First to fourth week of

Development

David Makokwa
Recap on fertilization
Week 1 post conception
• Zygote divides repeatedly moving
down toward uterus (cleavage).
• The daughter cells are called
blastomeres. Morula: the solid cluster
of 12-16 blastomeres at about 96
hours. (day 4)
• Day 6: late 60 cell morula enters
uterus, taking up fluid becoming
blastocyst.
Blastocyst stage
Two distinct types of cells
• Inner cell mass: forms the embryo
• Trophoblast: layer of cells surrounding the
cavity which helps form the placenta
• Implantation takes about day 6 post
conception
• Trophoblast erodes uterine wall
• Takes 1 week to complete
• If inner cell mass of a single blastocyst divides:
monozygotic (identical) twins form
Week 2
• Inner cell mass divides into epiblast and hypoblast
• 2 fluid filled sacs
• Amniotic sac from epiblast
• Yolk sac from hypoblast
• Bilaminar embryonic disc: area of contact (gives rise to the whole
body)
Most critical time is 1st three weeks should something go wrong
spontaneous abortion will take place, but from 4th to 8th weeks baby
will continue to grow but with major complications and or
deformities.
Bilaminar to trilaminar disc
• Three primary “germ” layers: all
body tissues develop from these
• Ectoderm
• Mesoderm
• Endoderm
Bilaminar to trilaminar disc
Formation of the 3 “germ” layers
• Primitive streak (groove) on dorsal surface of epiblast
• Gastrulation: invagination of epiblast cells

• Days 14-15: they replace hypoblast becoming endoderm

• Day 16: mesoderm (a new third layer) formed in between Epiblast
cells remaining on surface: ectoderm
The three “germ” tissues
• Results in early specialization of
cells
• Are precursors
• Ectoderm and endoderm are
epithelial tissue (form sheets of
tissue)
• Mesoderm is a mesenchyme tissue
• Mesenchyme cells are star shaped
and do not attach to one another,
therefore migrate freely
The three “germ” tissues
Notochord
• Days 16-18
• Primitive node epiblast cells
invaginate and migrate
anteriorly with some endoderm
cells
• Rod defining the body axis is
formed
• Future site of the vertebral
column
Neurulation
• Notochord signals overlying ectoderm
• Formation begins of spinal cord and brain (neurulation)
• Neural plate to neural groove to neural tube: pinched off into body
 Neurulation
• Closure of neural tube: begins at end of week 3; complete by end of
week 4 (folic acid important for this step)
• Extends cranially (eventually brain) and caudally (spinal cord)
• Neural crest, lateral ectodermal cells, pulled along and form sensory
nerve cells and other structures
 Mesodermal Differentiation

• Mesoderm begins to differentiate

• Lateral to notochord, week 3
• Extends cranially and caudally (from head to tail or crown to rump)
• Division of mesoderm into three regions
• Somites: 40 pairs of body segments (repeating units, like building blocks) by end
week 4
• Intermediate mesoderm: just lateral to somites
• Lateral plate: splits to form coelom (“cavity”)
 Mesodermal Differentiation
Divisions of the mesodermal lateral plate
• Somatic mesoderm: apposed to the ectoderm
• Splanchnic mesoderm: apposed to the endoderm
• Coelom in between will become the serous cavities of the ventral
body cavity:
• Peritoneal
• Pericardial
• Pleural
 Week 4
• Folding begins at week 4
• main difference between the 3 week embryo and the adult body is
that the embryo is still a flat disc)
24 day embryo; protrudes into amniotic cavity
• Day 23, beginning to fold, Lateral folds will join ventrally
• Cylindrical human body plan, day 28 (about ½ cm)
Simplified cross section through abdomen of an adult
(essentially the same as above)
Major derivatives of the embryonic germ layers
29 day embryo (this is when the heart starts pumping, about 4
weeks or 1 month, ½ cm size)
Month 3 Month 5
By 8 weeks, about 2 months, all major organs are in place in at least a
rudimentary form; this is why drugs early in pregnancy are so important
to avoid – many cause birth defects;
Fetal Period
Fetal Development and Birth
Fetal Development and Birth
• Fetal development includes the third through the ninth months of
development. At this time, the fetus looks human
Third and fourth months
• At the beginning of the third month, the fetal head is still very large, the
nose is flat, the eyes are far apart, and the ears are well formed.
• Head growth now begins to slow down as the rest of the body increases in
length.
• Epidermal refinements, such as fingernails, nipples, eyelashes, eyebrows,
and hair on the head, appear.
• Cartilage begins to be replaced by bone as ossification centers appear in
most of the bones.
• Cartilage remains at the ends of the long bones, and ossification is not
complete until age 18 or 20 years.
• The skull has six large membranous areas called fontanels, which permit a
certain amount of flexibility as the head passes through the birth canal and
allow rapid growth of the brain during infancy.
• Progressive fusion of the skull bones causes the fontanels to close, usually
by 2 years of age.
Third and fourth months
• At three month the sex of the fetus can be determined
• At this time, either testes or ovaries are located within the abdominal
cavity, but later, in the last trimester of fetal development, the testes
descend into the scrotal sacs (scrotum).
• Sometimes the testes fail to descend, and in that case, an operation may
be done later to place them in their proper location.
• During the fourth month, the fetal heartbeat is loud enough to be heard
when a physician applies a stethoscope to the mother’s abdomen.
• By the end of this month, the fetus is about 152 mm in length and weighs
about 171 g.
Fifth through Seventh Months
• During the fifth through seventh months, the mother begins to feel
movement.
• At first, there is only a fluttering sensation, but as the fetal legs grow
and develop, kicks and jabs are felt.
• The fetus, though, is in the fetal position, with the head bent down
and in contact with the flexed knees.
• The wrinkled, translucent, pink-colored skin is covered by a fine down
called lanugo. This in turn is coated with a white, greasy, cheese-like
substance called vernix caseosa, which probably protects the delicate
skin from the amniotic fluid.
 Fifth through Seventh Months

• The eyelids are now fully open. At the end of this period, the fetus’s
length has increased to about 300 mm (12 in.), and it weighs about
1,380 g. It is possible that, if born now, the baby will survive.
 Eighth through Ninth Months
• As the end of development approaches, the fetus usually rotates so that
the head is pointed toward the cervix.
• However, if the fetus does not turn, a breech birth (rump first) is likely to.
• It is very difficult for the cervix to expand enough to accommodate this
form of birth, and asphyxiation of the baby is more likely to occur. Thus, a
cesarean section may be prescribed for delivery of the fetus (incision
through the abdominal and uterine walls).
• At the end of nine months, the fetus is about 530 mm long and weighs
about 3,400 g.
• Weight gain is due largely to an accumulation of fat beneath the skin.
Full-term babies have the best chance of survival, premature babies are
subject to various challenges
Breech vs Vertex Presentation
Development of Male and Female Sex Organs
• The sex of an individual is determined at the moment of fertilization.
• Both males and females have 23 pairs of chromosomes; in males, one
of these pairs is an X and Y, while females have two X chromosomes.
• During the first several weeks of development, it is impossible to tell
by external inspection whether the unborn child is a boy or a girl.
Gonads don’t start developing until the seventh week of
development.
• The tissue that gives rise to the gonads is called indifferent because it
can become testes or ovaries depending on the action of hormones.
Genes on the Y chromosome cause the production of testosterone,
and then the indifferent tissue becomes testes.
Development of Male and Female Sex Organs
• At six weeks both males and females have the same types of ducts.
• During this indifferent stage, an embryo has the potential to develop
into a male or a female. If a Y chromosome is present, testosterone
stimulates the wolffian ducts to become male genital ducts.
• The wolffian ducts enter the urethra, which belongs to both the
urinary and reproductive systems in males.
• The testes secrete an anti-müllerian hormone that causes the
müllerian ducts to regress.
• In the absence of a Y chromosome, ovaries develop instead of testes
from the same indifferent tissue. Now the wolffian ducts regress, and
the müllerian ducts develop into the uterus and uterine tubes.
• A developing vagina also extends from the uterus. There is no
connection between the urinary and genital systems in females
Development of Male and Female Sex Organs
• At fourteen weeks, both the primitive testes and ovaries are located
deep inside the abdominal cavity.
• An inspection of the interior of the testes would show that sperm are
even now starting to develop, and similarly, the ovaries already
contain large numbers of tiny follicles, each having an ovum.
• Toward the end of development, the testes descend into the scrotal
sac; the ovaries remain in the abdominal cavity. These tissues are also
indifferent at first—they can develop into either male or female
genitals.
• At six weeks, a small bud appears between the legs; this can develop
into the male penis or the female clitoris, depending on the presence
or absence of the Y chromosome and testosterone
Development of Male and Female Sex Organs
• At nine weeks, a urogenital groove bordered by two swellings
appears.
• By fourteen weeks, this groove has disappeared in males, and the
scrotum has formed from the original swellings.
• In females, the groove persists and becomes the vaginal opening.
Labia majora and labia minora are present instead of a scrotum.
Development of Male and Female Sex Organs
Development of Male and Female Sex Organs
• Descent of the Gonad
• In both sexes, there is a caudal shift of the gonad from its original
position.
• The shift is due to elongation of the body and a variable degree of
retention by the inguinal fold derivative that indirectly attaches to the
gonad.
• In females, the ovary remains intra-abdominal and the extent of
caudal shift is species dependent. In males, each testis descends to
the inguinal region (scrotum).
Development of Male and Female Sex Organs
Testicular descent
• The gubernaculum originates by condensation of the mesenchyme within
each inguinal fold.
• Under the influence of gonadotropins and testicular androgens, the
gubernaculum accumulates fluid and become a gel mass as large in
diameter as a testis.
• The swollen gubernaculum enlarges the future inguinal canal.
• Subsequent outgrowth of the scrotal wall and dehydration of the
gubernaculum passively pulls the testis to the inguinal canal.
• As a result, a sudden increase in intra-abdominal pressure can pop it
through the canal into the scrotum
Development of Male and Female Sex Organs
Parturition [Child Birth]
• The uterus has contractions throughout pregnancy. At first, these are
light, lasting about 20–30 seconds and occurring every 15–20
minutes.
• Near the end of pregnancy, the contractions may become stronger
and more frequent so that a woman thinks she is in labor. “False-
labor” contractions are called Braxton Hicks contractions.
• However, the onset of true labor is marked by uterine contractions
that occur regularly every 15–20 minutes and last for 40 seconds or
longer.
 Parturition
• A positive feedback mechanism can explain the onset and continuation of
labor.
• Uterine contractions are induced by a stretching of the cervix, which also
brings about the release of oxytocin from the posterior pituitary gland.
Oxytocin stimulates the uterine muscles, both directly and through the
action of prostaglandins.
• Uterine contractions push the fetus downward, and the cervix stretches
even more. This cycle keeps repeating itself until birth occurs.
• Prior to or at the first stage of parturition, which is the process of giving
birth to an offspring, there can be a “bloody show” caused by expulsion of
a mucous plug from the cervical canal. This plug prevents bacteria and
sperm from entering the uterus during pregnancy.
Parturition
STAGE 1
• During the first stage of labor, the uterine contractions of labor occur
in such a way that the cervical canal slowly disappears as the lower
part of the uterus is pulled upward toward the baby’s head.
• This process is called effacement, or “taking up the cervix.” With
further contractions, the baby’s head acts as a wedge to assist
cervical dilation.
• If the amniotic membrane has not already ruptured, it is apt to do so
during this stage, releasing the amniotic fluid, which leaks out the
vagina (an event sometimes referred to as “breaking water”).
• The first stage of parturition ends once the cervix is dilated
completely.
STAGE 1
 STAGE 2
• During the second stage of parturition, the uterine contractions occur
every 1–2 minutes and last about one minute each. They are
accompanied by a desire to push, or bear down.
STAGE 2
• As the baby’s head gradually descends into the vagina, the desire to push
becomes greater.
• When the baby’s head reaches the exterior, it turns so that the back of the
head is uppermost.
• Since the vaginal orifice may not expand enough to allow passage of the
head, an episiotomy is often performed. This incision, which enlarges the
opening, is sewn together later.
• As soon as the head is delivered, the baby’s shoulders rotate so that the
baby faces either to the right or the left.
• At this time, the physician may hold the head and guide it downward, while
one shoulder and then the other emerges. The rest of the baby follows
easily.
• Once the baby is breathing normally, the umbilical cord is cut and tied,
severing the child from the placenta.
• The stump of the cord shrivels and leaves a scar, which is the umbilicus.
STAGE 3
• The placenta, or afterbirth, is delivered during the third stage of
parturition.
• About 15 minutes after delivery of the baby, uterine muscular
contractions shrink the uterus and dislodge the placenta. The
placenta then is expelled into the vagina. As soon as the placenta and
its membranes are delivered, the third stage of parturition is
complete.
STAGE 3
Effects of Pregnancy on the Mother
• Major changes take place in the mother’s body during pregnancy.
• When first pregnant, the mother may experience nausea and
vomiting, loss of appetite, and fatigue. These symptoms subside, and
some mothers report increased energy levels and a general sense of
well-being despite an increase in weight.
• During pregnancy, the mother gains weight due to breast and uterine
enlargement, weight of the fetus, amount of amniotic fluid, size of
the placenta, her own increase in total body fluid; and an increase in
storage of proteins, fats, and minerals.
• The increased weight can lead to lordosis (swayback) and lower back
pain.
CLINICAL CORRELATE
• Tubal ectopic pregnancy
• Ovarian ectopic pregnancy
• Abdominal ectopic pregnancy
• Placenta previa
The End !!