EDCURR REVIEWER  The contents of a subject, concepts and

tasks to be acquired, planned activities,

Curriculum is taken in its narrow view as a  the desired learning outcomes and
listing of subjects to be taught in schools or experiences,product of culture and an
sometimes it is understood broadly as all agenda to reform society make up a
learning experiences that individuals curriculum. (Schubert, 1987)
undergo while in school. We cannot deny  A curriculum includes "all of the
the fact that curriculum should be clarified experiences that individual learners
by teachers and other stakeholders. have in a program of education whose
Curriculum affects all teachers, students, purpose is to achieve broad goals and
parents, politicians, businessmen, related specific objectives, which is
professionals, government officials or even planned in terms of a framework of
the common people. theory and research or past and present
professional practice." (Hass, 1987)
Like many concepts in education, there  It is a programme of activities (by
seems to be no common definition of teachers and pupils) designed so that
'curriculum'. Because of this, the concept of pupils will attain so far as possible
curriculum is sometimes characterized as certain educational and other schooling
fragmentary, elusive and confusing. ends or objectives. (Grundy, 1987)
However, the word originates from the  It is a plan that consists of learning
Latin word currere referring to the oval opportunities for a specific time frame
track upon which Roman chariots raced. and place, a tool that aims to bring
The New International Dictionary defines about behavior changes in students as a
curriculum as the whole body of a course in result of planned activities and includes
an educational institution or by a department all learning experiences received by
while the Oxford-English Dictionary defines students with the guidance of the
curriculum as courses taught in schools or school. (Goodland and Su, 1992)
universities. Curriculum means different  It provides answers to three questions:
things to different people. Sometimes 1. What knowledge, skills and values
educators equate curriculum with the are most worthwhile? 2. Why are they
syllabus while a few regard it as all the most worthwhile? 3. How should the
teaching-learning experiences which the young acquire them? (Cronbeth, 1992)
student encounters while in school.
Numerous definitions indicate dynamism
which connotes diverse interpretations as Some Points of View of Other Curricularists
influenced by modes of thoughts,  Since the concept and meaning of
pedagogies, philosophies, political as well curriculum are shaped by a person's
as cultural perspectives. Here are some of point of view, this has added to
them. fragmentation, and some confusion.
However when put together, the
Some Definitions of Curriculum different definitions from diverse points
 Curriculum is a planned and guided set of view, would describe curriculum as
of learning experiences and intended dynamic and perhaps ever changing.
outcomes, formulated through the  Points of view about the curriculum can
systematic reconstruction of knowledge either be traditional or progressive,
and experiences under the auspices of according to the person's philosophical,
the school, for the learners' continuous psychological and even psychological
and willful growth in personal social orientations. These views can also
competence." (Daniel Tanner, 1980) define what a curriculum is all about.
 It is a written document that
systematically describes goals planned, Curriculum from Traditional Points of View
objectives, content, learning activities,  The traditional points of view of
evaluation procedures and so forth. curriculum were advanced by Robert
(Pratt, 1980) Hutchins, Arthur Bestor, and Joseph
Schwab.
 Robert M. Hutchins views curriculum means that unifies curricular elements
as "permanent studies" where rules of that are tested by application.
grammar, reading, rhetoric, logic and  Holin Caswell and Kenn Campbell
mathematics for basic education are viewed curriculum as all experiences
emphasized. The 3Rs (Reading, children have under the guidance of
Writing, Arithmetic) should be teachers.
emphasized in basic education while  Othaniel Smith, William Stanley and
liberal education should be the Harlan Shore likewise LEUW defined
emphasis in college. curriculum as a sequence of potential
 Arthur Bestor as an essentialist experiences, set up in schools for the
believes that the mission of the school purpose of disciplining children and
should be intellectual training, hence youth in group ways of thinking and
curriculum should focus on the acting.
fundamental intellectual disciplines of  Colin Marsh and George Willis also
grammar, literature and writing. It viewed curriculum as all the
should include mathematics, science, experiences in the classroom which are
history and foreign language. planned and enacted by the teacher and
 Joseph Schwab thinks that the sole also learned by the students.
source of curriculum is a discipline,
thus the subject areas such as Science, The nature of curriculum has given rise to
Mathematics, Social Studies, English many interpretations, depending on a
and many more. In college, academic person's philosophical beliefs. Let us put all
disciplines are labelled as humanities, of these interpretations in a summary.
sciences, languages, mathematics
among others. He coined the word CURRICULUM is what is taught in school,
discipline as a ruling doctrine for a set of subjects, a content, a program of
curriculum development. studies, a set of materials, a sequence of
 Phillip Phenix asserts that curriculum courses, a set of performance objectives,
should consist entirely of knowledge everything that goes within the school. It is
which comes from various disciplines. what is taught inside and outside of school
directed by the teacher, everything planned
Collectively from the traditional view of by school, a series of experiences undergone
theorists like Hutchins, Schwab, Bestor and by learners in school or what individual
Phenix, curriculum can be defined as a field learner experiences as a result of school. In
of study. Curriculum is highly academic and short, curriculum is the total learning
is concerned with broad historical, experiences of the learner under the
philosophical, psychological and social guidance of the teacher.
issues. From a traditional view, curriculum
is mostly written documents such syllabus, Three Ways of Approaching a
course of study, books and references where Curriculum
knowledge is found but is used as a means Curriculum can be approached or
to accomplish intended goals. seen in three ways. It can be defined as a
content, a process or an outcome. If you
Curriculum from Progressive Points of examine the definitions provided by the
View experts in the field, there are three ways of
On the other hand, a listing of school approaching a curriculum. First, is to
subjects, syllabi, course of study, and approach it as content or a body of
specific discipline does not make a knowledge to be transmitted. Second, is to
curriculum. In its broadest terms, a approach it as a product or the learning
progressive view of curriculum is the total outcomes desired of learners. Third, is to
learning experiences of the individual. Let approach it as a process or what actually
us look into how curriculum is defined from happens in the classroom when the
a progressive point of view. curriculum is practised.
 John Dewey believes that education is
experiencing. Reflective thinking is a
 3. Thematic Approach as a combination of
1. Curriculum as a Content or Body of concepts that develop conceptual structures,
Knowledge and
It is quite common for traditionalists 4. Modular Approach that leads to complete
to equate a curriculum to a topic outline, units of instruction.
subject matter, or concepts to be included in
the syllabus or a books. For example, a Criteria in the Selection of Content
primary school mathematics curriculum There are some suggested criteria in
consists of topics on addition, the selection of knowledge or subject
multiplication, subtraction, division, matter. (Scheffer, 1970 in Bilbao, et al
distance, weight and many more. Another 2015)
example is in secondary school science that
involves the study of biological science, 1. Significance. Content should contribute
physical science, environmental science and to ideas, concepts, principles and
earth science. Textbooks tend to begin with generalization that should attain the overall
biological science such are plants and purpose of the curriculum. It is significant if
animals; physical science with the physical content becomes the means of developing
elements, force and motion; earth science cognitive, affective or psychomotor skills of
with the layers of the earth and the learner. As education is a way of
environmental science with the interaction preserving culture, content will be
of the biological and physical science and significant when this will address the
earth's phenomena, climate, vegetation cultural context of the learners.
followed by economic activities such as
industries, urbanization and so forth. 2. Validity. The authenticity of the subject
agriculture, mining industries, urbanization matter forms its validity. Knowledge
and so forth. becomes obsolete with the fast changing
If curriculum is equated as content, times. Thus there is a need for validity
then the focus will be the body of check and verification at a regular interval,
knowledge to be transmitted to students because content which may be valid in its
using appropriate teaching method. There original form may not continue to be valid
can be a likelihood that teaching will be in the current times.
limited to the acquisition of facts, concepts
and principles of the subject matter, 3. Utility. Usefulness of the content in the
however, the content or subject matter can curriculum is relative to the learners who are
also be taken as a means to an end. going to use these. Utility can be relative to
All curricula have content regardless time. It may have been useful in the past,
of their design or models. The fund of but may not be useful now or in the future.
knowledge is the repository of accumulated Questions like: Will I use this in my future
discoveries and inventions of man from the job? Will it add meaning to my life as a
explorations of the earth and as products of lifelong learner? Or will the subject matter
research. In most educational setting, be useful in solving current concerns?
curriculum is anchored on a body of
knowledge or discipline. 4. Learnability. The complexity of the
content should be within the range of
There are four ways of presenting the experiences of the learners. This is based on
content in the curriculum. These are: the psychological principles of learning.
1. Topical Approach, where much content is Appropriate organization of content
based on knowledge, and experiences are standards and sequencing of contents are
included; two basic principles that would influence
2. Concept Approach with fewer topics in learnability.
clusters around major and sub-concepts and
their interaction, with relatedness 5. Feasibility. Can the subject content be
emphasized; learned within the time allowed, resources
available, expertise of the teachers and the
nature of the learners? Are there contents of
learning which can be learned beyond the or overlaps in the content. Seamlessness in
formal teaching-learning engagement? Are the content is desired and can be assured if
there opportunities provided to learn these? there is articulation in the curriculum. Thus,
6. Interest. Will the learners take interest in there is a need off team among writers and
the content? Why? Are the contents implementers of curriculum.
meaningful? What value will the contents
have in the present and future life of the Sequence. The logical arrangement of the
learners? Interest is one of the driving forces content refers to sequence or order. This can
for students to learn better. be done vertically for deepening the content
or horizontally for broadening the same
The selection of the subject matter or content. In both ways, the pattern usually is
content, aside from the seven. criteria from easy to complex, what is known to the
mentioned earlier, may include the unknown, what is current to something in
following guide. the future.

Guide in the Selection of the Content in Integration. Content in the curriculum does
the Curriculum not stand alone or in isolation. It has some
ways of relatedness or connectedness to
1. Commonly used in the daily life other contents. Contents should be infused
2. Appropriate to the maturity levels and in other disciplines whenever possible. This
abilities of the learners will provide a wholistic or unified view of
3. Valuable in meeting the needs and curriculum instead of segmentation.
competencies of the future career Contents which can be integrated to other
4. Related to other subject fields or disciplines acquire a higher premium than
discipline for complementation and when isolated.
integration
5. Important in the transfer of learning to Continuity. Content when viewed as a
other disciplines curriculum should continuously flow as it
was before, to where it is now, and where it
BASICS: Fundamental Principles for will be in the future. It should be perennial.
Curriculum Contents It endures time. Content may not be in the
same form and substance as seen in the past
Palma in 1952 proposed that the since changes and developments in
contents in the curriculum should be guided curriculum occur. Constant repetition,
by Balance, Articulation, Sequence, reinforcement and enhancement of content
Integration and Continuity. However, in are all elements of continuity.
designing a curriculum contents Hunkins
and Ornstein (2018) added an important Scope. The breadth and depth of the
element which is Scope, hence from BASIC curriculum content are vital in a curriculum.
to BASICS initials of Balance, Scope consists of all the contents, topics,
Articulation, Sequence, Integration, learning experiences comprising the
Continuity. curriculum. In layman's term scope refers to
coverage. The scope shall consider the
Balance. Content should be fairly cognitive level, affective domain and
distributed in depth and breadth. This will psychomotor skills in identifying the
guarantee that significant contents should be contents. Other factors will be considered
covered to avoid too much or too little of but caution is given to overloading of
the contents needed with in the time contents. "More contents is not always
allocation. better."

Articulation. As the content complexity 2. Curriculum as a Process

progresses with the educational levels,
vertically or horizontally, across the same We have seen that the curriculum can
discipline smooth connections or bridging be approached as content. On the other
should be provided. This will assure no gaps hand, it can also be approached as a process.
Here, curriculum is not seen as a physical managing the content, guiding learning,
thing or a noun, but as a verb or an action. It methods of teaching and learning and
is the interaction among the teachers, strategies of teaching or delivery modes. In
students and content. As a process, all of these, there are activities and actions
curriculum happens in the classroom as the that every teacher and learner do together or
questions asked by the teacher and the learners are guided by the teacher. Some of
learning activities engaged in by the the strategies are time-tested traditional
students. It is an active process with methods while others are emerging delivery
emphasis on the context in which the modes.
processes occur. Used in analogy of the a When curriculum is approached as a
recipe in a cookbook, a recipe is the content PROCESS, guiding principles are presented.
while the ways of cooking is the process. 1. Curriculum process in the form of
Curriculuın as a process is seen as a teaching methods or strategies are means to
scheme about the practice of teaching. It is achieve the end.
not a package of materials or a syllabus of 2. There is no single best process or
content to be covered. The classroom is only method. Its effectiveness will depend on the
part of the learning environment where the desired learning outcomes, the learners,
teacher places action using the content to support materials and the teacher.
achieve an outcome. 3. Curriculum process should stimulate
Hence the process of teaching and learning the learners' desire to develop the cognitive,
becomes the central concern of teachers to affective, psychomotor domains in each
emphasize critical thinking, and heads-on, individual.
hands-on learning and many others. 4. In the choice of methods, learning
As a process, curriculum links to the and teaching styles should be considered.
content. While content provides materials 5. Every method or process should
on what to teach, the process provides result to learning outcomes which can be
curriculum on how to teach the content. described as cognitive, affective and
When accomplished, the process will result psychomotor.
to various curriculum experiences for the 6. Flexibility in the use of the process
learners. The intersection of the content and or methods should be considered. An
process is called the Pedagogical Content effective process will always result to
Knowledge or PCK. It will address the learning outcomes.
question: If you have this content, how will 7. Both teaching and learning are the
you teach it? two important processes in the
This section will not discuss in detail implementation of the curriculum.
the different teaching strategies from where
learning experiences are derived. Rather, it 3. Curriculum as a Product
will describe how the process as a descriptor Besides viewing curriculum as content
of curriculum is understood. The content is that is to be transmitted, or process that
the substance of the curriculum, how the gives action using the content, it has also
contents will be communicated and learned been viewed as a product. In other words,
will be addressed by the process. product is what the students desire to
achieve as learning outcomes.
To teachers, the process is very critical.
This is the other side of the coin: The product from the curriculum is a
instruction, implementation, teaching. These student equipped with the knowledge, skills
three words connote the process in the and values to function effectively and
curriculum. When educators ask teachers: efficiently. The real purpose of education is
What curriculum are you using? Some of to bring about significant changes in
the answers will be: 1. Problem-based. 2. students' pattern of behavior. It is important
Hands-on, Minds-on 3. Cooperative that any statement of objectives or intended
Learning 4. Blended Curriculum 5. On-line outcomes of the school should be a
6. Case-based and many more. These statement of changes to take place in the
responses approach curriculum as a Process. students. Central to the approach is the
These are the ways of teaching, ways of formulation of behavioral objectives stated
as intended learning outcomes or desired selection and organization of content, the
products so that content and teaching selection and organization of learning
methods may be organized and the results experiences or activities and the selection of
evaluated. Products of learning are the assessment procedure and tools to
operationalized as knowledge, skills, and measure achieved learning outcomes. A
values. curriculum design will also include the
resources to be utilized and the statement of
Curriculum product is expressed in the the intended learning outcomes.
form of outcomes which are referred to as 3. Curriculum implementing is putting into
the achieved learning outcomes. There may action the plan which is based on the
be several desired learning outcomes, but if curriculum design in the classroom setting
the process is not successful, then no or the learning environment. The teacher is
learning outcomes will be achieved. These the facilitator of learning and together with
learned or achieved learning outcomes are the learners, uses the curriculum as design
demonstrated by the person who has guides to what will transpire in the
meaningful experiences in the curriculum. classroom with the end in view of achieving
All of these are result of planning, content the intended learning outcomes.
and processes in the curriculum. Implementing the curriculum is where
action takes place. It involves the activities
Curriculum is a dynamic process. In that transpire in every teacher's classroom
curriculum development, there are always where learning becomes an active process.
changes that occur that are intended for 4. Curriculum evaluating determines the
improvement. To do this, there are models extent to which the desired outcomes have
presented to us from well-known been achieved. This procedure is on-going
curricularists like Ralph Tyler, Hilda Taba, as in finding out the progress of learning
Galen Saylor and William Alexander which (formative) or the mastery of learning
would help clarify the process of curriculum (summative). Along the way, evaluation
development. There are many other models, will determine the factors that have hindered
but let us use the three for this lesson. or supported the implementation. It will also
pinpoint where improvement can be made
Curriculum Development Process and corrective measures, introduced. The
result of evaluation is very important for
Curriculum development is a dynamic decision-making of curriculum planners and
process involving many different people and implementors.
procedures. Development connotes changes
which is systematic. A change for the better Curriculum Development Process Models
means alteration, modification or
improvement of existing condition. To 1. Ralph Tyler Model: Four Basic
produce positive changes, development Principles
should be purposeful, planned and Also known as Tyler's Rationale, the
progressive. Usually it is linear and follows curriculum development model emphasizes
a logical step-by-step fashion involving the the planning phase. This is presented in his
following phases: curriculum planning, book Basic Principles of Curriculum and
curriculum design, curriculum Instruction. He posited four fundamental
implementation and curriculum evaluation. principles which are illustrated as answers
Generally, most models involve four phases. to the following questions:
1. What education purposes should schools
1. Curriculum planning considers the school seek to attain?
vision, mission and goals. It also includes 2. What educational experiences can be
the philosophy or strong education belief of provided that are likely to attain these
the school. All of these will eventually be purposes?
translated to classroom desired learning 3. How can these educational experiences be
outcomes for the learners. effectively organized?
2. Curriculum designing is the way 4. How can we determine whether these
curriculum is conceptualized to include the purposes are being attained or not?
 2. Curriculum Designing. Designing a
Tyler's model shows that in curriculum curriculum follows after appropriate
development, the following considerations learning opportunities are determined and
should be made: how each opportunity is provided. Will the
curriculum be designed along the lines of
1. Purposes of the school academic disciplines, or according to
2. Educational experiences related to the student needs and interests or along themes?
purposes These are some of the questions that need to
3. Organization of the experiences be answered at this stage of the
4. Evaluation of the experience development process

2. Hilda Taba Model: Grassroots 3. Curriculum Implementation.

Approach A designed curriculum is now ready for
implementation. Teachers then prepare
Hilda Taba improved on Tyler's model. instructional plans where instructional
She believed that teachers should participate objectives are specified and appropriate
in developing a curriculum. As a grassroots teaching methods and strategies are utilized
approach, Taba begins from the bottom, to achieve the desired learning outcomes
rather than from the top as what Tyler among students.
proposed. She presented six major steps to
her linear model which are the following: 4. Evaluation. The last step of the
curriculum model is evaluation. A
1. Diagnosis of learners' needs and comprehensive evaluation using a variety of
expectations of the larger society evaluation techniques is recommended. It
2. Formulation of learning objectives should involve the total educational
3. Selection of learning contents programme of the school and the curriculum
4. Organization of learning contents plan, the effectiveness of instruction and the
5. Selection of learning experiences achievement of students. Through the
6. Determination of what to evaluate and the evaluation process, curriculum planners and
means of doing it developers can determine whether or not the
goals of the school and the objectives of
instruction have been met.
3. Galen Saylor and William Alexander
Curriculum Model All the models utilized the processes of (1)
curriculum planning, (2) curriculum
Galen Saylor and William Alexander designing, (3) curriculum implementing,
(1974) viewed curriculum development as and (4) curriculum evaluating.
consisting of four steps. Curriculum is "a
plan for providing sets of learning Foundations of Curriculum
opportunities to achieve broad educational
goals and related specific objectives for an 1. Philosophical Foundations
identifiable population served by a single Educators, teachers, educational
school center." planners and policy makers must have a
philosophy or strong belief about education
1. Goals, Objectives and Domains. and schooling and the kind of curriculum in
Curriculum planners begin by specifying the the teachers' classrooms or learning
major educational goals and specific environment. Philosophy of the curriculum
objectives they wish to accomplish. Each answers questions like: What are schools
major goal represents a curriculum domain: for? What subjects are important? How
personal development, human relations, should students learn? What methods should
continued learning skills and specialization. be used? What outcomes should be
The goals, objectives and domains are achieved? Why?
identified and chosen based on research The various activities in school are
findings, accreditation standards, and views influenced in one way or another by a
of the different stakeholders. philosophy. John Dewey influenced the use
of "learning by doing", he being a 2. Historical Foundations
pragmatist. Or to an essentialist, the focus is Where is curriculum development
on the fundamentals of reading, writing and coming from? The historical foundations
arithmetic, the essential subjects in the will show to us the chronological
curriculum. development along a time line. Reading
materials would tell us that curriculum
There are many philosophies in education development started when Franklin Bobbit
but we will illustrate only those as presented (1876-1956) wrote the book "The
by Ornstein and Hunkins in 2004. Curriculum." Let us see how each one
contributed to curriculum development
A. Perennialism - Plato, Aristotle or during his own time. Here are eight among
Thomas Aquinas) the many whom we consider to have great
Aim: To educate the rational person; contributions.
cultivate intellect
Role: Teachers assist students to think with Franklin Bobbit (1876-1956)
reason (critical thinking: HOTS)  He started the curriculum development
Focus: Classical subjects, literary analysis movement.
Curriculum is enduring  Curriculum as a science that
Trends: Use of great books (Bible, Koran, emphasizes students' needs.
Classics) and Liberal Arts  Curriculum prepares learners for adult
life.
B. Essentialism - Wiliam Bagley (1974-  Objectives and activities should group
1946) together when tasks are clarified.
Aim: To promote intellectual growth of
learners to become competent Werret Charters (1875-1952)
Role: Teachers are sole authorities in the  Like Bobbit, he posited that curriculum
subject area. is science and emphasizes students'
Focus: Essential skills of the 3Rs; essential needs.
subjects  Objectives and activities should match.
Trends: Back to basics, Excellence in Subject matter or content relates to
education, cultural literacy objectives.

C. Progressivism - John Dewey (1859- William Kilpartick (1875-1952)

1952)  Curricula are purposeful activities
Aim: Promote democratic social living which are child-centered.
Role: Teacher leads for growth and  The purpose of the curriculum is child
development of lifelong learners development and growth. He
Focus: Interdisciplinary subjects. Learner- introduced this project method where
centered. Outcomes-based teacher and student plan the activities.
Trends: Equal opportunities for all,  Curriculum develops social
Contextualized curriculum, Humanistic relationships and small group
education instruction.

D. Reconstructionism - Theodore Harold Rugg (1886-1960)

Brameld (1904-1987)  Curriculum should develop the whole
Aim: To improve and reconstruct society. child. It is child-centered.
Education for change  With the statement of objectives and
Role: Teacher acts as agent of change and related learning activities, curriculum
reforms should produce outcomes.
Focus: Present and future educational  He emphasized social studies and
landscape suggested that the teacher plans
Trends: School and curricular reform, curriculum in advance.
Global education, Collaboration and
Convergence, Standards and Competencies
Hollis Caswell (1901-1989) 3.1 Association and Behaviorism
 Curriculum is organized around social
functions of themes, organized Ivan Pavlov (1849-1936)
knowledge and learner's interest.  He is the father of the classical
 Curriculum, instruction and learning conditioning theory, the S-R theory.
are interrelated.  The key to learning is early years of life
 Curriculum is a set of experiences. is to train them what you want them to
Subject matter is developed around become.
social functions and learners' interests.  S-R Theory is a foundation of learning
practice called indoctrination.
Ralph Tyler (1902-1994)
 Curriculum is a science and an Edward Thorndike (1874-1949)
extension of school's philosophy. It is  He championed the connectionism
based on students' needs and interest. theory.
 Curriculum is always related to  He proposed the three laws of learning:
instruction. Subject matter is organized - Law of readiness
in terms of knowledge, skills and - Law of exercise
values. - Law of effect
 The process emphasizes problem  Specific stimulus has specific response.
solving. Curriculum aims to educate
generalists and not specialists. Robert Gagne (1916-2002)
 He proposed the hierarchical learning
Hilda Taba (1902-1967) theory Learning follows a hierarchy.
 She contributed to the theoretical and  Behavior is based on prerequisite
pedagogical foundations of concepts conditions.
development and critical thinking in  He introduced tasking in the
social studies curriculum. formulation of objectives.
 She helped lay the foundation for
diverse student population. 3.2 Cognitive Information Processing
Theory
Peter Oliva (1992-2012)
 He described curriculum change as a Jean Piaget (1896-1980)
cooperative endeavor.  Theories of Jean Piaget
 Teachers and curriculum specialist - Cognitive development has stages
constitute the professional core of from birth to maturity.
planners. - Sensorimotor stage (0-2),
 Significant improvement is achieved preoperational stage (2-7), concrete
through group activity. operations stage (7-11) and formal
operations (11 - onwards).
Psychological Foundation of Curriculum  Keys to learning
Psychology provides a basis to - Assimilation (incorporation of new
understand the teaching and learning experience)
process. It unifies elements of the learning - Accommodation (learning
process. Questions which can be addressed modification and adaptation)
by psychological foundations of education - Equilibration (balance between
are: How should curriculum be organized to previous and later learning)
enhance learning? What is the optimal level
of students' participation in learning the Lev Vygotsky (1896-1934)
various contents of the curriculum? In this Theories of Lev Vygotsky:
module, we shall consider three groups of  Cultural transmission and development
learning theories: behaviorism or stage. Children could, as a result of
association theories; cognitive-information their interaction with society, actually
processing theories and humanistic theories perform certain cognitive actions prior
(Ornstein & Hunkins, 2004). to arriving at developmental stage.
 Learning precedes development.
 Sociocultural development theory.  Produce a healthy and happy learner
Keys to Learning: who can accomplish, grow and
 Pedagogy creates learning processes actualize his or her human self.
that lead to development.
 The child is an active agent in his or Carl Rogers (1902-1987)
her educational process.  Nondirective and therapeutic learning
 He established counselling procedures
Howard Gardner and methods for facilitating learning.
 Gardner's multiple intelligences  Children's perceptions, which are
 Humans have several different ways of highly individualistic, influence their
processing information and these ways learning and behaviour in class.
are relatively independent of one Key to learning:
another.  Curriculum is concerned with process,
 There are eight intelligences: linguistic, not product; personal needs, not subject
logico-mathematical, musical, spatial, matter, psychological meaning, not
bodily/kinesthetic, interpersonal, cognitive scores.
intrapersonal, and naturalistic
4.0 Social Foundations of Curriculum
Daniel Goleman
 Emotion contains the power to affect Schools and Society
action.  Society as a source of change
 He called this Emotional Quotient.  Schools as agents of change
 Knowledge as an agent of change
3.3 Humanistic Psychology
Emile Durkheim (1858-1917)
Gestalt  Influence of society and social context
 Gestalt Theory in education
 Learning is explained in terms of  Things that surround individuals can
"wholeness" of the problem. change, develop their behavior.
 Human beings do not respond to  Considered two fundamental elements
isolated stimuli but to an organization which are schools and civil society
or pattern of stimuli.
Keys to learning: Alvin Toffler
 Learning is complex and abstract.  Wrote the book Future Shock
 Learners analyze the problem,  Believed that knowledge should
discriminate between essential and prepare students for the future
nonessential data, and perceive  Suggested that in the future, parents
relationships. might have the resources to teach
 Learners will perceive something in prescribed curriculum from home as a
relation to the whole. What/how they result of technology, not in spite of it.
perceive is related to their previous (Home Schooling)
experiences.  Foresaw schools and students worked
creatively, collaboratively, and
Abraham Maslow (1908-1970) independent of their age
 He advanced the Self-Actualization
Theory. Other Theorists
 Classic theory of human needs
 A child whose basic needs are not met Paolo Freire (1921-1997)
will not be interested in acquiring  Education as a means of shaping the
knowledge of the world. person and society through critical
 He put importance to human emotions, reflections and "conscientization"
based on love and trust.  Teachers use questioning and problem
posing approach to raise students'
Key to learning: consciousness
 Emphasis on questioning problem Ten Axioms About Curriculum That
posing and critical thinking Teachers Need as Reminders
 Major book: Pedagogy of the 1. Curriculum change is inevitable,
Oppressed, 1968 necessary, and desirable. Earlier it was
stated that one of the characteristics of
John Goodlad (1920-2014) curriculumis its being dynamic. Because of
 Curriculum organized around needs of this, teachers should respond to the changes
society and the students that occur in schools and in their context.
 Reduce student conformity in Societal development and knowledge
classroom revolution come so fast that the need to
 Constant need for school improvement address the changing condition requires new
 Emphasis on active learning and curriculum designs.
critical thinking 2. Curriculum is a product of its time. A
 Involvement of students in planning relevant curriculum should respond to
curriculum content and instructional changes brought about by current social
activities forces, philosophical positions,
 Need to align content with standards psychological principles, new knowledge,
 Major book: A Place Called Schools, and educational reforms. This is also called
1984; What Are Schools For? 1989 timeliness.
3. Curriculum changes made earlier can
William Pinar (1947- exist concurrently with newer curriculum
 Broaden the conception of curriculum changes. A revision in a curriculum starts
to enrich the practice and ends slowly. More often, curriculum is
 Understand the nature of the gradually phased in and phased out, thus the
educational experience changes that occur can coexist and
 Curriculum involves multiple oftentimes overlap for long periods of time.
disciplines 4. Curriculum change depends on people
 Curriculum should be studied from a who will implement the change. Teachers
historical, racial, gendered, who will implement the curriculum should
phenomenological, postmodern, be involved in its development, hence
theological and international should know how to design a curriculum.
perspectives. Because the teachers are the implementers
of the curriculum, it is best that they should
In summary, the foundation upon which design and own the changes. This will
curriculum is based are educational ensure an effective and long lasting change.
philosophies, historical developments, 5. Curriculum development is a
psychological explanations, and societal cooperative group activity. Group
influences. All of these foundations are decisions in some aspects of curriculum
interrelated. development are suggested. Consultations
with stakeholders when possible will add to
Building on Peter Oliva's 10 Axioms for a sense of ownership. Even learners should
Curriculum Designers participate in some aspect of curriculum
As we begin to discuss about designing. Any significant change in the
curriculum designing, all teachers need to curriculum should involve a broad range of
know the different axioms or theorems stakeholders to gain their understanding,
regarding curriculum as presented by support, and input.
Gordon, W., Taylor R., and Oliva, P. in 6. Curriculum development is a decision-
2019. These axioms will be used to guide making process made from choices of
curricularist in designing a curriculum. alternatives. A curriculum developer or
Axioms are principles that practitioners as designer must decide what contents to teach,
curriculum designer can use as guidelines or philosophy or point of view to support, how
a frame of reference. to provide for multicultural groups, what
methods - or strategies, and what type of
evaluation to use.
7. Curriculum development is an ongoing the name of the design, the common
process. Continuous monitoring, components for all of them are almost the
examination, evaluation, and improvement same. However some schools, institutions or
of curricula are to be considered in the departments may add other minor parts or
design of the curriculum. As the needs of trimmings to the design.
learners change, as society changes, and as
new knowledge and technology appear, the Let us take the Lesson Plan as a
curriculum must change. miniscule curriculum. A lesson plan or
8. Curriculum development is more teaching guide includes (1) Intended
effective if it is a comprehensive process, Learning Outcomes (ILO) or the Desired
rather than a "piecemeal". A curriculum Learning Outcome (DLO) formerly labelled
design should be based on a careful plan, as behavioral objectives, (2) Subject Matter
should clearly establish intended outcomes, or Content, (3) Teaching and Learning
support resources and needed time available Methods and (4) Assessment Evaluation.
and should equip teaching staff Each of these components or elements is
pedagogically. described below.
9. Curriculum development is more
effective when it follows a systematic I. Behavioral Objectives or Intended
process. A curriculum design is composed Learning Outcomes
of desired outcomes, subject matter content Begin with the end in view. The
complemented with references, set of objectives or intended learning outcomes
procedures, needed materials and resources are the reasons for undertaking the learning
and evaluation procedure which can be lesson from the student's point of view; it is
placed in a matrix. desired learning outcome that is to be
10. Curriculum development starts from accomplished in a particular learning
where the curriculum is. Curriculum episode, engaged in by the learners under
planners and designers should begin with the guidance of the teacher. As a curriculum
existing curriculum. An existing design is a designer, the beginning of the learning
good starting point for any teacher who journey is the learning outcomes to be
plans to enhance and enrich a curriculum. achieved. In this way, both the learner and
the teacher are guided by what to
Building upon the ideas of Oliva, let us accomplish.
continue learning how to design a The behavioral objectives, intended
curriculum by identifying its components. learning outcomes or desired learning
For most curricula the major components or outcomes are expressed in action words
elements are answers to the following found in the revised Bloom's Taxonomy of
questions: Objectives (Andersen and Krathwohl, 2003)
1. What learning outcomes need to be for the development of the cognitive skills.
achieved? (Intended Learning Outcomes) For the affective skills, refer to the
2. What content should be included to taxonomy made by Krathwohl and for the
achieve the learning outcomes? (Subject psychomotor domain by Simpson.
Matter)
3. What learning experiences and resources The statement should be SMART:
should be employed? (Teaching-Learning Specific. Measurable, Attainable, Result-
Methods) oriented and Time-bound. For a beginner,
4. How will the achieved learning outcomes it would help if you provide the Condition,
be measured? (Assessment of Achieved Performance and Extent or Level of
Learning Outcomes) Performance in the statement of the
intended earning outcomes.
Elements or Components of a
Curriculum Design II. Content/Subject Matter
There are many labels or names for
curriculum design. Some would call it a The content of the lesson or unit is the
syllabus or a lesson plan. Some would call it topic or subject matter that will be covered.
a unit plan or a course design. Whatever is In selecting content, you should bear in
mind the following principles in addition to guided to learn on their own to find
those mentioned about the content in solutions to their problems. The role of
previous lessons: the teachers is to guide the learners.
Democratic process is encouraged, and
 Subject matter should be relevant to the each one contributes to the success of
outcomes of the curriculum. An learning. Students learn from each
effective curriculum is purposive and other in ways. Group projects and
clearly focused on the planned learning activities considerably enhance the
outcomes. curriculum.
 Subject matter should be appropriate to  Independent learning activities allow
the level of the lesson or unit. An learners to develop personal
effective curriculum is progressive, responsibility. The degree of
leading students towards building on independence to learn how to learn is
previous lessons. Contents which are enhanced. This strategy is more
too basic or too advanced for the appropriate for fast learners.
development levels of learners make  Competitive activities, where students
students either bored or baffled and will test their competencies against
affect their motivation to learn. another in a healthy manner, allow
 Subject matter should be up-to-date learners to perform to their maximum.
and, if possible, should reflect current Most successful individuals in their
knowledge and concepts. adult life are competitive, even in early
 Subject matter should follow the schooling. They mostly become the
principle of BASICS. survivors in a very competitive world.

III. References There are some examples of very simple

teaching-learning methods with detailed
The reference follows the content. It steps that you can start using as you begin
tells where the content or subject matter has teaching.
been taken. The reference may be a book, a Some Behaviorist Teaching Learning
module, or any publication. It must bear the Methods
author of the material and if possible, the A. Direct Instruction: Barak
publications. Some examples are given Rosenshine Model (in Ornstien & Hunkins,
below. 2018)
1. Project Wild (1992) K to 12 Activity
Guide, An Interdisciplinary, Supplementary Detailed Steps:
Conservation and Environmental Education 1. State Learning Objectives/ Outcomes:
Program. Council of Environmental Begin lesson with a short statement of
Education, Bethesda, MD objective or desired lesson learning
2. Shipman, James and Jerry Wilson, et al outcomes.
(2009). An Introduction to Physical Science. 2. Review: Introduce short review of
Houghton Mifflin Co. Boston MA previous or prerequisite learning.
3. Present new materials: Present materials
IV. Teaching and Learning Methods in small, sequenced manner.
4. Explain: Give clear and detailed
These are the activities where the instructions and explanations.
learners derive experiences. It is always 5. Practice: Provide active practice for all
good to keep in mind the teaching strategies students.
that students will experience (lectures, 6. Guide. Guide students during initial
laboratory classes, fieldwork etc.) and make practice; or provide seatwork activities.
them learn. The teaching-learning methods 7. Check for understanding. Ask several
should allow cooperation, competition as questions, assess students comprehension.
well as individualism or independent 8. Provide Feedback. Provide systematic
learning among the students. For example: feedback and corrections.
 Cooperative learning activities allow
students to work together. Students are
9. Assess performance. Obtain student group based on group size and
success rate of 80 percent or more during performance..
practice session. 7. Posttest. Give a summary test for non-
10. Review and test. Provide for spaced mastery group.
review and testing. 8. Assess performance. At least 75% of the
students should achieve mastery by the
B. Guided Instruction: Madeline Hunter summative test.
Model (in Ornstein & Hunkins, 2018) 9. Reteach. If not, repeat procedures;
starting with corrective instructions (small
1. Review. Focus on previous lesson, ask study groups, individual tutoring, alternative
students to summarize main points. instructional materials, extra homework,
2. Anticipatory set. Focus student's reading materials practice and drill).
attention on new lesson. Stimulate interest
in the new materials. D. Systematic Instruction: Thomas Good
3. Objective. State explicitly what is to be and Jere Brophy (in Ornstein and Hunkins,
learned; state rationale or how it will be 2018)
useful.
4. Input. Identify needed.knowledge and 1. Review. Review concepts and skills
skills for learning new lesson; present related to homework, provide review
materials in sequenced steps. exercises.
5. Modeling. Provide several examples or 2. Development. Promote students
demonstrations throughout the lesson. understanding, provide controlled practice.
6. Check for understanding. Monitor 3. Assess comprehension. Ask questions,
students' work before they become involved provide controlled practice.
in lesson activities, check to see they 4. Seatwork. Provide uninterrupted
understand directions or tasks. seatwork; get everyone involved, sustain
7. Guided practice. Periodically ask momentum.
students questions and check their answers. 5. Accountability. Check the students work.
Again monitor understanding. 6. Homework. Assign homework regularly;
8. Independent practice. Assign provide review problems.
independent work or practice when it is 7. Special reviews. Provide weekly reviews
reasonably sure that students can work on to check and further maintain and enhance
their own with understanding and minimal learning.
frustration.
Teaching-Learning Environment
C. Mastery Learning; JH Block and In the choice of the teaching learning
Lorin Anderson Model (in Ornstein & methods, equally important is the teaching
Hunkins, 2018) learning environment. Brian Castaldi in
1987 suggested four criteria in the provision
1. Clarify. Explain to students what they are of the environment or learning spaces in
expected to learn. designing a curriculum. These criteria
2. Inform. Teach the lesson, relying on the include (1) adequacy, (2) suitability, (3)
whole group instruction. efficiency and (4) economy.
3. Pretest. Give a formative quiz on a no
fault-basis, students can check their own 1. Adequacy- This refers to the actual
paper. learning space or classrooms. Is the
4. Group. Based on results, divide the class classroom large enough for student's
into mastery and non-mastery groups (80% mobility for class interaction and
is considered mastery) collaborative work. Is there enough light
5. Enrich and correct. Give enrichment and ventilation so that the learning space is
instruction to mastery group. Give conducive, and safe for learning? To
corrective (practice/drill) to non-mastery provide learning condition that will provide
group. opportunities that will develop the 21st
6. Monitor. Monitor student progress; vary century skills, there must be a provision for
amount of teacher time and support for each
the utilization of technology for teaching Students usually learn more by
and learning and the use of the cyberspace. understanding the strengths and weaknesses
2. Suitability- This relates to planned of their work than by knowing the mark or
activities. Suitability should consider grade given to it. For this reason, summative
chronological and developmental ages of assessment tasks (including unseen
learners. Also to be considered will be the examinations) should include an element of
socio-cultural, economic even religious formative feedback, if possible.
background of the learners.
3. Efficiency- This refers to operational and Application of the Fundamental
instructional effectiveness. Components to Other Curriculum
4. Economy- This refers to cost Designs
effectiveness. How much is needed to While our example refers only to
provide instructional materials? designing a lesson plan which is a mini
curriculum, similar components will also be
VI. Assessment/Evaluation used in making a syllabus for teaching in
Learning occurs most effectively higher education courses or other curricular
when students receive feedback, i.e. when projects. Based on the curriculum models
they receive information on what they have we have learned, the fundamental
already (and have not) learned. The process components include the following:
by which this information is generated is Major components of a Course Design or
assessment. It has three main forms: Syllabus

 Self assessment, through which 1. Intended Outcomes (or Objectives)

students learn to monitor and evaluate 2. Content/Subject Matter (with references)
their own learning. This should be a 3. Methods/Strategies (with needed
significant element in the curriculum resources)
because we aim to produce graduates 4. Evaluation (means of assessment)
who are appropriately reflective and
self-critical. Simply put, curriculum design is the
 Peer assessment, in which students organization of curriculum components. All
provide feedback on each other's other additional components are trimmings
learning. This can be viewed as an that each designer may add. This may be
extension of self-assessment and institutional template or suggested by other
presupposes trust and mutual respect. curriculum experts or required by
Research suggests that students can educational agencies like the Department of
learn to judge each other's work as Education, Commission on Higher
reliably, as staff. Education, Accrediting Agencies,
 Teacher assessment, in which the Professional Regulation Commission to
teacher prepares and administers tests achieve a specific purpose of such agency.
and gives feedback on the student's
performance. Types of Curriculum Design Models
There are many ways of looking at
Assessment may be formative (providing curriculum and designing one. For our own
feedback to help the student learn more) or purposes, let us focus on the most widely
summative (expressing a judgment on the used examples.
student's achievement by reference to stated
criteria). Many assessment tasks involve an 1. Subject-Centered Design
element of both, e.g. an assignment that is This is a curriculum design that focuses
marked and returned to the student with on the content of the curriculum. The
detailed comments. subject-centered design corresponds mostly
to the textbook because textbooks are
Summative assessment usually involves usually written based the specific subject or
the allocation of marks or grades. This helps course. Henry Morrison and William Harris
the teacher make decisions about the are the few curricularists who firmly
progress or performance of the students. believed in this design. As practised, school
hours are allocated to different school discipline design focuses on academic
subjects such as Science, Mathematics, disciplines. Discipline refers to specific
Language, Social Studies, Physical knowledge learned through a method which
Education, and others. This is also practised the scholars use to study a specific content
in the Philippines, because a school day is of their fields. Students in history should
divided into class period, a school year into learn the 1171.subject matter like historians,
quarters or semester. Most of the schools students in biology should learn how the
using this kind of structure and curriculum biologists learn, and so with students in
design aim for excellence in the specific mathematics, who should learn how
subject discipline content. mathematicians learn. In the same manner,
teachers should teach how the scholars in
Subject-centered curriculum design has the discipline will convey the particular
also some variations which are focused on knowledge.
the individual subject, specific discipline Discipline design model of curriculum is
and a combination of subjects or often used in college, but not in the
disciplines which are a broad field or elementary or secondary levels. So from the
interdisciplinary. subject-centered curriculum, curriculum
moves higher to a discipline when the
1.1. Subject design. What subject are you students are more mature and are already
teaching? What subject are you taking? moving towards their career path or
These are two simple questions that the disciplines as science, mathematics,
teacher and the learner can easily answer. It psychology, humanities, history and others.
is because they are familiar with the subject
design curriculum. 1.3 Correlation design. Coming from a
Subject design curriculum is the oldest core, correlated curriculum design links
and so far the most familiar design for separate subject designs in order to reduce
teachers, parents and other laymen. fragmentation. Subjects are related to one
According to the advocates, subject design another and still maintain their identity. For
has an advantage because it is easy to example, English literature and social
deliver. Textbooks are written and support studies correlate well in the elementary
instructional materials are commercially level. In the two subjects, while history is
available. Teachers are familiar with the being studied, different literary pieces
format, because they were educated using during the historical period are also being
also the design. In the Philippine studied. The same is true when science
educational system, the number of subjects becomes the core, mathematics is related to
in the elementary education is fewer than in it, as they are taken in chemistry, physics
the secondary level. In college, the number and biology. Another example is literature
of subjects also differs according to the as the core with art, music, history,
degree programs being pursued. For each geography related to it. To use correlated
subject, a curriculum is being designed. design, teachers should come together and
However, the drawback of this design is plan their lessons cooperatively.
that sometimes, learning is so
compartmentalized. It stresses so much the 1.4 Broad field design/interdisciplinary.
content and forgets about students' natural Broad field design or interdisciplinary is a
tendencies, interests and experiences. The variation of the subject-centered design.
teacher becomes the dispenser of knowledge This design was made to cure the
and the learners are the simply the empty compartmentalization of the separate
vessel to receive the information or content subjects and integrate the contents that are
from the teacher. This is a traditional related to one another. Thus subjects such as
approach to teaching and learning. geography, economics, political science,
anthropology, sociology and history are
1.2 Discipline design. This curriculum fused into one subject called social studies.
design model is related to the subject Language arts will include grammar,
design. However, while subject design literature, linguistics, spelling, and
centers only on the cluster of content, composition. Sometimes called holistic
curriculum, broad fields draw around and children are free to make options.
themes and integration. Interdisciplinary Activities revolve around different emphasis
design is similar to thematic design, where a such as touching, feeling, imagining,
specific theme is identified, and all other constructing, relating and others. The
subject areas revolve around the theme. emergence of multiple intelligence theory
blends well with experience-centered design
1. Learner-Centered Design curriculum.
Among progressive educational
psychologists, the learner is the center of the 1.3 Humanistic design. The key
educative process. This emphasis is very influence in this curriculum design is
strong in the elementary level, however, Abraham Maslow and Carl Rogers.
more concern has been placed on the Maslow's theory of self-actualization
secondary and even the tertiary levels. explains that a person who achieves this
Although in high school, the subject or level is accepting of self, others and nature;
content has become the focus and in the is simple, spontaneous and natural; is open
college level, the discipline is the center, to different experiences; possesses empathy
both levels still recognize the importance of and sympathy towards the less fortunate
the learner in the curriculum. among the many others. The person can
Here are some examples of curriculum achieve this state of self-actualization later
designs which are learner-centered. in life but has to start the process while still
in school. Carl Rogers, on the other hand,
1.1 Child-centered design. This design believed that a person can enhance self-
is often attributed to the influence of John directed learning by improving self-
Dewey, Rouseau, Pestallozi and Froebel. understanding, the basic attitude to guide
This curriculum design is anchored on the behavior.
needs and interests of the child. The learner
is not considered a passive individual but In a humanistic curriculum design, the
one who engages with his/her environment. development of self is the ultimate objective
One learns by doing. Learners actively of learning. It stresses the whole person and
create, construct meanings and the integration of thinking, feeling and
understanding as viewed by the doing. It considers the cognitive, affective
constructivists. In the child-centered design, and psychomotor domains to be
learners interact with the teachers and the interconnected and must be addressed in the
environment, thus there is a collaborative curriculum. It stresses the development of
effort on both sides to plan lessons, select positive self-concept and interpersonal
content and do activities together. Learning skills.
is a product of the child's interaction with
the environment. 2. Problem-Centered Design
Generally, problem-centered design
1.2 Experience-centered design. This draws on social problems, needs, interest
design is similar to the child-centered and abilities of the learners. Various
design. Although the focus remains to be the problems are given emphasis. There are
child, experience-centered design believes those that center on life situations,
that the interests and needs of learners contemporary life problems, areas of living
cannot be pre-planned. Instead, experiences and many others. In this curriculum, content
of the learners become the starting point of cuts across subject boundaries and must be
the curriculum, thus the school environment based on the needs, concerns and abilities of
is left open and free. Learners are made to the students. Two examples are given for
choose from various activities that the the problem- centered design curriculum.
teacher provides. The learners are
empowered to shape their own learning 2.1 Life-situations design. What makes the
from the different opportunities given by the design unique is that the contents are
teacher. In a school where experience- organized in ways that allow students to
centered curriculum is provided, different clearly view problem areas. It uses the past
learning centers are found, time is flexible and the present experiences of learners as a
means to analyze the basic areas of living. Approaches to Curriculum Design
As a starting point, the pressing immediate Models
problems of the society and the students' How will a particular design be
existing concerns are utilized. Based on approached by the teacher? After writing a
Herbert Spencer's curriculum writing, his curriculum based on the specific design, let
emphases were activities that sustain life, us see how a teacher will approach this. We
enhance life, aid in rearing children, will find out the utilization of the example
maintain the individual's social and political design.
relations and enhance leisure, tasks and
feelings. The connection of subject matter to Child or Learner-Centered Approach.
real situations increases the relevance of the This approach to curriculum design is based
curriculum. on the underlying philosophy that the child
or the learner is the center of the educational
2.1 Core problem design. Another example process. It means that the curriculum is
of problem-centered design is core design. It constructed based on the needs, interest,
centers on general education and the purposes and abilities of the learners. The
problems are based on the common human curriculum is also built upon the learners'
activities. The central focus of the core knowledge, skills, previous learnings and
design includes common needs, problems, potentials.
and concerns of the learners. Popularized by From its design, how should a child-
Faunce and Bossing in 1959, it presented centered curriculum be approached? Let us
ways on how to proceed using core design consider these principles.
of a curriculum. These are the steps:
Step 1. Make group consensus on important Principles of Child-Centered Curriculum
problems. Approach
Step 2. Develop criteria for selection of 1. Acknowledge and respect the
important problem. fundamental rights of the child.
Step 3. State and define the problem. 2. Make all activities revolve around the
Step 4. Decide on areas of study, including overall development of the learner.
class grouping. 3. Consider the uniqueness of every learner
Step 5. List the needed information for in a multicultural classroom.
resources. 4. Consider using differentiated instruction
Step 6. Obtain and organize information. or teaching.
Step 7. Analyze and interpret the 5. Provide a motivating supportive learning
information. environment for all the learners.
Step 8. State the tentative conclusions.
Step 9. Present a report to the class Subject-Centered Approach. This is
individally or by group. anchored on a curriculum design which
Step 10. Evaluate the conclusions. prescribes separate distinct subjects for
Step 11. Explore other avenues for further every educational level: basic education,
problem solving. higher education or vocational-technical
education. This approach considers the
These are some examples of curriculum following principles:
designs. There are many more which are 1. The primary focus is the subject matter.
emerging and those that have evolved in the 2. The emphasis is on bits and pieces of
past. The example given may be limited, information which may be detached from
however, for our purposes, they can very life.
well represent curriculum designs. 3. The subject matter serves as a means of
identifying problems of living.
4. Learning means accumulation of content,
or knowledge.
5. Teacher's role is to dispense the content.
Problem-Centered Approach. This 2. What do they study in the first
approach is based on a design which quarter?
assumes that in the process of living, 3. What are they studying in the school
children experience problems. Thus, throughout the year?
problem solving enables the learners to 4. Do my co-teachers who handle the
become increasingly able to achieve same subject, cover the same content?
complete or total development as Achieve the same outcomes? Use similar
individuals. strategies?
This approach is characterized by the 5. How do I help my students
following views and beliefs: understand the connections between my
subjects and other subjects within the year?
1. The learners are capable of directing and Next year?
guiding themselves in resolving problems,
thus developing every learner to be Furthermore, mapping will produce a
independent. curriculum map, which is a very functional
2. The learners are prepared to assume their tool in curriculum development.
civic responsibilities through direct
participation in different activities. Benefits of Curriculum Mapping
3. The curriculum leads the learners in the
recognition of concerns and problems in 1. Curriculum mapping ensures alignment
seeking solutions. Learners are problem of the desired learning outcomes, learning
solvers themselves. activities and assessment of learning.
2. Curriculum mapping addresses the gaps
Curriculum Mapping or repetitions in the curriculum. It reveals if
certain program goals or learning outcomes
Curriculum mapping is a model for are not adequately covered or overly
designing, refining, upgrading and emphasized in the current curriculum.
reviewing the curriculum resulting in a 3. Curriculum mapping verifies, clarifies
framework that provides form, focu focus and establishes alignment between what
and function (Hale and Dunlap, 2010). It is students do in their courses and what is
a reflective process tat helps teachers taught in the classrooms and assessed as
understand what has been taught in class., their learning.
how it has been taught and how learning 4. The curriculum maps visually show
outcomes are assessed. This process was important elements of the curriculum and
introduced by Heidi Hayes Jacobs in 2004 how they contribute to student learning.
in her book Getting results with Curriculum 5. Curriculum mapping connects all
Mapping (ASCD, 2004). This approach is initiatives from instruction, pedagogies,
an ongoing process or "work-in-progress". It assessment and professional development. It
is not a one time initiative but a continuing facilitates the integration of cross-curricular
action, which involves the teacher and other skills.
stakeholders, who have common concerns.
Curriculum mapping can be done by Curriculum Mapping Process
teachers alone, a group of teachers teaching There are many ways of doing things,
the same subject, the department, the whole according to what outcome one needs to
school or district or the whole educational produce. This is also true with curriculum
system. mapping. However, whatever outcome
Some curricularists would describe (map) will be made, there are suggested
curriculum mapping as making a map to steps to follow.
success. There are common questions that
are asked by different stakeholders, like The Curriculum Map
teachers, colleagues, parents, school Curriculum maps are visual timelines
officials and the community as well. These that outline desired learning outcomes to be
questions may include: achieved, contents, skills and values taught,
1. What do my students learn? instructional time, assessment to be used,
and the overall student movement towards
the attainment of the intended outcomes. information for modification of curriculum,
Curricular maps may be simple or elaborate changing of standards and competencies in
that can be used by an individual teacher, a order to find ways to build connections in
department, the whole school or educational the elements of the curricula.
system. A map is geared to a school
calendar. Example of a Curriculum Map
Curriculum maps provide quality control Here are two examples of a curriculum
of what are taught in schools to maintain map. Sample A is for Basic Education and
excellence, efficiency and effectiveness. It Sample B is for a College Level.
is intended to improve instruction and
maintain quality of education that all
stakeholders need to be assured of.
Sometimes, parents and teachers would
ask questions like: "Why is my friend's
son studying decimals in Mr. Bernardo's
class and my own son is not studying the
same in Miss Julia's class when they are
of the same grade level?" or "Why do
some of my students recognize the parts
of speech while others are totally lost?"
Parents, teachers and the whole
educational community can look at the
curriculum map to see that intended
outcomes and content are covered. A map
can reassure stakeholders specific
information for pacing, and alignment of the
subject horizontally or vertically. It will also
avoid redundancy, inconsistencies and
misalignment. Courses that are not correctly
aligned will allow teachers to quickly assess
the mastery of the skills in the previous
grade, to avoid unnecessary reteaching.
Horizontal alignment, called
sometimes as "pacing guide", will make
all teachers, teaching the same subject in a
grade level follow the same timeline and
accomplishing the same learning outcomes.
This is necessary for state-mandated,
standard-based assessment that we have in Curriculum Quality Audit
schools. Vertical alignment, will see to it Curriculum Quality Audit (CQA) is a
that concept development which may be in form of curriculum mapping. It is a process
hierarchy or in spiral form does not overlap of mapping the curricular program or
but building from a simple to more syllabus against established standards. This
complicated concepts and skills. Alignment, process is supported by Susan Rafe when
either vertical or horizontal, will also she said that the best practice in curriculum
develop interdisciplinary connections development and implementation require
among teachers and students, between and that discipline based standards embody
among courses. Teachers can verify that curricular and program scopes and
skills and content are addressed in other sequences (Arafeh, 2016, p. 585) The
courses or to higher levels, thus making curriculum quality audit requires a written
learning more relevant. curriculum and the tested curriculum linked
A curriculum map is always a work in to both the taught and the written curricula.
progress, that enables the teacher or the
curriculum review team to create and
recreate the curriculum. It provides a good
 For those who want to engage in for beginning teachers (career stage 1) are
curriculum quality audit, the following addressed in the pre-service curriculum.
questions are worth considering: Using the CQA, teacher educators are
1. Is the curriculum planned, executed, and assured that pre-service teachers embody the
assessed in accordance with appropriate competencies of beginning teachers as they
standards? practice their profession in the Department
2. How does the school system conform to of Education.
the standards of quality in instructional
organization like specificity, quality and There are other standards that can
scope for teaching, learning and used in the CQA aside from the PPST.
assessment? CHED CMOS 74 to 83 are standards set by
3. Are all students achieving success equally the Commission on Higher Education,
and effectively? If not, what can be done specific to the degree program being offered
about it? and the teachers who are the outcomes of
the programs. They have both the generic
standards for all teacher education degree
Benefits of Curriculum Quality Audit programs and specific standards for each
1. Identify gaps, under and degree program. For example CMO 74. S.
overrepresentation of the curriculum based 2017 contain the standards for Bachelor of
on the standards. Elementary Education, or for teachers who
2. Ensures alignment of learning will teach in the elementary level and CMO
outcomes, activities and assessment to the 75, s. 2017 contain the standards for
standards. Bachelor of Secondary Education or for
3. Achieves an internationally teachers who will teach in the secondary
comparable curriculum as standards become level.
the basis of the curriculum analysis.
Aside from the national standards for
teachers, there are also international
The Philippine Professional standards for globalization like the
Standards for Teachers (PPST) can be Competency Framework for Teachers in
used as anchor in curriculum quality audit. Southeast Asia (CFT-SEA) of SEAMEO
The PPST aims to set clear expectations of and SEAMES and the European Tuning
teachers along well-defined career stages of Asia Southeast (TASE) teacher
professional development from beginning to competences.
distinguished practice. The Philippines has
adopted and implemented the PPST through
the Department of Education Order (DO)
42, s. 2017. Teacher educators, program
heads, curriculum planners may refer to the
PPST to 'quality audit' the pre-service
teacher education curriculum as basis for
quality assurance provision of teacher
education.

The first CQA in teacher education

curriculum in the Philippines was initiated
by the Research Center for Teacher Quality
(RCTQ), the Philippine Normal University,
Cebu Normal University, West Visayas
University, Western Mindanao State
University and other member universities of
the National Network of Normal Schools
(3Ns). Using the curriculum quality audit
(CQA) process, pre- service syllabi were
mapped to the PPST to ensure that standards