2 4

Discussion There is, of course, a radial location in the pipe at which the local velocity is equal to the average velocity.
Can you find that location?

8-15C
Solution We are to discuss the value of shear stress at the center of a pipe.

Analysis The shear stress at the center of a circular tube during fully developed laminar flow is zero since the
shear stress is proportional to the velocity gradient, which is zero at the tube center.

Discussion This result is due to the axisymmetry of the velocity profile.

8-6
PROPRIETARY MATERIAL. © 2014 by McGraw-Hill Education. This is proprietary material solely for authorized instructor use.
Not authorized for sale or distribution in any manner. This document may not be copied, scanned, duplicated, forwarded, distributed, or
posted on a website, in whole or part.
 Chapter 8 Internal Flow
8-16C
Solution We are to discuss whether the maximum shear stress in a turbulent pipe flow occurs at the wall.

Analysis Yes, the shear stress at the surface of a tube during fully developed turbulent flow is maximum since
the shear stress is proportional to the velocity gradient, which is maximum at the tube surface.

Discussion This result is also true for laminar flow.

8-17C
Solution We are to discuss how the wall shear stress varies along the flow direction in a pipe.

Analysis The wall shear stress w remains constant along the flow direction in the fully developed region in both
laminar and turbulent flow.

Discussion However, in the entrance region, w starts out large, and decreases until the flow becomes fully developed.

8-18C
Solution We are to discuss the fluid property responsible for development of a velocity boundary layer.

Analysis The fluid viscosity is responsible for the development of the velocity boundary layer.

Discussion You can think of it this way: As the flow moves downstream, more and more of it gets slowed down near
the wall due to friction, which is due to viscosity in the fluid.

8-19C
Solution We are to discuss the velocity profile in fully developed pipe flow.

Analysis In the fully developed region of flow in a circular pipe, the velocity profile does not change in the flow
direction.

Discussion This is, in fact, the definition of fully developed – namely, the velocity profile remains of constant shape.

8-7
PROPRIETARY MATERIAL. © 2014 by McGraw-Hill Education. This is proprietary material solely for authorized instructor use.
Not authorized for sale or distribution in any manner. This document may not be copied, scanned, duplicated, forwarded, distributed, or
posted on a website, in whole or part.
 Chapter 8 Internal Flow
8-20C
Solution We are to discuss the relationship between friction factor and pressure loss in pipe flow.

Analysis The friction factor for flow in a tube is proportional to the pressure loss. Since the pressure loss along
the flow is directly related to the power requirements of the pump to maintain flow, the friction factor is also proportional
to the power requirements to overcome friction. The applicable relations are
m PL m PL
Wpump  and Wpump 
 

Discussion This type of pressure loss due to friction is an irreversible loss. Hence, it is always positive (positive being
defined as a pressure drop down the pipe). A negative pressure loss would violate the second law of thermodynamics.

8-21C
Solution We are to discuss whether fully developed pipe flow is one-, two-, or three-dimensional.

Analysis The geometry is axisymmetric, which is two-dimensional. However, since the velocity profile does not
change down the pipe axis, u is a function only of r, and thus the velocity is one-dimensional with respect to radial
coordinate r. Pressure, on the other hand, varies only with axial location x in fully developed pipe flow (ignoring the
hydrostatic pressure component, which acts independently of the flow component). So, the pressure is one-dimensional
with respect to axial coordinate x.

Discussion In the developing portion of the flow, u varies with x as well as with r, and thus the flow is two-dimensional
in the developing region.

8-22C
Solution We are to discuss the change in head loss when the pipe length is doubled.

Analysis In fully developed flow in a circular pipe with negligible entrance effects, if the length of the pipe is
doubled, the head loss also doubles (the head loss is proportional to pipe length in the fully developed region of flow).

Discussion If entrance lengths are not negligible, the head loss in the longer pipe would be less than twice that of the
shorter pipe, since the shear stress is larger in the entrance region than in the fully developed region.

8-8
PROPRIETARY MATERIAL. © 2014 by McGraw-Hill Education. This is proprietary material solely for authorized instructor use.
Not authorized for sale or distribution in any manner. This document may not be copied, scanned, duplicated, forwarded, distributed, or
posted on a website, in whole or part.
 Chapter 8 Internal Flow
8-23C
Solution We are to compare the head loss when the pipe diameter is halved.

Analysis In fully developed laminar flow in a circular pipe, the head loss is given by
2 2 2
LV 64 L V 64 L V 64 L V
hL  f   
D 2 g Re D 2 g V D /  D 2 g D D 2g

V V
The average velocity can be expressed in terms of the flow rate as V   . Substituting,
Ac D 2 / 4

64 L  V  64 4 LV 128LV

hL    
D 2 2g  D 2 / 4  D 2 2 gD 2 gD 4
 
Therefore, at constant flow rate and pipe length, the head loss is inversely proportional to the 4th power of diameter, and
thus reducing the pipe diameter by half increases the head loss by a factor of 16.

Discussion This is a very significant increase in head loss, and shows why larger diameter tubes lead to much smaller
pumping power requirements.

8-24C
Solution We are to explain why friction factor is independent of Re at very large Re.

Analysis At very large Reynolds numbers, the flow is fully rough and the friction factor is independent of the
Reynolds number. This is because the thickness of viscous sublayer decreases with increasing Reynolds number, and it
be comes so thin that the surface roughness protrudes into the flow. The viscous effects in this case are produced in the
main flow primarily by the protruding roughness elements, and the contribution of the viscous sublayer is negligible.

Discussion This effect is clearly seen in the Moody chart – at large Re, the curves flatten out horizontally.

8-25C
Solution We are to define and discuss turbulent viscosity.

Analysis Turbulent viscosity t is caused by turbulent eddies, and it accounts for momentum transport by
u
turbulent eddies. It is expressed as  t    u v    t where u is the mean value of velocity in the flow direction and
y
u  and u  are the fluctuating components of velocity.

Discussion Turbulent viscosity is a derived, or non-physical quantity. Unlike the viscosity, it is not a property of the
fluid; rather, it is a property of the flow.

8-9
PROPRIETARY MATERIAL. © 2014 by McGraw-Hill Education. This is proprietary material solely for authorized instructor use.
Not authorized for sale or distribution in any manner. This document may not be copied, scanned, duplicated, forwarded, distributed, or
posted on a website, in whole or part.
 Chapter 8 Internal Flow
8-26C
Solution We are to discuss the dimensions of a constant in a head loss expression.

V 2
Analysis We compare the dimensions of the two sides of the equation h L  0.0826 fL . Using curly brackets to
D5
mean “the dimensions of”, we have L  0.0826  1L  L3 t 1  L5  , and the dimensions of the constant are thus
2

0.0826  L1t 2  . Therefore, the constant 0.0826 is not dimensionless. This is not a dimensionally homogeneous
equation, and it cannot be used in any consistent set of units.

Discussion Engineers often create dimensionally inhomogeneous equations like this. While they are useful for
practicing engineers, they are valid only when the proper units are used for each variable, and this can occasionally lead to
mistakes. For this reason, the present authors do not encourage their use.

8-27C
Solution We are to discuss the change in head loss due to a decrease in viscosity by a factor of two.

Analysis In fully developed laminar flow in a circular pipe, the pressure loss and the head loss are given by
32 LV P 32 LV
PL  and hL  L 
D 2
g gD 2
When the flow rate and thus the average velocity are held constant, the head loss becomes proportional to viscosity.
Therefore, the head loss is reduced by half when the viscosity of the fluid is reduced by half.

Discussion This result is not valid for turbulent flow – only for laminar flow. It is also not valid for laminar flow in
situations where the entrance length effects are not negligible.

8-28C
Solution We are to discuss the relationship between head loss and pressure drop in pipe flow.

Analysis The head loss is related to pressure loss by h L  PL / g . For a given fluid, the head loss can be converted
to pressure loss by multiplying the head loss by the acceleration of gravity and the density of the fluid. Thus, for constant
density, head loss and pressure drop are linearly proportional to each other.

Discussion This result is true for both laminar and turbulent pipe flow.

8-10
PROPRIETARY MATERIAL. © 2014 by McGraw-Hill Education. This is proprietary material solely for authorized instructor use.
Not authorized for sale or distribution in any manner. This document may not be copied, scanned, duplicated, forwarded, distributed, or
posted on a website, in whole or part.
 Chapter 8 Internal Flow
8-29C
Solution We are to discuss if the friction factor is zero for laminar pipe flow with a perfectly smooth surface.

Analysis During laminar flow of air in a circular pipe with perfectly smooth surfaces, the friction factor is not zero
because of the no-slip boundary condition, which must hold even for perfectly smooth surfaces.

Discussion If we compare the friction factor for rough and smooth surfaces, roughness has no effect on friction factor
for fully developed laminar pipe flow unless the roughness height is very large. For turbulent pipe flow, however,
roughness very strongly impacts the friction factor.

8-30C
Solution We are to discuss why the friction factor is higher in turbulent pipe flow compared to laminar pipe flow.
Analysis In turbulent flow, it is the turbulent eddies due to enhanced mixing that cause the friction factor to be
larger. This turbulent mixing leads to a much larger wall shear stress, which translates into larger friction factor.
Discussion Another way to think of it is that the turbulent eddies cause the turbulent velocity profile to be much fuller
(closer to uniform flow) than the laminar velocity profile.

8-31
Solution The velocity profile for the flow of a fluid between two large parallel plates is given. A relation for the flow
rate through the plates is to be determined.
Assumptions 1 The flow is steady and incompressible.
Analysis

h
y

h
3Ub   y     y 2   y 
h h 2 1

 h
 0

V  U ( y )dA  U ( y )bdy  2 U ( y )bdy  2
2 
  h  
0  0

1    dy  3Ubh 1     d  
  h    h 
1 y / h

 y  y 3 1
V  3Ubh     
 h  h  3

0 y / h

 1   2
V  Ubh 1    0  3Ubh  2Ubh
 3   3

8-11
PROPRIETARY MATERIAL. © 2014 by McGraw-Hill Education. This is proprietary material solely for authorized instructor use.
Not authorized for sale or distribution in any manner. This document may not be copied, scanned, duplicated, forwarded, distributed, or
posted on a website, in whole or part.
 Chapter 8 Internal Flow
8-32
Solution Water flows in a reducing pipe section. The flow upstream is laminar and the flow downstream is turbulent.
The ratio of centerline velocities is to be determined.
Assumptions 1 The flow is steady and incompressible.
Analysis

V1  V2 ,  u dA   u dA
1
1 1 2 2

R1 R2
r12 r2 1 / 7

0
u1 (1 
R1 2
)2 r1dr1  u 2 (1 
0
R2
) 2 r2 dr2

1 1/ 7
 r  r   r   r  r2 r 

0

u1 1  ( 1 ) 2  1  d  1   u 2
R 1  R1   R1 
 1  2 
 R 2  R2
d  2
 R2



r1 r2

 x , 
 y
R2 R2
1/ 7

 x  x dx  u  1  y 
3
uu 2 y dy

R
1
 r2 
2 r dr   R1 2 u1
0

V1  u1 1  2

 R1 
 2
R2 1/ 7
 r  49 2
V1  
0
u 2 1 


R2 
2  r dr  u 2
60
R2

V1  V2
u1 49
 R12  u2 R2
2 60
2
u1  R2  49
  . 
u 2  R1  30
2
u1  4  49 16 8
  .  
u 2  7  30 30 15

8-12
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 Chapter 8 Internal Flow
8-33
Solution The average flow velocity in a pipe is given. The pressure drop, the head loss, and the pumping power are
to be determined.
Assumptions 1 The flow is steady and incompressible. 2 The entrance effects are negligible, and thus the flow is fully
developed. 3 The pipe involves no components such as bends, valves, and connectors. 4 The piping section involves no
work devices such as pumps and turbines.
Properties The density and dynamic viscosity of water are given to be  = 999.7 kg/m3 and  = 1.30710-3 kg/ms,
respectively.
Analysis (a) First we need to determine the flow regime. The Reynolds number of the flow is

VD (999.7 kg/m 3 )(0.9 m/s)(1.2  10 -3 m)

Re    826.1
 1.307  10 -3 kg/m  s Water
D = 0.12 cm
which is less than 2300. Therefore, the flow is laminar. Then the 0.9 m/s
friction factor and the pressure drop become
L = 15 m
64 64
f    0.07748
Re 826.1
2
L V 15 m (999.7 kg/m 3 )(0.9 m/s) 2 
 1 kN  1 kPa 

P  PL  f  0.07748  392 kPa
D 2 0.0012 m 2  1000 kg  m/s 2  1 kN/m 2 
 
(b) The head loss in the pipe is determined from
PL L V2 15 m (0.9 m/s) 2
hL   f  0.07748  40.0 m
g D 2g 0.0012 m 2(9.81 m/s 2 )
(c) The volume flow rate and the pumping power requirements are
V  VAc  V (D 2 / 4)  (0.9 m/s) (0.0012 m) 2 / 4  1.018  10 6 m 3 /s
 1000 W 
W pump  VP  (1.018  10 6 m 3 /s)(392 kPa )   0.399 W
 1 kPa  m 3 /s 
Therefore, power input in the amount of 0.399 W is needed to overcome the frictional losses in the flow due to viscosity.

Discussion If the flow were instead turbulent, the pumping power would be much greater since the head loss in the pipe
would be much greater.

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posted on a website, in whole or part.
 Chapter 8 Internal Flow
8-34
Solution Air enters the constant spacing between the glass cover and the plate of a solar collector. The pressure drop
of air in the collector is to be determined.
Assumptions 1 The flow is steady and incompressible. 2 The entrance effects are negligible, and thus the flow is fully
developed. 3 The roughness effects are negligible, and thus the inner surfaces are considered to be smooth,   0. 4 Air is an
ideal gas. 5 The local atmospheric pressure is 1 atm.
Properties The properties of air at 1 atm and 45 are  = 1.109 kg/m3,  = 1.94110-5 kg/ms, and  = 1.75010-5 m2/s.
Analysis Mass flow rate, cross-sectional area, hydraulic diameter, average velocity, and the Reynolds number are

m  V  (1.11 kg/m 3 )(0.15 m 3 /s )  0.1665 kg/s Air

2 Glass cover 0.15 m3/s
Ac  a  b  (1 m)(0.03 m)  0.03 m
5m
4 Ac 4(0.03 m 2 )
Dh    0.05825 m
p 2(1  0.03) m

V 0.15 m 3 / s
V  5m/ s Collector plate
Ac 0.03 m 2
Insulation
VD h (5 m/s)(0.05825 m) 4
Re    1.664  10
 1.750  10 5 m 2 /s
Since Re is greater than 4000, the flow is turbulent. The friction factor corresponding to this Reynolds number for a smooth
flow section (/D = 0) can be obtained from the Moody chart. But to avoid reading error, we use the Colebrook equation,
1  / D 2.51  1  2.51 
 2.0 log     2.0 log 0  
f  3 . 7 Re f  f  16,640 f 
   
which gives f = 0.0271. Then the pressure drop becomes
L V 2 5m (1.11 kg/m 3 )(5 m/s) 2  1N  1 Pa 
P  PL  f  0.0271    32.3 Pa
D 2 0.05825 m 2  1 kg  m/s 2  1 N/m 2 
 
Discussion The friction factor could also be determined easily from the explicit Haaland relation. It would give f =
0.0270, which is sufficiently close to 0.0271.

8-14
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posted on a website, in whole or part.
 Chapter 8 Internal Flow
8-35E
Solution The flow rate and the head loss in an air duct is given. The minimum diameter of the duct is to be
determined.
Assumptions 1 The flow is steady and incompressible. 2 The entrance effects are negligible, and thus the flow is fully
developed. 3 The duct involves no components such as bends, valves, and connectors. 4 Air is an ideal gas. 5 The duct is
smooth since it is made of plastic,   0. 6 The flow is turbulent (to be verified).
Properties The density, dynamic viscosity, and kinematic viscosity of air at 100F are  = 0.07088 lbm/ft3,  =
0.04615 lbm/fth, and  = 0.6512 ft2/s = 1.80910-4 ft2/s.
Analysis The average velocity, Reynolds number, friction factor, and the head loss relations can be expressed as (D is
in ft, V is in ft/s, Re and f are dimensionless)

V V 12 ft 3 / s
V  
Ac D 2 / 4 D 2 / 4
Air
VD VD D
Re  
 1.809  10  4 ft 2 / s 12 ft3/s

1  / D 2.51   
 2.0 log    2.0 log 2.51 
   Re f  L = 400 ft
f 3.7 Re f
   
L V2 L V2 400 ft V2
hL  f  50  f  f
D 2g D 2g D 2(32.2 ft/s 2 )
This is a set of 4 equations in 4 unknowns, and solving them with an equation solver gives

D = 0.88 ft, f = 0.0181, V = 19.8 ft/s, and Re = 96,040

Therefore, the diameter of the duct should be more than 0.88 ft if the head loss is not to exceed 50 ft. Note that Re > 4000,
and thus the turbulent flow assumption is verified.
The diameter can also be determined directly from the third Swamee-Jain formula to be
 4.75 5.2  0.04
 LV 2   9.4  L 
D  0.66  1.25  
  V   
  gh L   gh L  
 
0.04
  400 ft  
5.2

 0.66 0  (0.180  10 ft / s )(12 ft / s ) 
3 2 3 9 .4  
  (32.2 ft/s 2 )(50 ft)  
 
 0.89 ft

Discussion Note that the difference between the two results is less than 2%. Therefore, the simple Swamee-Jain relation
can be used with confidence.

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Discovering Diverse Content Through
Random Scribd Documents
the asses had sent no lassos, or thongs, to bind on the burdens; and
I soon discovered that there was a general unwillingness for the job,
and that the governor had pressed the animals into the service
against the will of the owners.
Strong efforts were made to get the mule away from me. The
woman of the house, who, it appears, was a sister of the owner,
advised me not to take it; and said that it was a bad, vicious animal,
that would do me a mischief. I was surprised at this, as he looked
particularly docile; and I directed my new servant (one
recommended by the Cura, and who looked twice as vicious as the
mule) to mount and ride him around the patio. The fellow grinned
maliciously, and proved my judgment correct. Finding this would not
do, the owner (who had put his sister up to making this attempt)
then came forward, and said I must pay him half a dollar more, as
the governor had kept back that much of the price. This being "no
go," he tried to steal away his mule while our backs were turned;
but being prevented, he went off, got drunk in about fifteen minutes,
and came back maudlin; embracing, kissing, and weeping over his
mule, crying in piteous tones "Mi macho, mi macho," (my mule, my
mule.) We shoved him aside and rode off, followed, I have no doubt,
by the curses of the community.
This was all very annoying to me. I afterwards mentioned these
circumstances to the commandant of the fort at Chanchamayo,
telling him how much I would prefer to pay double price and get
voluntary service. He said that my sympathies were all thrown away
upon these people, that I must go to the governors for the means of
transportation; for that the Indians would not let me have their
beasts at any price; and related instances of his having to use
threats, and even force, to induce a sulky Indian to give him and his
beast food and shelter when in the Cordillera, and the approach of
night made it impossible to go on. Several travellers in these parts
have also told me that they have been compelled to shoot the
poultry of an Indian, who with a large stock, would refuse to sell at
any price; but who, after the thing was done, would good humoredly
accept a fair value.
Ijurra also related instances of oppression and tyranny on the
part of the governors, particularly in the province of Mainas, where
commerce is carried on by transportation of the goods on the backs
of Indians. A travelling merchant goes to the governor and says, "I
have such and such a cargo; I want so many Indians to transport it."
The governor, generally a white or Mestizo, sends for the Curaca,
(the lineal hereditary governor of the tribe of Indians of that district,
who has great authority, and without whose assistance the whites
probably could not govern at all,) and orders him to have so many
Indians detailed for a journey. The Curaca drums them up, directing
them to toast their corn and prepare their "fiambre" (food for the
road) for a journey of so many leagues; and they are taken from
their occupations and sent off, for probably many days, at a pay of
anything that the governor may direct.
If a man wishes to build a house or open a farm, he may be
supplied with laborers for six months, at a hire, per month, of as
many yards of cotton cloth as will make each a shirt and pair of
trousers; the patron or master furnishing them with food; but, as
may be imagined, this is of the coarsest and commonest description
that will support life.
It would seem that men could never improve under a system of
such absolute slavery as this; yet to give them liberty, is to abandon
them and return them to a state of barbarity, shutting out all
prospect of improvement; and the only hope seems to be in the
justice and moderation of the rulers—a slim hope here.
We got off at noon; stopped at the "chacra" of Gen. Otero, and
received a letter of introduction to the commandant of the fort.
When the old gentleman saw our new servant "Mariano," he crossed
himself most devoutly, and ejaculated "Satanas!" He then told us
that this was a notoriously bad boy, whom nobody had been able to
manage, but that we, being strangers and military men, might get
along with him by strictness and severity; and he gave the boy a
lecture upon his duties and the faithful performance of them.
A mile and a half beyond Gen. Otero's is the town of Acobamba.
I judge that it contains twelve or fifteen hundred inhabitants; but it
is situated in a thickly-settled district, and the "Doctrina" is said to be
more populous than that of Tarma. Six more miles brought us to
Palca, a straggling town of about one thousand inhabitants. We
merely passed through, and a mile further on "brought up" at the
chacra of Don Justo Rojas, to whom I had a letter from Lizarralde,
the administrator at Morococha. Don Justo was engaged in
extracting, by boiling, the juice of the rhatany root for an apothecary
of Lima. He supplied us with a capital supper of chicken soup and
boiled eggs, with alfalfa for the beasts. He also sold us, from his
establishment in town, sugar and bread. We pitched the tent in an
old corn-field, and slept delightfully. Tent-pegs for this country
should be of iron. Although those we used were made of the hardest
wood that could be found in Lima, we had used them all up by this
time, beating off their heads by driving them with a hatchet into the
hard and stony ground.
Don Justo's is the last chacra in the valley, which now narrows,
and allows no room for cultivation. Though going down hill by the
barometer, we were evidently crossing a chain of mountains, which
the stream at the bottom of the valley has saved us the trouble of
ascending and descending, by cleaving a way through for itself, and
leaving the mountains on either hand towering thousands of feet
above our heads. The ride was the wildest we have yet had; the
road sometimes finding room along the borders of the river, and
then ascending nearly to the top of the hills, and diminishing the
foaming and thundering stream to a noiseless, silver thread. The
ascents and descents were nearly precipitous; and the scene was
rugged, wild, and grand beyond description.
We saw some miserable huts on the road, and met a few asses
carrying reeds and poles from Chanchamayo. It seemed a
providence that we did not meet these at certain parts of the road,
where it is utterly impossible for two beasts to pass abreast, or for
one to turn and retreat; and the only remedy is to tumble one off
the precipice, or to drag him back by the tail until he reaches a place
where the other can pass. Von Tschudi relates an instance of his
shooting a mule which met him at one of these places.
We met with a considerable fright in this way to-day. We were
riding in single file along one of these narrow ascents, where the
road is cut out of the mountain side, and the traveller has a
perpendicular wall on one hand, and a sheer precipice of many
hundreds of feet upon the other. Mr. Gibbon was riding ahead. Just
as he was about to turn a sharp bend of the road the head of a bull
peered round it, on the descent. When the bull came in full view he
stopped, and we could see the heads of other cattle clustering over
his quarters, and hear the shouts of the cattle-drivers, far behind,
urging on their herd. I happened to be abreast of a slight natural
excavation, or hollow, in the mountain side, and dismounting I put
my shoulder against my mule's flank and pressed her into this
friendly retreat; but I saw no escape for Gibbon, who had passed it.
The bull, with lowered crest, and savage, sullen look, came slowly
on, and actually got his head between the perpendicular rock and
the neck of Gibbon's mule. I felt a thrill of agony, for I thought my
companion's fate was sealed. But the sagacious beast on which he
was mounted, pressing her haunches hard against the wall,
gathered her feet close under her and turned as upon a pivot. This
placed the bull on the outside, (there was room to pass, though I
did not believe it,) and he rushed by at the gallop, followed in single
file by the rest of the herd. I cannot describe the relief I
experienced. Gibbon, who is as gallant and fearless as man can be,
said "It is of no use to attempt to disguise the fact—I was badly
scared."
At 2 p. m., we arrived at a place called Matichacra, where there
was a single hut, inhabited by a woman and her child; the husband
having gone to Cerro Pasco to exhibit some specimens of gold ore
which he had found here. The woman was afflicted with an eruption
on her face, which she thought was caused by the metallic character
of the earth around, particularly the antimonial. She took a knife,
and, digging earth from the floor of her hut, washed it in a gourd,
and showed us particles of metal like gold sticking to the bottom. I
showed some of this earth to General Otero, who pronounced that
there was no gold in it; but Lieutenant Maury, who examined some
that I brought home with a powerful magnifier, has declared that
there was. The mountains have an exceedingly metallic appearance,
and the woman said that there were still in the neighborhood traces
of the mining operations of the Spaniards.
About a mile and a half above Matichacra commenced the steep
regular descent of the mountain range, and from just above it we
could discern where the valley debouched upon an apparent plain,
though bounded and intersected by distant mountains, bearing and
ranging in different directions. This place we judged to be the
"Montaña." We stopped an hour at Matichacra, (Gourd Farm, from
half a dozen gourd vines growing near the house,) and made a
chupe with a leg of mutton we had bought the night before at Palca.
We saw a few patches of Indian corn on the side of the mountain
opposite, and the tops of the mountains are clad with small trees.
We passed on five miles further, and camped on a level plat near the
banks of the stream, with bushes and small trees growing around
us.
June 18.—This was the longest and hardest day's ride. The road
was very bad; rocky and rough where it descended the river, and
steep and difficult where it ascended the mountain side. We thought
that the engineer who planned and constructed the road had
frequently "taken the bull by the horns," and selected the worst
places to run his road over; and that he would have done much
better had he occasionally have thrown a bridge across the stream,
and led the road along the flank of the mountains on the other side.
In seven and a half miles we arrived at Utcuyacu, (cotton water,) the
first hacienda where we saw sugar-cane, yucca, pine-apples, and
plantains. It had just been opened, and nothing yet had been sold
from it.
The road, by which we had descended the valley of
Chanchamayo, turned at this place sharp to the right, and faced the
mountains that divide this valley from that of the Rio Seco. We were
near the junction of the two valleys, but a rock had fallen from the
hills above and blocked up the road on which we were travelling, so
that we had to cross the mountain on our right and get into the
other valley. The ascent was steep, and trying to man and beast. It
is called the "Cuesta de Tangachuca," or "Hill of take care of your
hat," and is about three miles in length. The road, after passing
through a thick forest, brought us out upon a bald eminence, the
termination of the spur of the Andes that divides the two valleys.
The rivers Seco and Chanchamayo unite at its base and flow off
through a valley, rapidly widening out, covered with forests, and
presenting an appearance entirely distinct from the rocky and stern
sterility that characterizes the country above. This is the "Montaña"
of which I had thought so much. I was wofully disappointed in its
appearance. I had taken the impression that I should behold a
boundless plain, alternating with forest and prairie, covered with
waving grass, and with a broad and gentle river winding its
serpentine course through it, between banks rich with the palm and
plantain. In place of this, the view from the mountain top showed a
country broken still into mountain and valley, (though on a much
smaller scale than above,) shaggy with trees and undergrowth of
every description, and watered by a small stream, still foaming and
roaring over its rocky bed.
We descended the hill by a very circuitous and precipitous path,
most of us on foot, though it may be ridden over, for Mr. Gibbon did
ride over the worst parts of it, and only dismounted where a fallen
tree made an obstruction that he could not pass. The descent
brought us to the rocky bed of the Rio Seco, crossing which we were
clear of the eastern chain of the Andes and in the Montaña of
Chanchamayo.
 As far as the traveller is concerned there are not, on the route
we have travelled, two ranges of the Andes—that is, he has not to
ascend and descend one range, and then ascend and descend
another. From the time he crosses the Cordillera at Antarangra, his
progress is downward till he reaches the plain. Really there are two.
The streams from the first, or western range, have broken their way
through the second, making deep gorges, at the bottom of which
the road generally runs, and leaves the peaks of the second range
thousands of feet above the head of the traveller.
A league from the crossing of the Rio Seco, we passed a bad
and broken bridge, that spans a small stream called "Punta Yacu,"
coming down a valley from the southward, and halted at the
hacienda of Don Jose Manuel Cardenas, the first of the Montaña,
where we camped for the night.
June 19.—Six miles of travel brought us to the fort of San
Ramon. The road is a black mud bridle-path through the woods,
much obstructed with the roots and branches of trees, but level.
Comparatively few rocks are seen after leaving Cardenas. We were
kindly received by the commandant, Don Juan Noel, a fine-looking
young man, Captain of Frigate and Lieutenant Colonel in the Army,
and his officers, Major Umeres and Lieutenant ——.
Fort San Ramon is, by Mer. alt. of "γ Crusis," in latitude 11°.07 S.
Its height above the level of the sea, as given by barometer, is two
thousand six hundred and ten feet.
From the first of March to the last of August the climate is
delightful; but the heavy and almost continuous rains of the other
six months of the year make it disagreeable, but not unhealthy.
As we are now near the foot of the mountains, on the eastern
slope, I give a table of the distances and elevations of various points
on the route. The B. P. opposite some of the elevations show that
these were indicated by the temperature of boiling water:
 Places. Distances. Height above the level of the sea.
Miles. Feet.
Callao ... ...
Lima 6 476
Pacayar 12 1,346
Yanacoto 10 2,337
Cocachacra 16 4,452
Moyoc 15 7,302
San Mateo 13 10,200
Acchahuarcu 9 12,898 B. P.
Pass of Antarangra 6 16,044
Pass of Antarangra 6 16,199 B. P.
Pachachaca 13 12,786 B. P.
Oroya 12 11,654
Oroya 12 11,825 B. P.
Tarma 18 9,738
Palca 11 8,512
Matichacra 12 7,091
Huacapishtana 4 5,687
Challuapuquio 12 3,192
Fort San Ramon 6 2,605
Fort San Ramon ... 2,953
The barometer gave the height of a point, four miles above
Tarma, at eleven thousand two hundred and seventy feet. So that
there is a descent in these four miles of distance of one thousand
five hundred and thirty-five feet. The ascent, however, between
Acchahuarcu and the top of the hill on which we observed, at the
Pass of Antarangra, is steeper than this, being three thousand three
hundred and fifty-eight feet in six miles.
From Yanacoto, on the western slope of the Andes, to the top of
the Pass, is fifty-nine miles; from the top of the Pass to Fort San
Ramon, on the eastern slope, which is two hundred and seventy feet
higher than Yanacoto, is eighty-eight miles. This gives the ascent of
the Andes, on its western slope, at 232 feet to the mile, and on its
eastern slope at 152.
Lt. Gibbon del. Wagner & McGuigan's Lith. Phila.

OROYA.
Pl. 7.
Lt. Gibbon del. Wagner & McGuigan's Lith. Phila.

TARMA.
Pl. 8.

Yanacoto is only twenty-eight miles from the ocean that washes

the base of the slope on which it is situated. Fort San Ramon, (at
nearly the same elevation as Yanacoto,) by the winding of the river,
cannot be much less than four thousand miles from its ocean, and in
the direct course of the river is at least two thousand five hundred
miles. But I am of opinion, from some observations made afterwards
with a boiling-point apparatus, that the indications of the barometer,
at the eastern foot of the Andes, are not to be depended upon; and
that San Ramon has a greater elevation than is shown by the
barometer.
The fort is a stockade, embracing about six acres, armed with
four brass four-pounders, and garrisoned with forty-eight men. It is
situated at the junction of the rivers Chanchamayo and Tulumayo—
the former about thirty and the latter forty yards wide—both shallow
and obstructed with rocks. The current seemed about five or six
miles the hour. A canoe, well managed, might shoot down the
Tulumayo as far as we saw it.
The fort was constructed in 1847, under the direction of
President Castilla, for the purpose of affording protection to the
cultivators of the farms in its rear. It doubtless does this against the
unwarlike Indians of this country; but I imagine that North American
Indians, actuated by the feelings of hostility which these people
constantly evince, would cross the rivers above the fort and sweep
the plantations before the soldiers could reach them. The Indians
have abandoned all idea of reconquering the territory they have lost,
but are determined to dispute the passage of the rivers and any
attempt at further conquest. They never show themselves now in
person, but make their presence evident by occasionally setting fire
to the woods and grass on the hill-sides, and discharging their
arrows at any incautious person who may wander too near the
banks of the rivers.
Noel told us that many attempts had been made to establish
friendly relations with them. In former times the Indians used to
advance out of the forest, to the further bank of the river, and hold
conversations and exchange presents with the officers of the post.
They gave bows and arrows, rare birds and animals, and received in
return, knives, beads, and looking-glasses. But these parleys always
ended with expressions of defiance and insult towards the whites on
the part of the Indians, and frequently with a flight of arrows.
He related to us, that a year or two ago a General Castillo, with
some officers, came to visit the fort, and wished to try their skill at
negotiation. Accordingly, whilst they were at dinner, the sentinel
reported that an Indian had made his appearance; whereupon the
party rose from the table and went down to the river-side to have a
talk. The Indian, after salutations, made signs for a looking-glass,
which was thrown over to him; then, for a knife, with which he was
also gratified. He then asked for a tinder-box. There being none at
hand, Noel went up to his quarters for some. On his return, he met
an officer coming up the bank, with an arrow through his arm; and
shortly after, another, with one planted deep in his back, between
the shoulders. It appears that, as soon as the Indian had received
his presents, he drew his bow at the general. The party turned to
fly; but a flight of arrows from the forest wounded the two officers;
and the one who was shot in the back died of the wound eight days
afterwards. These arrow-shots are of frequent occurrence; and
several of the soldiers of the fort have been severely wounded. A
number of arrows were discharged at some soldiers, who were
washing their clothes near the banks of the river, whilst we were
here. We picked them up, and the commandant made us a present
of them.
These arrows, as are the arrows of all the Indians I have met
with, are so heavy that, at a greater distance than twenty or thirty
yards, it is necessary to discharge them at an elevation, so that they
shall describe a curve in the air; and it is wonderful to see with what
precision the Indians will calculate the arc, and regulate the force so
that the arrow shall fall upon the object. On the Amazon many fish
and turtle are taken with bows and arrows. An Indian in a canoe
discharges his arrow in the air. It describes a parabola, and lights
upon the back of a fish, which the unpractised eye has not been able
to see. The barb, with which the arrow is armed, ships on the end of
it, and is held in its place by a cord which wraps around the shaft of
the arrow, and is tied to its middle. The plunge of the fish shakes
the arrow clear of the barb; the cord unwinds, and the arrow floats
upon the water—an impediment to the fish, and a guide to the
fisherman, who follows his arrow till the fish or turtle is dead. The
motion of the arrow is so slow, and it is so readily seen in its course,
that I imagine there would be no danger in the reception of single
arrow-shots in front; for an abundance of time is allowed to step
aside and avoid them. I have seen boys shooting at buzzards on the
beach; and the arrow would alight upon the very spot where the
bird had been sitting, some seconds after he had left it.
Whilst here, we visited the haciendas of the Brothers Santa
Maria, Padre Saurez, and Zapatero—all, I believe, inhabitants of
Tarma. That of the last seemed the largest, and the best order of
any that I had yet seen. A description of the method of cultivating
the staples of the country practised on this farm, will give an idea of
the general system of farming in the Montaña.
Zapatero has about one hundred acres cleared, and most of it
planted in cane, coca, yucca, pine-apples, plantains, coffee, and
cotton. The farm employs a mayordomo, or steward, and four
resident laborers. These are serfs, and cost the employer their
support and seven dollars a year each for their contribution to the
government, or poll tax. When more land is to be cleared, or the
coca crop gathered, laborers are hired from the neighboring villages
of Tarma, Ocsabamba, or Palca, at nominal wages of half a dollar a
day; but their support is charged to them, at such prices as to
swallow up nearly all the wages. A sheep, for example, is charged to
them at three dollars: its price in Tarma is one; yucca at thirty-seven
and a half cents the arroba, of twenty-five pounds; potatoes at fifty
cents; maize at sixty-two and a half cents. This is the maize of the
hacienda; if it is supplied from the Sierra it is one dollar and fifty
cents. The laborers who live on the estate seem contented with their
lot; they dwell in small, filthy cane houses, with their wives and
children; do very little work, and eat chalona, (or dried mutton,)
charqui, (or jerked beef,) yucca, cancha, sweet potatoes, and beans;
and drink "huarapo," (the fermented juice of the cane,) and
sometimes a glass of bad rum made from it. They occasionally
desert; but if they do this, they must get some distance off, or
custom, if not law, would return them as debtors to their masters.
Sugar-cane is propagated, not from seed but from the top joints
of the old plant, and is planted at the commencement of the rainy
season in September. It is ready for cutting in a year; it yields again
every ten months, improving in quality and size every crop for a
number of years, according to the quality of the land and the care
bestowed upon it. It will continue to spring up from the roots for
fifty or sixty years, with one or two light workings with hoes in the
year. The field is set fire to after every cutting, to burn up the
rubbage, weeds, &c. The average height of the cane is about ten
feet, though I have seen a stalk of sixteen feet.
Two men to cut and two to carry, will supply a mill called
"Trapiche," which consists of three upright wooden rollers, in a rude
wooden frame. These rollers are cogged and placed close to each
other. The head of the middle one extends above the frame, and is
squared, so as to allow the shipping on it of a long beam, to the end
of which an ox is harnessed, which, walking in a circle, gives motion
to the rollers. The end of the cane is placed between the rollers, and
is drawn in and crushed by them; a wooden trough is placed below,
to catch the juice. Such a mill will yield fifteen hundred pounds of
caldo or juice in a day. These fifteen hundred pounds will give from
two hundred and fifty to three hundred pounds of sugar, which is
worth in Tarma twelve and a half cents the pound.
Sugar-cane is the most valuable and useful product of the
Montaña. The leaves of the cane, when green, serve for food for the
cattle; when dry, to make wrappings for the chancaca and sugar.
The crushed stalk is used as fuel for the oven. The hogs fatten on
the foam at the top of the boiling. From the first boiling is made the
chancaca or brown sugar cake, which is eaten after dinner by almost
all classes, and in great quantities by the lower class; it is worth six
and a quarter cents the pound in Tarma. From one thousand pounds
of the caldo boiled ten hours, is made four hundred pounds of
chancaca. Very little sugar is yet made in the Montaña of
Chanchamayo; indeed, I did not see a nearer approach to it than
chancaca in all the route.
Coca is a bush of about four feet high, producing a small light-
green leaf, which is the part used. The blossom is white, and the
fruit a small red berry. The seed is sown in beds at the end of the
rainy season—about the first of March. The earth should be well
broken up and cleaned. Arbors of palm leaves are frequently built
over the young shoots to protect them from the sun, and they are
watered, if it continues clear, for five or six days. It is transplanted in
September, a year and a half after planting, and gives its first crop in
a year, and every four months thereafter. The bush, if not destroyed
by ants, will continue to give leaves for many years. Sometimes, but
rarely, the leaves wither and the crop fails. It is necessary to gather
the leaves and dry them as quickly as possible, and, if a shower
comes on, to gather them up at once, as they are injured by getting
wet. Every hundred plants will give an arroba of leaves, which is
worth, in Tarma, from six to seven dollars. Some persons do not
transplant, but sow several of the seed together, and, when they
come up, pull up all but the one most flourishing, and leave that in
its original place.
The leaf of this plant is to the Indian of Peru what tobacco is to
our laboring classes in the South—a luxury, which has become a
necessity. Supplied with an abundance of it, he sometimes performs
prodigies of labor, and can go without food for several days. Without
it, he is miserable and will not work. It is said to be a powerful
stimulant to the nervous system, and, like strong coffee or tea, to
take away sleep; but, unlike tobacco and other stimulants, no one
has known it to be injurious to the health. Von Tschudi thinks that an
immoderate use of it is injurious, but that, taken in moderation, it is
in no way detrimental to health; and that without it the Peruvian
Indian, with his spare diet, would be incapable of going through the
labor which he now performs. The coca plant he therefore considers
as a great blessing to Peru.
He relates that an Indian, employed by him in digging, worked
hard for five nights and days without intermission, except for two
hours each night—and this without food. Immediately after the work
the Indian accompanied him on a two days' journey of twenty-three
leagues on foot, and then declared that he was ready to engage in
the same amount of work, and go through it without food, if he
were allowed an abundance of coca. This man was sixty-two years
of age, and had never been sick in his life.
Coffee is propagated from suckers or slips, and it is necessary to
protect the plants from the sun by cultivating the broad-leaved
plantain among them till they have grown up to about four feet in
height. No care, except an occasional cleaning about the roots, is
taken of them here, and yet the finest coffee I have ever drunk was
from this district. The bush grows to seven or eight feet in height,
and is very beautiful in appearance. It has a small and very dark
green leaf, pure white blossoms, and green, red, and dark purple
fruit on it at the same time. It gives its first crop in two years; but
this is small in quantity, and indifferent in quality. The bush is not in
perfection until four or five years after planting, and will then last for
an indefinite period. The fruit has the size and appearance of a small
cherry. Two seeds are contained in each berry. Each seed is wrapped
in a thin paper-like envelope, and both together are covered with
another, and then surrounded by a sweet, pleasant-tasting pulp,
which is covered with a thin skin. Having no machines for getting rid
of this pulp, the cultivators gather the fruit, dry it in the sun, and
then soak it in water till all the envelopes come off, except the
paper-like skin surrounding each seed. The seeds are again dried in
the sun, and sent to market with this skin on. It is worth eight
dollars the hundred pounds in Tarma. In Lima it generally commands
twenty, and sometimes twenty-five and twenty-seven dollars, on
account of its great superiority to the coffee of Guayaquil and
Central America, which is generally used there.
"Cotton" may be planted at any time. It does not grow on a
bush or plant, as with us, but on a tree some eight or ten feet high.
It gives its first crop in a year, and will continue to give for three
years; after which the tree dries up, and it is necessary to replant. It
bears cotton all the time; but this is not good nor gathered during
the rainy season. I could not ascertain how much cotton a tree will
give in its lifetime, but, from the quantity of blossoms and bolls I
saw on them, I should think its yield was great. The quality,
particularly that of Chanchamayo, is very superior. It is the black-
seed cotton, and when picked off leaves the seed perfectly bare and
clean.
There is also nankeen-colored cotton here, (the tree seeming in
every respect like that of the white;) and afterwards, in Brazil, I saw
green-seed cotton, in which the seed (generally seven in number for
each boll, or rather for each division of it, for the boll seemed to hold
the cotton in four distinct parts) were aggregated in a single knot,
and enveloped by the cotton. An active man will pick one hundred
pounds of cotton a day.
"Yucca," (cassava root,) which is grown from the stalk of the
plant, is planted at any time. It yields in nine months. The plant runs
up to fifteen or twenty feet in height, with about the thickness of a
man's wrist. It is difficult to distinguish this plant, or its fruit, from
the mandioc. The mandioc is called in Peru "yucca brava," or wild
yucca; and this yucca dulce, or sweet yucca. This may be eaten raw;
the juice of the other is a deadly poison. The yucca answers the
same purpose in Peru that the mandioc does in Brazil. It is the
general substitute for bread, and roasted or boiled is very pleasant
to the taste. The most common drink of the Indians, called
"masato,"[6] is also made from it. Each plant will give from twenty to
twenty-five pounds of the edible root, which grows in clusters like
the potato, and some of which are as long and thick as a man's arm.
Three crops of "Indian corn" are made in the year. It is of good
quality, but much care is necessary to preserve it from weevil and
other insects after it is gathered and put away. It is generally placed
in an upper story of a house, and a fire is kindled underneath from
time to time to smoke it, or it will all be destroyed.
"Platanos"—which is the general name for all kinds of plantains,
or bananas, of which last there are several species, called
respectively "guineas," de la isla, &c.—are the most common fruit of
the country. The people eat them raw, roasted, boiled, baked, and
fried. There can be no dinner without them; and a vile rum is also
made of them. By the Indians the fruit is generally cut green and
roasted. It is propagated from suckers or young bulbs, and gives
fruit with such facility and abundance as to foster and minister to the
laziness of the people, who won't work when they can get anything
so good without it.
 I have frequently thought that a governor would do a good act,
and improve the condition, or at least the character, of the governed,
who would set fire to, or grub up every "platanal" in his district, and
thus compel the people to labor a little for their bread.
The other fruits are pine-apples, of tolerable quality, which
doubtless would be very fine with care and attention; sour sop, a
kind of bastard chirimoya; and papayo, a large fruit, about the size
of a common muskmelon, with a green skin and yellow pulp, which
is eaten, and is very sweet and of delicate flavor. It has seed like the
muskmelon, and grows under the leaves of a kind of palm in clusters
like the cocoanut. There are a few orange trees, but no fruit. An
orange tree does not give good fruit under six years, and most of
the haciendas have been under cultivation but three.
The only farming utensils used in Chanchamayo are short coarse
sabres, with which weeds are cut up, and holes dug in the earth in
which to plant the seed.
This is not a good grazing country, though there were some
cattle belonging to the fort which seemed in good condition. All the
meat used is brought from Sierra. It seems difficult to propagate
cattle in this country. All the calves are born dead, or die soon after
birth with a goitre or swelling in the neck. I had no opportunity of
investigating this; but I saw afterwards, in an account of a
missionary expedition made by an Italian friar, Father Castrucci de
Vernazza, to the Indians of the Pastaza, in 1846, "that cattle were
raised with great difficulty about Mayobamba, on account of the
'subyacuro,' a species of worm, which introduces itself between the
cuticle and cellular tissue, producing large tumors, which destroy the
animal."
The houses on the haciendas are built of small, rough hewn,
upright posts, with rafters of the same forming the frame, which is
filled in with wild cane (caña brava,) and thatched with a species of
narrow leafed palm, which is plaited over a long pole and laid
athwart the rafters. The leaves lie, one set over the other, like
shingles, and form an effectual protection against the rain and sun;
though I should think the rain would beat in through the cane of the
sides, as few of the houses are plastered. The commandant of the
fort was anxious to have his buildings tiled, as this palm thatch,
when dry, is exceedingly inflammable; and he felt that the buildings
of the fort were in constant danger from the not distant fires of the
savages. Señor Zapatero told me that he had contracted with a
workman to build him a large adobe house on his hacienda, well
fitted with doors and windows of good wood, and tiled, to make it
fire-proof, for eight hundred dollars. The same house in Tarma would
cost him between three and four thousand, on account of the
exceeding difficulty of getting the wood from the Montaña. He is a
Catalan, and seems a resolute fellow. He thinks that the government
may withdraw the troops from the fort at any time; but says that he
has four swivels, which he means to mount around his house; and,
as he has expended much labor and money on his hacienda, he will
hold on to the last extremity, and not give up his property without a
tussle.
It is a pity that there are not more like him, for many acres of
fine land are lying uncultivated in Chanchamayo on account of this
fear; and several of our Tarma friends offered us title deeds to large
tracts of land there, because a feeling of insecurity regarding the
stability of the government prevented them from expending time
and money in the cultivation of them. Another such administration
as that just closed under President Castilla will dissipate this
apprehension; and then, if the Peruvian government would invite
settlers, giving them the means of reaching there, and appropriating
a very small sum for their maintenance till they could clear the forest
and gather their first fruits, I have no doubt that fifty years would
see settlements pushed to the navigable head waters of the Ucayali,
and the colonists would find purchasers for the rich and varied
products of their lands at their very doors.
June 23.—We started on the return to Tarma, accompanied by
the commandant and his servant. We walked up a part of the hill at
Rio Seco. This is very hard work. I could not stand it more than half
way, and made the mule carry me over the rest. It takes one hour to
ascend, and an hour and a quarter to descend. Camped at Utcuyacu.
June 24.—Missing my saddle bags, which had some money in
them, we sent Mariano, (our Tarma servant,) accompanied by the
servant of the commandant, back to a place some distance the other
side of the big hill, where the saddle bags had been taken off to
adjust the saddle. He started at six; we at eight, following our return
track. We made the longest and hardest day's ride we had yet
made; and were much surprised at being joined by the servants with
the saddle-bags by nine p. m. They must have travelled at least
thirty-six miles over these terrible roads, crossing the big hill twice,
and ascending quite two thousand feet. Gibbon did not believe it. He
thought—and with much probability—that the boy had hid the
saddle-bags at Utcuyacu, and after we left there had produced them
and followed in our track, persuading or bribing the soldier to keep
the secret. The commandant, however, thought his servant
incorruptible, and that this was no great feat for these people.
One of our peons carried on his back, for a whole day, (fifteen
miles,) a bundle of alfalfa that Gibbon could not lift with ease, and
pronounced, upon trial, to be heavier than I am, or upwards of one
hundred and twenty-five pounds.
June 26.—Discharged Mariano because we could not trust him.
Though clever and active, he is neglectful and dishonest. We
thought it rather hard that the "Cura" should have recommended
him to us, as his character was notorious in the town. We believed
that the "Cura," with the people generally, was glad to get rid of
him, and was disposed to palm him off on any body.
We delighted the Tarma people with our favorable reports of the
Chanchamayo, and they loaded us with civilities and kindness. They
did not like the idea of my visiting the Montaña of Pozuzu and
Mayro; and seemed to fear that I might find there a better
communication with the Amazon.
 CHAPTER V.
Division of the party—Acobamba—Plain of Junin—Lake
Chinchaycocha—Preservation of potatoes—Cerro Pasco—Drainage of
the mines—Boliches.
Gibbon and I had long and earnest consultations about the
propriety of dividing the party; and I now determined to do so,
giving to him the task of exploring the Bolivian tributaries, while I
took the headwaters and main trunk of the Amazon. It was a bold,
almost a rash determination, for the party seemed small enough as
it was; and we might readily encounter difficulties on our route
which would require our united exertions to overcome. I had many
misgivings, and told Gibbon at first that it seemed midsummer
madness; but the prospect of covering such an extent of territory; of
being enabled to give an account of countries and rivers so little
known; and the reflection that I need not abandon routes that I had
looked upon with a longing eye, were so tempting that they
overrode all objections; and we set about making our preparations
for the separation.
We divided the equipage, the tocuyo, or cotton cloth, (which we
had not yet touched,) the hatchets, the knives, the beads, the
mirrors, the arms and ammunition. I gave Gibbon fifteen hundred
dollars in money, and all the instruments, except some
thermometers and the boiling-point apparatus, because I was to
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