Chapt THE LIVING WORLD

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1.1 Characteristics of “Living Organisms”

1.2 Diversity in the Living World
1.2.1 Species
1.2.2 Genus
1.2.3 Family
1.2.4 Order
1.2.5 Class
1.2.6 Phylum
1.2.7 Kingdom
1.3 Taxonomic Categories
1.4 Taxonomic Aids
The living world includes an incredible number of diverse and fascinating
organisms. Living organisms are found wherever life is possible. They are found in cold
mountains, forests, oceans, lakes, deserts and hot water springs. All these organisms are
important to us, our world is their world. Our life is their life. We are not separate from other
living beings. We are all united, interactive and dependent on each other.
Life can thus be defined as, the power an organism possesses to maintain and
reproduce itself on earth. It is a unique, complex organisation of different molecules, which
organize in a specific pattern to form its basic unit, i.e., cell. Further, various chemical
reactions that occur inside these cells, ultimately leads to the availability of energy, growth,
development, responsiveness, metabolism and reproduction in living organisms.
1.1 Characteristics of Living Organisms
Both living organisms and non-living things are made up of the same basic elements such
as Carbon, Hydrogen, Oxygen and Nitrogen. They are subjected to same physical laws
such as gravitation, radiation, magnetism, etc. Still living organisms differ from the
nonliving things in some fundamental characteristics. To define living have to list the
distinctive characteristics exhibited by living organisms. These include presence of
protoplasm, cellular organization, nutrition, metabolism, growth, reproduction, irritability,
etc. One of the most important features of living beings is the presence of protoplasm
which is an important site where in all the vital activities of the cell take place. Therefore,
Huxley (1863) aptly called the protoplasm as 'physical basis of life'.
All living organisms possess certain common characteristics as mentioned below.

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1. Definite shape and size: All living organisms have a definite shape and size which
get slightly modified with growth. Because of definite shape, the living beings are called
morphous, while non-living things without definite form are called amorphous.
2. Organization: Living organisms show five types of body organization namely
protoplasmic grade, cellular grade, cell-tissue grade, tissue-organ grade and
organsystem grade. The protoplasmic grade of body organization is seen in unicellular
organisms like protozoa, unicellular algae, bacteria and unicellular fungi. The different
types of cellular organelles and sub-cellular inclusions perform different intracellular
functions. Protozoan colonies, colonial algae like Volvox and some lower invertebrates
such as sponges show cellular grade of organization. Here the aggregation of cells is
functionally differentiated and division of labour is clearly seen, some of the cells are
associated with the reproduction while others are concerned with vegetative growth. In cell
- tissue grade of organization as exemplified by Coelenterates (hydra, jellyfish,
seaanemone, etc.), similar cells aggregate to form definite layers (epidermis,
gastrodermis) and become a tissue. Flatworms show tissue-organ grade of body
organization wherein the aggregation of tissues into organs is observed. When organs
work together to perform a related function, the highest level of organization viz., organ-
system grade of organization results. E.g., Organisms ranging from Aschelminthes to
vertebrates. The differentiation of a body into smaller units like organs, tissues and cells
is referred to as organization. Due to the presence of an organization, a living being is
called an organism. Apart from the above, there are other levels of organization also.
Since each cell is made up of several molecules, the term molecular level of organization
is also used. The population, community, ecosystem and biosphere are the other
types of organization used in the field of environmental biology.
3. Cellular structure: Every organism is made up of cells. The cells are the basic
structural unit of life. The living organisms are classified into unicellular and multicellular
based on the number of cells they possess. Although the cells of different plants and
animals differ in size and shape, all of them possess similar basic structure.
4. Protoplasm: The cells of all living organisms contain a living substance called
protoplasm. It is the site for all the vital activities of the cell.
5. Metabolism: The living cells of organisms show varied chemical reactions which
result in exchange of materials and energy within an organism or between an organism
and its environment. These chemical reactions are collectively called metabolism. It is of
two types - anabolism and catabolism.
(a) Anabolism: Anabolism is otherwise called constructive metabolism. It is
concerned with the 'building up' or 'synthesis' of complex substances from simple ones.
During this process, free energy is stored in the form of potential energy. Photosynthesis,
nutrition, synthesis of starch from glucose, synthesis of lipids from fatty acids and glycerol
or alcohols, synthesis of proteins from amino acids, etc., are all examples for anabolism.
(b) Catabolism: Catabolism is otherwise called destructive metabolism. It is mainly
concerned with the 'breakdown' of the organic nutrients into simple substances. During
this process, the potential energy is converted into kinetic energy. The energy so released

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is used up in various activities of the organism. For e.g., Respiration involves

Oxidative breakdown of glucose to release energy.
6. Homeostasis: All living organisms maintain stable internal conditions within certain
boundaries under adverse conditions to enable the metabolic processes to continue. This
is referred to as homeostasis.
7. Growth and Development: All living organisms show growth and development. It
is an internal biological process controlled by protoplasm. Growth is a permanent
irreversible change in the size of a cell or an organ or whole organism. It is usually
accompanied by an increase in dry weight. Growth of an organism results from cell
division, cell enlargement and cell differentiation. Plants show cell division throughout their
life, i.e., growth occurs throughout the life of plants. But in case of animals, growth stops
after a certain age. Cell division occurs only in certain tissues to replace damaged or lost
cells.
Non-living things also exhibit growth. This is evident by the increase in size and
weight of mountains, boulders and sand mounds. Such an increase in the non-living object
is-due to deposition of matter from outside. This is known as accretion. The growth of
living organisms is due to increase of matter from inside.
The Development is a lifelong process. It is applied to the whole series of changes
that are observed during the life cycle of an organism. If growth ceases at a particular age
the development does not. It is observed until the death of a living organism. Growth,
therefore, cannot be taken as a defining property of living organisms, even though it
takes place in all living organisms.
8. Movements: All living organisms show movement. Most of the animals move freely
from one place to another. This is termed as locomotion. Most of the plants do not exhibit
clear movements. The plants and sessile animals like sponges and some coelenterates
exhibit movements of their parts like roots or shoots or basal body in response to light or
gravity or for breathing etc.
9. Response and irritability: All living organisms respond to the stimulus and show
irritability. The reaction of an organism to a particular stimulus is called response. Any
action which arouses a response is called stimulus. The response to a stimulus is called
irritability. Irritability takes many forms. It may range from the contraction of a unicellular
organism when touched, to complex reactions involving all the senses of higher animals.
10. Healing and repair: AIl living beings have the capacity to heal their wounds and
repair the broken or injured parts. For e.g., the skin around a wound grows and heals the
wound within 3 to 4 days. In dicot plants, the cambial activity develops in wounded parts of
the plant and the wound gets healed.
11. Excretion: The different metabolic processes in the living organisms produce
useless, harmful waste products which are thrown out of the body. The process is termed
as excretion. Animals usually excrete nitrogenous waste products in the form of ammonia,
uric acid and urea. These are removed from the body as and when they are produced.
Plants either store the waste products in senile tissues (e.g., barks, aging leaves,
heartwood, etc.) or throw out the waste products in the form of alkaloids, oils, gums, latex,
organic acids, resins and tannins.
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12. Adaptations: All living organisms show adaptations for a

successful living in a given environment. Adaptations can be defined as an anatomical
structure, physiological process or behavioral trait of an organism that has evolved over a
period of time by the process of natural selection such that it increases the expected long
term reproductive success of the organism. The adaptations enable living organisms to
cope with environmental stresses and pressures.
13. Genetic continuity: All living beings possess heritable genetic material in the form
of DNA. It is responsible for the expression of traits in the organisms. The DNA maintains
its continuity from one generation to the next generation by passing from parents to the
offspring.
14. Reproduction: One of the most important characteristics of living beings is
reproduction. All living organisms produce offspring of their own kind by a process called
reproduction. Reproduction may be asexual or sexual. Bacteria, Protozoa and other
unicellular organisms reproduce asexually by binary fission. In some others, asexual
reproduction may take place by budding or by the formation of spores or cysts or
gemmules. Most of the multicellular organisms show sexual reproduction in which the
sperm produced by the male parent fuses with the egg produced by the female parent.
From the resulting zygote, a new individual develops. Reproduction is very essential for
the continuity of any race on this earth.
15. Death: Death is the end of the life of a living organism. The phenomenon of death is
inseparable from life.

1. 2 Diversity in the Living World

The earth is blessed with an amazing variety of living things like microorganisms,
fungi, plants and animals. The known and recorded number of species on the earth is
around 1.8 million. There is a correlation between the distribution of the kinds of
organisms and the environmental condition. The variety of living things representing a
habitat constitutes the biodiversity of that place.
We can know the plants and animals in our own area by their common name or
vernacular name. These names are given in the local or common language. But this local
name is of no use in another different locality where it is called by another name and
sometimes common names are misleading. E.g., jelly fish, cuttlefish, silver fish and starfish
are not fishes at all.
To solve, this problem, biologists have thought of assigning scientific names which
are acceptable all over the world. Scientific names ensure that only one name is given to a
particular organism and whenever that organism is described everyone is referring to the
same name in any part of the world, this process is called nomenclature. This is possible
only when the organism is described correctly. Hence, we can match the name to a
particular definite description. This is called identification. One has to follow certain
universal rules to study, describe, identity and give a name to an organism. These rules
are framed and standardized by International Code of Botanical Nomenclature (ICBN)
and International Code of Zoological Nomenclature (ICZN). These codes assist in
avoiding errors, duplication, confusion and ambiguity while assigning scientific names to

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plants and animals. The names of bacteria and viruses are decided by ICNB
(International Code for Nomenclature of Bacteria) and ICVN (International Code of
Viral Nomenclature). Similarly, there is also a separate International Code of
Nomenclature for Cultivated Plants (ICNCP).
Binomial nomenclature:
It is a method of scientific naming of living organisms proposed by Carolus Linnaeus in
his book Systema Naturae (1735). Linnaeus used two Latin words to name any organism.
The first word is the generic name and the second is a specific name. For example, (i)
Pisum sativum (pea)- Pisum is the generic name and sativum is the specific name of
garden pea.
(i) Solanum tuberosum (potato) - Solanum is the generic name and tuberosum is the
specific name of potato.
Linnaeus described about 5,900 species of plants in his book 'Species Plantarum'
(1753) and 4,326 species of animals in 'Systema Naturae' (1758). Linnaeus was the first
person to classify plant according to suitable criteria. He is known as the father of
taxonomy'.
BINOMIAL NOMENCLATURE OF SOME COMMON PLANTS AND ANIMALS
Common Name Binomial nomenclature
PLANTS

1. Pea plant Pisum sativum

2. Onion plant Allium cepa
3. Mango plant Mangifera indica
4. Wheat plant Triticum aestivum
5. Banyan tree Ficus bengalensis
6. Soya bean Glycine max
ANIMALS

1. Frog Rana hexadactyla

2. Cat Felis domestica
3. Dog Canis familiaris
4. House-fly Musca domestica
5. Cobra Naja naja
6. Common carp (Rohu fish) Cyprinus carpio
Rules of binomial nomenclature
1. Scientific names must be taken from Latin language.
2. Each name consists of a generic name followed by a specific name.
3. The generic name must always begin with a capital letter while the specific name
should begin with a small letter.
4. The scientific name should be printed italicsn . If handwritten, the generic
and specific epithet must be underlined separately.
5. The name of the author, who first described the species must be present at the
end of the specific name in a standard abbreviated form. E.g., Mangifera indica L,
where L stands for Linnaeus.
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In order to describe an organism of known characters from a vast pool of

plants and animals, they must be classified. The system of identifying differences among
organisms and placing them into groups that indicate their most significant features and
relationships is called biological classification. Thus, classification may be defined as 'the
orderly arrangement of organisms in a hierarchical system that ideally reflects
evolutionary history'. Scientists who study and contribute to the classification of
organisms are called taxonomists and their subject is called systematics or taxonomy.
Three domain system:
In 1977, Carl Woese introduced a biological classification with Three Domain System. A
domain level was added above the Kingdom level. According to this, life forms on the earth
come under three domains: 1. Archaea, 2. Bacteria and 3. Eukarya. In this, prokaryotes
were separated into Archaea and Bacteria while Eukaryotes formed Eukarya. As biologists
have learned more about Archaebacteria, it has become increasingly clear that this group
is very different from other organisms. When the full genomic DNA sequences of an
Archaebacterium and a Bacterium were compared in 1996, the differences proved striking.
Archaebacteria are as different from Bacteria, as Bacteria are from the Eukaryotes.
Recognizing this, the three-domain system was introduced. Prokaryotes were split into two
domains- Archaea and Bacteria and all eukaryotes grouped into the third domain Eukarya.
Domain Archaea:
Single celled prokaryotic organisms without a nuclear membrane are included here. They
seem to have diverged very early from Bacteria and are more closely related to
Eukaryotes than to Bacteria. This conclusion comes largely from comparisons of genes
that encode ribosomal RNAs. This domain includes the Kingdom Archaebacteria. They are
not necessarily more ancient than Bacteria, as believed till recently. Initially it was thought
that they inhabit only extreme environments; but they have been found in diverse habitats
(Acidophilic, Thermophilic, Halophilic bacteria).
Domain Bacteria:
Like Archaea they are single celled prokaryotic organisms without a nuclear membrane.
They are however distinct from Archaea when we compare the genes that encode
ribosomal RNAs. Domain Bacteria includes Kingdom Eubacteria.
Domain Eukarya:
Eukaryotes are distinct from the other two domains, in having eukaryotic organization of
their cells with the nucleus enclosed within a nuclear membrane. Eukarya includes four
Kingdoms - Protista, Fungi, Plantae and Animalia.
The Archaebacteria and Eukaryotes are more closely related to each other than to
Bacteria even though both Archaebacteria and Bacteria are prokaryotes.
A comparison of three domains of living organisms
Character Archaea Bacteria Eukarya

1 Nuclear envelope Absent Absent Present

2 Peptidoglycan in the cell wall Absent Present Absent
3 Membrane lipid Branched Unbranched Unbranched
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4 Introns Present in some genes Absent Present

5 Number of different Several One Several
RNA polymerases
6 Membrane bound organelles Absent Absent Present
7 First amino acid to be Methionine Formyl Methionine
incorporated during protein methionine
synthesis
8 Response to streptomycin and Growth not inhibited Growth Growth not
chloramphenicol Inhibited inhibited
Taxonomy: (Gr., taxis = order; nomos = law or science)
Taxonomy is the branch of biology that deals with the identification and naming of living
organisms on the basis of their evolutionary relationships. The main function of a
classification system is to allow biologists to group organisms according to similar
characteristics. This organization helps biologists to study living organisms and to make
predictions about their relationship including structural, biochemical, cytological,
embryological, behavioral and fossil information.

1. 3 Taxonomic Categories
Taxonomic category is the position or status of a taxon in a hierarchical
classification of organisms, e.g., class, order, family, etc. In classification, the organisms
which closely resemble one another are placed together in a group. The groups which
have similarities with each other are combined into larger groups. Such similar larger
groups are combined into still larger ones. Thus, animal or plant group having natural
relations is known as taxonomic category. There are seven major categories. The Kingdom
is the highest category of taxonomic studies. Other major categories in descending order
include phylum, class, order, family, genus and species. The term division is used in place
of phylum category in the classification of the plant kingdom. The above-mentioned
categories are called obligate categories. Any given species can be traced to these seven
categories. All categories together constitute taxonomic hierarchy.
Differences between taxon and category
Taxon is a general term used for a group of organisms in systematic classification;
whatever may be the that organism, i.e., a taxon is a group of genetically related
individuals having distinct characters from those of other groups. For example, all the
fishes form a taxon, all birds form another taxon and all lichens form one more taxon. The
degree of similarity and relationship varies with the rank or category of a taxon. Individuals
of higher rank namely class or order are less closely related than the individuals of a lower
rank such as genus or species. A category represents a rank or level in classification,
whereas, a taxon represents group of organisms and is assigned to a category. For
example, the term 'Aves' represents a taxon of birds. They belong to a category called
Class in classification. Similarly, the sponges form a taxon 'Porifera' and their category is
'Phylum'.
Hierarchy of categories:
The obligate categories used in classification include the following:
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1.3.1 Species:
Species is the basic unit in biological classification. It is the lowest taxonomic category.
Species is a group of individuals with similar morphological characters and capable of
interbreeding and producing fertile offspring. Each species is placed within a single genus.
All species are given a binomial name, wherein the species forms the second half of a
composite double name. Usually, the individuals of one species do not breed with
individuals of other species.
However, there are two objections to this definition.
(i) Occasionally, some fertile hybrids occur in nature due to the breakdown of any
reproductive barrier between species. Interspecific hybrids have also been obtained since
ages artificially by man, for example, mule. Hybrids between certain closely related species
can also be obtained in captivity. Certain examples are given below:
Mule (sterile) - Female horse and male donkey
Hinny (sterile) - Male horse and female donkey
Tigon (fertile) - Male tiger and female lion
Liger (fertile) - Male lion and female tiger
(ii) Sexual reproduction is absent in prokaryotes and in some protists.
1.3.2 Genus
Genus is the first higher category above the level of species. The Latinized or Latin name
applied to the genus is the generic name and it forms the first part of the scientific name in
the binomial system. It is generally a noun. It is a group of closely related species. For
e.g., dog, jackal and wolf are placed in the same genus Canis because they are closely
related to each other but they belong to different species. Similarly, horse, ass and zebra
are placed in the same genus Equus but belong to different species. Generally, species in
a genus have many common features which qualify a species to be included under that
genus. A genus may or may not have more than one species. Some genera have only one
species. They are called monotypic. E.g., Ginkgo biloba (gymnosperm). The genus
Homo has a single living species. Its species is Homo sapiens. Some genera have more
than one species. They are called polytypic. For example, the genus Canis has many
species like - C. familiaris - the dog, C. lupus – the wolf and C. aureus - the fox. The
genus occupies a special position in classification because species cannot be named
without assigning it to a genus.
1.3.3 Family
Family is a category which is represented by a group of related genera that are more
similar to each other than to the genera of other families. For example, tiger, lion, leopard
is placed in the cat family, Felidae. This family is differentiated from another carnivore
family Canidae in which are included the dogs and the foxes. Similarly, rice, maize and
wheat are included in the family Poaceae; Solanum, Petunia and Datura in the family
Solanaceae; gram, pea and soyabean in the family Fabaceae. A family name of the
animals generally ends in the suffix - idae, e.g., Equidae (the family of horses, asses,
zebras, etc.); Felidae (cat family); Blattidae (the family of cockroaches). In plants, the
family name ends with the suffix - aceae, (e.g., Poaceae, Fabaceae) and sub family with -
oideae (e.g., Papilionoideae, Caesalpinioideae, Mimosoideae, etc.).
1.3.4 Order:
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Order is a category of several related families. The family Felidae of cat and
the family
Canidae of dogs are included under the order Carnivora. In plant families, Fabaceae and
Rosaceae are assigned to the order Rosales. In plants, the order name ends with the
suffix - ales.
1.3.5 Class:
Class is a category or groups of several related orders. The order Lagomorpha of rabbits,
Rodentia of rats, Carnivora of cats and dogs, Chiroptera of bats, all having few common
characters like mammae pinnae and hairs are placed in the Class Mammalia. The name of
the class in plants ends with suffix - phyceae (Chlorophyceae) or - opsida (Bryopsida).
1.3.6 Phylum:
A phylum is the highest category in the Kingdom Animalia. Many classes with some
common characters are included in a Phylum. Among animals the Phylum Chordala
included classes like Pisces, Amphibia, Reptilia, Aves and Mammalia because at some
stage in their life all have common characters like presence of notochord, dorsal tubular
nerve cord and pharynx perforated by gill slits. In plants, this category is called division
and its name generally ends with suffix-phyta.
1.3.7 Kingdom:
Kingdom is the highest category in biological classification. It is a group of phyla or
divisions with certain common characteristics. All phyla of the animals which lack cell wall
and chlorophyll pigments are placed under the Kingdom Animalia, while all divisions of
plants with rigid cell wall are included under the Kingdom Plantae. It may be noted that the
higher the category lesser will be the number of common characteristics of organisms
belonging to that category. For example, tiger, leopard and lion belonging to the same
genus Panthera have many common characteristics but they differ widely from rat, bat,
elephant and gorilla although all these animals belong to the same Class Mammalia.
The various categories used in classification are arranged in a hierarchy, i.e., ranked one
above the other. In hierarchy nearer the categories, greater is the similarity between
organisms. The hierarchical system of classification was first introduced by Linnaeus. But
his classification lacked two categories namely phylum and family. These were added
later.
The hierarchy of major categories can be represented as

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Common Biological name Genus Family Order Class Phylum or Kingdom

names Division
Man Homo sapiens Homo Hominidae Primata Mammalia Chordata Animalia

Housefly Musca domestica Musca Muscidae Diptera Insecta Arthropoda Animalia

Mango Mangifera indica Mangifera Anacardiaceae Sapindales Dicotyledonae Angiospermae Plantae

Wheat Triticum Triticum Poaceae Poales Monocotyledonae Angiospermae Plantae

aestivumn
Brinjal Solanum Solanum Solanaceae Polymoniales Dicotyledonae Angiospermae Plantae
melongena

1. 4 Taxonomic Aids
The taxonomic aids are the means that help in the identification, naming and
classification of organisms, e.g., herbarium and taxonomical keys.
The taxonomical study involves field and laboratory work for identifying various
species. The actual specimens are to be collected, photographed or diagrammed in live or
dead condition, preserved in proper medium, studied to the minutest detail possible and
deposited in a reputed public museum for verification if required at a later stage. The
information thus gathered about the species need to be stored for publication in scientific
journals or for future studies. All these help in identification of species and their placement
in taxonomic hierarchy.
Advantages of taxonomic Aids:
1. Taxonomic aids help in correct classification and identification of
organisms,
2. They help in preserving specimens for future studies,3. They also help
in storage and preservation of information.

1.4.1 Herbarium:
Herbarium is a collection of pressed dried plant specimens used in research, teaching and
outreach. Herbarium specimens typically are mounted on thick, acid-free paper measuring
approximately 18 x 12 inches. When dried thoroughly, mounted properly, and protected
from insects and moisture, herbarium specimens will last several hundred years.
In a herbarium, each specimen has a label that indicates the scientific name of the
specimen, name of the collector, the collection number with date and place of collection,
Labels generally contain additional data such as legal descriptions (latitude / longitude, or
township/range), habitat and other ecological conditions associated with the species, With
the advent of Global Positioning Systems (GPS) technology, accurate latitudinal and
longitudinal data ("geo-referencing") are now considered essential for new collections.
Major herbaria of the World and India:
Largest herbaria in the world

Name Location Specimens (ca. millions)

1. Museum National d' Historie naturelle Paris, France 8.9
2. Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew London, England 7.0
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3. New York Botanical Garden New York, USA 7.0

Some herbaria of India
Name Location Number of specimens
I. Central National Herbarium of Botanical Survey of Kolkata 2,50,000
India, Kolkata
2. Herbarium of Forest Research Institute, Dehradun 3,30,000
Dehradun
1.4.2 Botanical gardens
Botanic gardens are institutions holding documented collections of living plants for the
purposes of scientific research, conservation, display and education. In addition, a
botanical garden generally houses a library, laboratory, herbarium and museum. Botanic
gardens frequently offer teaching and training facilities to those who seek for it. Generally
botanical gardens are maintained by government and semi-government organizations.

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However, all botanical gardens employ botanists or taxonomical experts to look after the
plants. Most of the botanical gardens grow the plant species that can survive the climatic
conditions of that particular area where the garden is set up. However, in some
worldfamous botanic gardens the plants species from different parts of the world are also
grown by simulating the environmental conditions of the place from where these plants
were collected. Besides, botanical gardens also maintain parasitic plants, bonsai,
insectivorous plants etc.
Major botanical gardens of the World
There are thousands of botanical gardens all over the world. A few of the major botanical
gardens are listed below.
1. National Botanic Gardens, Belgium
2. Montreal Botanical Gardens, Canada
3. Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew, United Kingdom
Famous botanical gardens of India
1. Indian Botanic Garden, Howrah, Kolkata
2. Lalbagh Botanical Garden, Bangalore, Karnataka.
3. Lloyd Botanical Garden, Darjeeling, West Bengal.
4. Ooty Botanical Garden, Tamilnadu.
5. National Botanical Garden, Lucknow.
1.4.3 Museums:
A museum is a permanent institution in the service of society which is open to the public to
acquire, conserve and communicate the world's natural and cultural heritage. The
botanical and zoological museums are concerned with preservation, storage and exhibition
of plant and animal species.
Aims of botanical and zoological museums:
Aims of the botanical and zoological museum are the same. They help to educate the
people about the life of plants and animals and to create interest and love for them. We
share this earth with plants and other animals. If man has to survive on this earth, he has
to understand the importance of living harmoniously with other living beings on this earth.
The museums enable man to know about the different types of plants and animals which
live around us, if not in live form, at least in preserved form.
1.4.4 Zoological parks
A zoological park or zoological garden or zoo is a place wherein animals are confined
within enclosures and displayed to the public. In zoos, animals may also be bred. The term
'zoo' was used as an abbreviation for the London Zoological Gardens which opened for
the scientific study in 1828.
Aims of the zoological parks:
The fundamental objective behind any zoo is to increase public interest in the
understanding of wild life. Most of the zoos display wild animals primarily for the

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conservation of endangered species and for educational and research
purposes and secondarily for the entertainment of visitors. Modern zoos are aimed at
preserving many swiftly disappearing forms of wildlife. To protect the wildlife from
extinction, their natural habitats have to be conserved and captive breeding has to be
undertaken. The Captive Breeding Specialist Group (CBSG) of the Species Survival
Commission (SSC) of International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural
Resource (IUCN) is helping the zoos in this programme.
Although wildlife can be best watched in its free native haunts, only very few persons get
an opportunity to observe them under such conditions. One must be lucky enough to find
the wild life in their natural habitat. But the zoological parks certainly enable everyone to
look into wildlife, of course, in enclosures.
Some famous zoos of the World
1. San Diego Zoo, San Diego, California.
2. Bronx Zoo, Bronx, New York.
3. Berlin Zoo, Berlin, Germany.
4. London Zoo, London, England.
5. Taronga Zoo, Sydney, Australia.
List of Zoos in India
Central Zoo Authority of India (CZA) is the governing authority of all zoos in India. Some of
the zoos coming under the CZA are 1. Allen Forest Zoo, Kanpur.
2. Nehru Zoological Park, Hyderabad.
3. Indira Gandhi Zoological Park, Visakhapatnam.
4. Jijamata Udyaan, Mumbai.
5. Arignar Anna Zoological Park (Vandalur Zoo), Chennai.
6. Alipore Zoological Gardens, Kolkata.
7. Sri Chamarajendra Zoological Gardens, Mysore.
1.4. 5 Biological keys
The term key refers to a set of alternate characters which enables a researcher to identify
the plant or animal by selecting or eliminating the characters according to their presence or
absence in the organism under study. A genus key is used to identify the genera and a
species key for the species, Taxonomic keys are aids for rapid identification of unknown
plants or animals. They constitute important components of floras, faunas, manuals,
monographs and other forms of literature meant for identifying organisms. In recent days,
identification methods have incorporated the usage of keys based on cards, labels,
pictures and computer programs. These keys are helpful in a faster preliminary
identification, which can be backed up by confirmation through comparison with the
detailed description of the taxon provisionally identified with. Before identification is
attempted, it is necessary that the unknown plant is carefully studied, described and a list
of its characters prepared.
The keys include - flora, manuals, monographs and catalogues. Flora contains
actual account of habitat, distribution and description of plants of a particular area, e.g.,

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Flora of the Presidency of Madras, Flora of the Presidency of Bombay, Flora of Udupi, etc.
Manuals contain description of various specimens that are useful in providing information
for identification of names of species found in a given arca. The monographs deal with the
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information on any one taxon. Catalogue is an ordered list of plants and animals with brief
description which also helps in identification of specimens.

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