Sound waves

Sound is a form of energy produced by vibrating objects. It travels as a longitudinal

wave through a material medium.
Sound waves need a material medium for transmission so that the vibrating objects cause
the nearby molecules of the medium to vibrate

The speed of sound waves depends on:-

• Temperature.
• Density and elasticity of the medium.
• Wind in the case of air
Properties of sound waves
• Reflection
• Refraction
• Diffraction
• interference
Reflection
Sound is bounced back from obstacles in similar manner to light. The reflected sound
is called an echo.
Laws of reflection of sound waves state

• Incident sound wave, reflected sound wave and the normal at the point of
incidence all the in the same plane,
• The angle of incidence of sound waves is equal to angle of reflection of sound
waves.
ECHO
An echo is reflected sound waves

Echoes are produced by the reflection of sound from a hard surface. Echoes are often
heard in the neighborhoods of large houses, high walls, cliffs etc.
Reverberation
It is a prolongation of sound due to reflection from nearby obstacle. If the reflecting
surface is nearer, the echo joins the original sound which then seems to become
prolonged.

Experiment to measure the speed of sound (echo method)

Two people one claps and the other records the time, while standing at a known distance
from a high wall. The time taken for the sound wave to travel to and from the wall is
recorded.
The exercise is repeated many times so that the average time is obtained.
REFRACTION OF SOUND WAVES
Refraction of sound waves occurs when the speed of the wave changes as it
moves from one medium to another of different density. The speed of sound
waves in air is affected by the air temperature. When sound waves pass through
layers of air at different temperature they are refracted i.e. turned into another
direction. On a hot day sound waved are bent upwards away from the earth
where they otherwise travel faster.
In the evening when the air near the ground becomes cool, refraction of sound is
towards the earth, making it easier to hear distant sound as the range of sound is
more.

Radios are clearer at night than during day because at night the sound waves
are bent down towards the cool earth making the range of sound more.

INTERFERENCE OF SOUND WAVES

C - Constructive interference
D - Destructive interference
Overlapping sound waves produce regions of louder sound by constructive
interference and regions of quiet sound by destructive interference.

If two loud speakers are connected to the same audio frequency generator,
they produce sound waves of identical frequency and similar amplitude.
A louder sound is produced when the waves from the two speakers arrive
in phase and interfere constructively.

A quiet sound is produced when destructive interference occurs.

If the speakers are moved closer together, the distance between the places
where loud sound is heard is increased.
Ultrasonic
Sound waves with frequencies above 20 kHz are called ultrasonic waves. They are emitted by
bats. Sound of high frequency that human ear cannot detect is described as ultrasonic.

INTENSITY OF SOUND
The intensity of sound is the rate of flow of energy per unit area perpendicular to the
direction of sound. Intensity is proportional to;
• The square of the amplitude,
• The square of the frequency
• The density of the medium

LOUDNESS OF SOUND
Loudness depends on;-
• The varying pressure exerted on the eardrum by the sound,
• The sensitivity of the ear to the different frequencies,
• The sound intensity.
Loudness of sound is the sensation of a note in the mind of an individual.

WAVES IN STRINGS AND PIPES

Factors on which the frequency of a wave in a vibrating string depend

-Length of the string.
-Tension in the string.
-Mass per unit length of the string.

A stationary wave can be set up in a string

which has both ends fixed.

The figure below shows the number of waves

that can be formed when a string of fixed
length is struck in the middle
An experiment to investigate the variation of frequency with length for
vibrating wires

A sonometer below is used

- The wooden bridges B and C vary the effective length of the wire, L.
- Constant tension in the wire is maintained by the fixed mass
- A paper rider is placed on the wire in the middle of BC and a sounding
fork placed near it.
- The position of the bridge C is varied until sound is heard.
𝐿
- The distance between
1 the bridges L and the frequency, f, of the tuning
fork is noted.
1
- The procedure is repeated for various tuning forks and values of L, f and
are tabulated
- A plot of f against gives a straight line 𝐿showing that the frequency of
vibration of the wire is inversely proportional to length.
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RESONANCE
Resonance occurs when a body or system is set into vibrations with its own
natural frequency by a nearby body or system vibrating with the same
frequency.

The vibrations combine to produce a larger vibration with a larger amplitude.

Thus, resonance occurs when a body is set into vibration with its own natural
frequency by another nearby body which vibrates with the same frequency.
Resonance tubes/ vibrating air column /Vibration of air in
pipes

In vibrating air column, stationary waves are

set up. There are two types of pipe for air

vibration:
(i) Closed pipe
(ii) Open pipe

Resonance in a closed pipe

a) First position of resonance
This occurs when a node is at the closed end and antinodes at
the open end

λ
L=4
λ = 4L

V V
The fundamental note f0= is given out, fo = 4L
λ
(b) Second resonance

This occurs when a second node is formed such that the length L of vibrating air
equals three quarters of a wave length.
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𝟑𝛌
L =
𝟒
4L
λ=
3

The note given out is the first overtone f1

𝐕 3V
f1 = = 3f0
𝛌 4L
V
where f0 = 4L
5λ
The third resonance is obtained when air column L equals 4

The note given out is the second overtone f2

5λ 4L
L= 4
i.e. λ =
3
V 5L
f2 = = = 5f0
λ 4L

V
Where f0 = 4L
Where f0 is the fundamental note.
For closed pipes, the possible harmonics are,f0, 3f0, 5f0, 7fo…..

NB: A closed pipe produces only odd notes.

Example 31
A pipe closed at one end has a length of 10cm. If the velocity of sot in air of the pipe is 340 m/s,
calculate
(a) the frequency of fundamental note
λ
L= L = 10cm = 0.1m
4
λ= 4L
V
f0 =
4L
340
= = 850Hz
0.1 x 4

(b) the frequency of first overtone L = 10cm = 0.1m

for lst overtone
17

3λ
L= L = 10cm = 0.1m
4
4L 0.1 x 4 0.4m
λ= = =
3 3 3
v
F1 = = 340
λ
0.4
3
= 2550Hz

Alternative method
F0 = 850
For 1 overtone
= 3 x 850
= 2550 Hz

Vibrating turning fork

When the vibrating tuning fork is held over the mouth of tube T, the air inside the tube is set
into vibration. The wave sent downwards is reflected from the surface of' water and a
stationary wave is set.

Experiment 1: to determine the speed of sound in air by resonance method- air obtained by
raising the tube from water

a) A tuning fork of known frequency, f, is set into vibration and placed above near the open
tube as in the diagram.

b) The tube is raised from water until the length of air column, L1 is reached when a loud
sound is heard. This is the position of first resonance.

λ
L1 = + C ……………. (i)
4
18

where C is the end correction and λ is the wave length.

c) While is sounding fork is kept in place; the tube is raised further to length L2 of the air
column until a second loud sound is heard. This is the position of the second resonance.

The tube is raised to length L2 and the air column is varied until a loud sound is heard. This is
the position of the second resonance.
3λ
L1 = + C ……………. (ii)
4
where C is the end correction and λ is the wave length.

Subtracting resonance: 2nd position – 1st position

𝟑𝛌 𝛌
L2 – L1 = ( + c) – ( + c)
𝟒 𝟒
𝟑𝛌 𝛌
L2 – L1 = ( - + c-c
𝟒 𝟒
𝟑𝛌 𝛌
= -
𝟒 𝟒
𝟐𝛌
= 𝟒
𝛌
=
𝟐
λ = 2(L2 - L1)
But V = λf
∴ V = 2(L2 - L1)f
where v is the velocity of sound in air.

Experiment 2: to determine the speed of sound in air by resonance method- air obtained by
draining the tube.
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- A glass tube which can be drained from bottom is filled with water.
- A sounding tuning fork of frequency f is brought to the mouth of the tube.
- The water is slowly drained until a loud sound is heard. The tap is closed and length L1 is measured.
- The tuning fork is again sounded at the mouth of the tube and the water drained further until a loud
sound is heard and distance L2 is noted
- Velocity, v, of sound in air = 2f(L2-L1)
End correction, c

The end correction of an air pipe is a small distance that must be added to actual length of the pipe to
account for increase in the effective length of the pipe as a result of the vibrating air column extending
beyond the open end of the pipe.

The effective length of the pipe is therefore longer than actual length of the pipe because the vibrating
air column extends beyond the open end(s) of the pipe.

The Doppler Effect

It is the apparent change in frequency of a wave motion due to relative motion between the source and
observer.

Calculation of Apparent Frequency based Doppler Effect

Suppose V is the velocity of sound in air, us is the velocity of the source of sound S, u0 is the velocity of
an observer 0, and f is the true frequency of the source.

(a) Source moving towards stationary observer.

(i) If the source S were stationary, the f waves sent out in one second towards the observer O would
occupy a distance V, and the wavelength would be V/f
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(ii) If S moves with a velocity us towards 0, however, the f waves sent out occupy a distance
(V – us), because S has moved a distance us towards 0 in 1s, fig. (ii).

(𝑉 − 𝑢𝑠)
Thus the wavelength λ' of the waves reaching O is now
𝑓

But velocity of sound = V

𝑉 𝑉 𝑉
∴ Apparent frequency, f’ = = (𝑉− 𝑢𝑠) = 𝑓
𝜆′ ⁄𝑓 (𝑉− 𝑢𝑠)

Since (V - us) is less than V, f' is greater than f; the apparent frequency thus appears to
increase when a source is moving towards an observer.

(b) Source moving away from stationary observer.

In this case the f waves sent out towards 0 in 1s occupy a distance (V + us),

(𝑉 +𝑢𝑠)
Thus the wavelength λ' of the waves reaching O is now
𝑓

But velocity of sound = V

𝑉 𝑉 𝑉
∴ Apparent frequency, f’ = = (𝑉+ 𝑢𝑠)
= 𝑓
𝜆′ ⁄𝑓 (𝑉+𝑢𝑠)
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Since (V + us) is greater than V, f' is less than f; the apparent frequency thus appears to
reduce when a source is moving towards an observer.

(c) Source stationary, and observer moving towards it.

Since the source is stationary, the f waves sent out by S towards the moving observer O occupies
a distance V,

The wavelength of the waves reaching O is hence V/f, and thus unlike the cases already
considered, the wavelength is unaltered.
The velocity of the sound waves relative to O is not V, however, as O is moving relative to the
source.
The velocity of the sound waves relative to O is given by (V + uo) in this case, and
Hence the apparent frequency f' is given by

𝑉+ 𝑢0 𝑉+ 𝑢0 𝑉+ 𝑢 0
∴ Apparent frequency, f’ = = 𝑉⁄ = ( )𝑓
𝑤𝑎𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝑓 𝑉

Since (V + u0) is greater than V, f' is greater than f; the apparent frequency thus appears to
increase when an observer is moving towards the source.

(d) Source stationary, and observer moving away from it.

Since the source is stationary, the f waves sent out by S towards the moving observer O occupies
a distance V,
70

The wavelength of the waves reaching O is hence V/f, and thus unlike the cases already
considered, the wavelength is unaltered.
The velocity of the sound waves relative to O is not V, however, as O is moving relative to the
source.
The velocity of the sound waves relative to O is given by (V - uo) in this case, and
Hence the apparent frequency f' is given by

𝑉− 𝑢0 𝑉− 𝑢0 𝑉− 𝑢 0
∴ Apparent frequency, f’ = = 𝑉⁄ = ( )𝑓
𝑤𝑎𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝑓 𝑉

Since (V - u0) is less than V, f' is less than f; the apparent frequency thus appears to reduce when
an observer is moving away from the source.

Source and Observer Both Moving

If the source and the observer are both moving, the apparent frequency f' can be found from
𝑉′
the formula f’ =
𝜆′

where V' is the velocity of the sound waves relative to the observer, and λ’ is the wavelength of
the waves reaching the observer. This formula can also be used to find the apparent frequency
in any of the cases considered before.

(i) Suppose that the observer has a velocity, uo, the source a velocity us, and that both are
moving in the same direction. Then

V' = V- uo

And

λ' = (V - us)/f

f’ = 𝑉′ = V− uo
= (V− 𝑢 𝑂 ) 𝑓
𝜆′ (V − u𝑠)/f V− 𝑢𝑠
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Suppose that the observer has a velocity, uo, the source a velocity us, and If the observer is
moving towards the source, then

V' = V+ uo

And

λ' = (V - us)/f

f’ = 𝑉′ = V+ uo
= ( V+𝑢 𝑂 ) 𝑓
𝜆′ (V − u𝑠)/f V− 𝑢𝑠

(ii) A source of sound moving with velocity, us. approaches an observer moving with
velocity u0 in the same direction. Derive the expression for frequency of sound heard by
observer. (05marks)