TRIGONOMETRIC

CHAPTER 5 FUNCTIONS
5.1 Angles and Arcs
5.2 Right Triangle
Trigonometry
5.3 Trigonometric Functions
of any Angle

mypokcik, 2009/Used under license from Shutterstock.com

5.4 Trigonometric Functions
of Real Numbers
5.5 Graphs of the Sine and
Cosine Functions
5.6 Graphs of the Other
Trigonometric Functions
5.7 Graphing Techniques
5.8 Harmonic Motion—
An Application of the
Sine and Cosine
Functions

Applications of Trigonometric Functions

In this chapter we introduce an important group of functions called
trigonometric functions. These functions are often used in applications
involving relationships between the sides and the angles of triangles.
In Exercise 71 on page 453, right triangles and trigonometric functions
Andrew Brookes/CORBIS

are used to find the height and length of the skybridge between the
Petronas Towers.
In the seventeenth century, a unit circle approach was used to create
trigonometric functions of real numbers, which are also referred to as
circular functions. These functions allow us to solve a wider variety of
applications. For instance, in Exercise 63 page 480, a circular function is
used to model a sound wave and find the frequency of the sound wave.

427
428 CHAPTER 5 TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS

SECTION 5.1 Angles and Arcs

Degree Measure
A point P on a line separates the line into two parts, each of which is called a half-line.
Radian Measure
The union of point P and the half-line formed by P that includes point A is called a ray,
Arcs and Arc Length : :
and it is represented as PA. The point P is the endpoint of ray PA. Figure 5.1 shows the ray
Linear and Angular Speed : :
PA. and a second ray represented as QR.
In geometry, an angle is defined simply as the union of two rays that have a common
endpoint. In trigonometry and many advanced mathematics courses, it is beneficial to
define an angle in terms of a rotation.

Definition of an Angle
R
An angle is formed by rotating a given ray about its endpoint to some terminal
A position. The original ray is the initial side of the angle, and the second ray is the
terminal side of the angle. The common endpoint is the vertex of the angle.
Q

P There are several methods used to name an angle. One way is to employ Greek letters.
Figure 5.1 For example, the angle shown in Figure 5.2 can be designated as a or as ∠ a. It also can
be named ∠ O, ∠AOB, or ∠ BOA. If you name an angle by using three points, such as
∠AOB, it is traditional to list the vertex point between the other two points.
Angles formed by a counterclockwise rotation are considered positive angles, and
B
angles formed by a clockwise rotation are considered negative angles. See Figure 5.3.
α A
Terminal
side Initial
O A A
side
Vertex
α O
Figure 5.2 β
O
B B

Positive angle Negative angle

1°

Figure 5.3

Degree Measure
The measure of an angle is determined by the amount of rotation of the initial side. An
angle formed by rotating the initial side counterclockwise exactly once until it coincides
with itself (one complete revolution) is defined to have a measure of 360 degrees, which
can be written as 360°.
Figure 5.4
1
1ⴰ = of a revolution
360 Definition of Degree
1
One degree is the measure of an angle formed by rotating a ray of a complete
revolution. The symbol for degree is °. 360

ββ = 30°
The angle shown in Figure 5.4 has a measure of 1°. The angle b shown in Figure 5.5 has
Figure 5.5 a measure of 30°. We will use the notation b = 30° to denote that the measure of angle b
 5.1 ANGLES AND ARCS 429

is 30°. The protractor shown in Figure 5.6 can be used to measure an angle in degrees or to
draw an angle with a given degree measure.

80 90 100
70 110
100 80 12
60 11 0 70 0
20 60 13
50 0 1 50 0
1 3

14 0
14 0
4
0

0
4

15
30
0

30
0
15

160
20
160

20
170
180 170
10

10
180
0

0
Figure 5.6
Protractor for measuring angles in degrees

Angles are often classified according to their measure.

180° angles are straight angles. See Figure 5.7a.
90° angles are right angles. See Figure 5.7b.
Angles that have a measure greater than 0° but less than 90° are acute angles. See
Figure 5.7c.
Angles that have a measure greater than 90° but less than 180° are obtuse angles.
See Figure 5.7d.

B
B B
α β θ
θ
B O A O A O A O A

a. Straight angle (α = 180°) b. Right angle ( β = 90°) c. Acute angle (0° < θ < 90°) d. Obtuse angle (90° < θ < 180°)

Figure 5.7

An angle superimposed in a Cartesian coordinate system is in standard position if its

vertex is at the origin and its initial side is on the positive x-axis. See Figure 5.8.
Two positive angles are complementary angles (Figure 5.9a) if the sum of the meas-
y
ures of the angles is 90°. Each angle is the complement of the other angle. Two positive
angles are supplementary angles (Figure 5.9b) if the sum of the measures of the angles
Terminal is 180°. Each angle is the supplement of the other angle.
side

x
Initial β
side α
α β

a. Complementary angles b. Supplementary angles

Figure 5.8 α + β = 90° α + β = 180°
An angle in standard position Figure 5.9
430 CHAPTER 5 TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS

EXAMPLE 1 Find the Measure of the Complement

and the Supplement of an Angle
For each angle, find the measure (if possible) of its complement and of its supplement.
90°
y
a. u = 40° b. u = 125°

50° Solution
140°
θ = 40° a. Figure 5.10 shows ∠u = 40° in standard position. The measure of its complement
180°
x
0° is 90° - 40° = 50°. The measure of its supplement is 180° - 40° = 140°.
b. Figure 5.11 shows ∠u = 125° in standard position. Angle u does not have a com-
Figure 5.10 plement because there is no positive number x such that
x° + 125° = 90°
90°
y The measure of its supplement is 180° - 125° = 55°.
Try Exercise 2, page 438
θ = 125°
55° Question • Are the two acute angles of any right triangle complementary angles? Explain.
180° 0°
x
Some angles have a measure greater than 360°. See Figure 5.12a and Figure 5.12b.
The angle shown in Figure 5.12c has a measure less than - 360°, because it is formed by
Figure 5.11 a clockwise rotation of more than one revolution of the initial side.

180°

90° a. 720° b. 450° c . −990°

x
Figure 5.12

If the terminal side of an angle in standard position

270° lies on a coordinate axis, then the angle is classified as a
90°
quadrantal angle. For example, the 90° angle, the 180° y
angle, and the 270° angle shown in Figure 5.13 are all
Figure 5.13 quadrantal angles.
∠1 = 70°
If the terminal side of an angle in standard position
does not lie on a coordinate axis, then the angle is classi- 180°
x
0°
θ = 430°
y
90° fied according to the quadrant that contains the terminal
side. For example, ∠ b in Figure 5.14 is a Quadrant III
∠2 = − 290°
angle.
β Angles in standard position that have the same sides 270°
180° 0° are coterminal angles. Every angle has an unlimited
Figure 5.15
x
number of coterminal angles. Figure 5.15 shows ∠u and
two of its coterminal angles, labeled ∠1 and ∠2.

Answer • Yes. The sum of the measures of the angles of any triangle is 180°. The right angle
270°
has a measure of 90°. Thus the sum of the measures of the two acute angles must be
Figure 5.14 180° - 90° = 90°.
 5.1 ANGLES AND ARCS 431

Measures of Coterminal Angles

Given ∠ u in standard position with measure x°, then the measures of the angles
that are coterminal with ∠u are given by
x° + k # 360°
where k is an integer.

This theorem states that the measures of any two coterminal angles differ by an inte-
ger multiple of 360°. For instance, in Figure 5.15,
u = 430°,
∠1 = 430° + 1 -12 # 360° = 70°, and
∠2 = 430° + 1 - 22 # 360° = - 290°
If we add positive multiples of 360° to 430°, we find that the angles with measures 790°,
1150°, 1510°, and so on, are also coterminal with ∠u.

EXAMPLE 2 Classify by Quadrant and Find a Coterminal Angle

Assume the following angles are in standard position. Determine the measure of the
positive angle with measure less than 360° that is coterminal with the given angle and
then classify the angle by quadrant.
y
a.
a. a = 550° b. b = - 225° c. g = 1105°
190°
Solution
x a. Because 550° = 190° + 360°, ∠a is coterminal with an angle that has a measure
α = 550°
of 190°. ∠a is a Quadrant III angle. See Figure 5.16a.
b. Because -225° = 135° + 1 - 12 # 360°, ∠ b is coterminal with an angle that has a
measure of 135°. ∠ b is a Quadrant II angle. See Figure 5.16b.
y 5
b. c. 1105° , 360° = 3 . Thus ∠g is an angle formed by three complete counter
72
5 5
135° clockwise rotations, plus of a rotation. To convert of a rotation to
72 72
5
x degrees, multiply times 360°.
β = −225° 72
5 #
360° = 25°
72
Thus 1105° = 25° + 3 # 360°. Hence, ∠g is coterminal with an angle that has a
c. y
measure of 25°. ∠g is a Quadrant I angle. See Figure 5.16c.
Try Exercise 14, page 438
25°
x There are two popular methods for representing a fractional part of a degree. One is the
γ = 1105° decimal degree method. For example, the measure 29.76° is a decimal degree. It means
29° plus 76 hundredths of 1°
A second method of measurement is known as the DMS (degree, minute, second)
Figure 5.16
method. In the DMS method, a degree is subdivided into 60 equal parts, each of which
432 CHAPTER 5 TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS

is called a minute, denoted by ¿ . Thus 1° = 60¿. Furthermore, a minute is subdivided into

60 equal parts, each of which is called a second, denoted by –. Thus 1¿ = 60– and
1° = 3600–. The fractions
1° 1¿ 1°
= 1, = 1, and = 1
60¿ 60– 3600–
are another way of expressing the relationships among degrees, minutes, and seconds.
Each of the fractions is known as a unit fraction or a conversion factor. Because all con-
version factors are equal to 1, you can multiply a numerical value by a conversion factor
and not change the numerical value, even though you change the units used to express the
numerical value. The following illustrates the process of multiplying by conversion factors
to write 126°12¿27 – as a decimal degree.
126°12¿27– = 126° + 12¿ + 27 –
= 126° + 12¿ a b + 27– a b
1° 1°
60¿ 3600–
= 126° + 0.2° + 0.0075° = 126.2075°

Integrating Technology

Many graphing calculators can be used to convert a decimal degree measure to its
equivalent DMS measure, and vice versa. For instance, Figure 5.17 shows that 31.57°
is equivalent to 31°34¿12–. On a TI-83/TI-83 Plus/TI-84 Plus graphing calculator, the
degree symbol, °, and the DMS function are in the ANGLE menu.

ANGLE
1: °
2: '
3: r
4: DMS
31.57° DMS 31°34'12"
31°34'12" 31.57

Figure 5.17 Figure 5.18

To convert a DMS measure to its equivalent decimal degree measure, enter the DMS
measure and press ENTER . The calculator screen in Figure 5.18 shows that
31°34¿12– is equivalent to 31.57°. A TI-83/TI-83 Plus/TI-84 Plus calculator needs
to be in degree mode to produce the results displayed in Figures 5.17 and 5.18. On
a TI-83/TI-83 Plus/TI-84 Plus calculator, the degree symbol, °, and the minute
symbol, ¿, are both in the ANGLE menu; however, the second symbol, –, is entered
by pressing ALPHA .

Radian Measure
Another commonly used angle measurement is the radian. To define a radian, first con-
sider a circle of radius r and two radii OA and OB. The angle u formed by the two radii is
 5.1 ANGLES AND ARCS 433

a central angle. The portion of the circle between A and B is an arc of the circle and is
μ. We say that AB
written AB μ subtends the angle u. The length of AB
μ is s (see Figure 5.19).

Definition of a Radian
One radian is the measure of the central angle B
s subtended by an arc of length r on a circle of radius r. r s=r
B
See Figure 5.20. θ
θ A
r O r

r A
O

Figure 5.20
Figure 5.19 Central angle u has a
measure of 1 radian.

Figure 5.21 shows a protractor that can be used to measure angles in radians or to construct
angles given in radian measure.

1.6 1.4
1.8 1.2
2
1
2.2
.8
4
2.

.6
2.6

.4
2.8

.2
3

Figure 5.21
Protractor for measuring angles in radians

Definition of Radian Measure

Given an arc of length s on a circle of radius r, the measure of the central angle
s
subtended by the arc is u = radians.
r

5
As an example, consider that an arc with a length of 15 centimeters on a circle with a
5
5 radius of 5 centimeters subtends an angle of 3 radians, as shown in Figure 5.22. The same
θ
B result can be found by dividing 15 centimeters by 5 centimeters.
5 O 5
A To find the measure in radians of any central angle u, divide the length s of the arc that
subtends u by the length of the radius of the circle. Using the formula for radian measure,
we find that an arc with a length of 12 centimeters on a circle with a radius of 8 centimeters
subtends a central angle u whose measure is
Figure 5.22
Central angle u has a s 12 centimeters 3
u = radians = radians = radians
measure of 3 radians. r 8 centimeters 2
434 CHAPTER 5 TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS

Note that the centimeter units are not part of the final result. The radian measure of a cen-
tral angle formed by an arc with a length of 12 miles on a circle with a radius of 8 miles
3
would be the same, radians. If an angle has a measure of t radians, where t is a real
2
number, then the measure of the angle is often stated as t instead of t radians. For instance, if
an angle u has a measure of 2 radians, we can simply write u = 2 instead of u = 2 radians.
There will be no confusion concerning whether an angle measure is in degrees or radians,
because the degree symbol is always used for angle measurements that are in degrees.
Recall that the circumference of a circle is given by the equation C = 2pr.
The radian measure of the central angle u subtended by the circumference is
2pr
u = = 2p. In degree measure, the central angle u subtended by the circumference is
r
360°. Thus we have the relationship 360° = 2p radians. Dividing each side of the equa-
tion by 2 gives 180° = p radians. From this last equation, we can establish the following
conversion factors.

Integrating Technology Radian–Degree Conversion

To convert from radians to degrees, multiply by a b.

A calculator shows that 180°
1 radian L 57.29577951ⴰ p radians
p radians
To convert from degrees to radians, multiply by a b.
and
1ⴰ L 0.017453293 radian 180°

EXAMPLE 3 Convert from Degrees to Radians

Convert each angle in degrees to radians.
a. 60° b. 315° c. - 150°

Solution
p radians
Multiply each degree measure by a b and simplify. In each case, the degree
180°
units in the numerator cancel with the degree units in the denominator.
p radians
60ⴰ = 60ⴰ/ a
60 p p
a. b = radians = radians
180ⴰ/ 180 3
p radians 315 p
315° = 315°/ a b =
7p
b. /
radians = radians
180° 180 4
p radians
-150° = - 150°/ a b = -a
150 p
b radians = -
c. 5p
/
radians
180° 180 6
Try Exercise 32, page 439

EXAMPLE 4 Convert from Radians to Degrees

Convert each angle in radians to degrees.
3p 5p
a. radians b. 1 radian c. - radians
4 2
 5.1 ANGLES AND ARCS 435

Solution
Multiply each radian measure by a b and simplify. In each case, the radian
180°
p radians
units in the numerator cancel with the radian units in the denominator.
180ⴰ 3 # 180ⴰ
radians = a ba b =
3p 3p radians
a. = 135ⴰ
4 4 p radians 4
180ⴰ 180ⴰ
Table 5.1 b. 1 radian = a (1 radian ) a b = L 57.3ⴰ
p radians p
5 # 180ⴰ
Degrees Radians
180ⴰ
radians = a - ba b = -
5p 5p radians
0 0 c. - = - 450ⴰ
2 2 p radians 2
30 p>6
45 p>4 Try Exercise 44, page 439
60 p>3
90 p>2
Table 5.1 lists the degree and radian measures of selected angles. Figure 5.23
120 2p>3 illustrates each angle listed in the table as measured from the positive x-axis.
135 3p>4 π
2π 90°, 2
150 5p>6 120°, 3 π
60°,
3
π
180 p 135°, 3π 45°,
4 4
π
210 7p>6 150°, 5π 30°,
6 6
225 5p>4
240 4p>3
180°, π 0°, 0
270 3p>2
300 5p>3
11π
315 7p>4 210°, 7π 330°,
6
6
7π
330 11p>6 225°, 5π 315°,
4
4 5π
240°, 4π 300°,
360 2p 3 270°, 3π
3
2
Figure 5.23
100° Degree and radian measures of selected angles
1.745329252

Integrating Technology

A graphing calculator can convert degree measure to radian measure, and vice versa.
For example, the calculator display in Figure 5.24 shows that 100° is approximately
1.74533 radians. The calculator must be in radian mode to convert from degrees to
Figure 5.24
radians. The display in Figure 5.25 shows that 2.2 radians is approximately 126.051°.
The calculator must be in degree mode to convert from radians to degrees.
On a TI-83/TI-83 Plus/TI-84 Plus calculator, the symbol for radian measure is r,
2.2r and it is in the ANGLE menu.
126.0507149

Arcs and Arc Length

s
Consider a circle of radius r. By solving the formula u = for s, we have an equation for
r
Figure 5.25 arc length.
436 CHAPTER 5 TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS

Arc Length Formula

Let r be the length of the radius of a circle and u be the non- s = arc length
negative radian measure of a central angle of the circle. Then B
the length of the arc s that subtends the central angle is θ
s = ru. See Figure 5.26.
A
O r

Figure 5.26
s = ru

EXAMPLE 5 Find the Length of an Arc

Find the length of an arc that subtends a central angle of 120° in a circle with a radius
of 10 centimeters.
Solution
Caution
The formula s = ru requires that u be expressed in radians. We first convert 120° to
The formula s = r u is valid only radian measure and then use the formula s = ru.
when u is expressed in radians.
p radians
u = 120ⴰ = 120ⴰ a b =
2p 2p
radians =
180 ⴰ 3 3

s = ru = 110 centimeters2a b =
2p 20p
centimeters
3 3

Try Exercise 68, page 439

EXAMPLE 6 Solve an Application

A pulley with a radius of 10 inches uses a belt to drive a pulley with a radius of 6 inches.
Find the angle through which the smaller pulley turns as the 10-inch pulley makes one
revolution. State your answer in radians and in degrees.
s1 Solution
Use the formula s = ru. As the 10-inch pulley turns through an angle u1, a point on the
θ1 rim of that pulley moves s1 inches, where s1 = 10u1. See Figure 5.27. At the same time,
10 in.
the 6-inch pulley turns through an angle of u2 and a point on the rim of that pulley
moves s2 inches, where s2 = 6u2. Assuming that the belt does not slip on the pulleys,
we have s1 = s2. Thus
10u1 = 6u2
1012p2 = 6u2 • Solve for u2 when u1 = 2p radians.
s2
10
θ2
p = u2
6 in.
3
10
The 6-inch pulley turns through an angle of p radians, or 600°.
3
Try Exercise 72, page 439
Figure 5.27
 9 • Introduction 821

9 TRIGONOMETRIC IDENTITIES AND EQUATIONS

Tennis players can create advantages by changing the angles of their shots. The technology used to decide close calls
also relies heavily on mathematics. (credit: modification of "From the 2013 US Open" by Edwin Martinez/flickr)

Chapter Outline
9.1 Verifying Trigonometric Identities and Using Trigonometric Identities to Simplify Trigonometric Expressions
9.2 Sum and Difference Identities
9.3 Double-Angle, Half-Angle, and Reduction Formulas
9.4 Sum-to-Product and Product-to-Sum Formulas
9.5 Solving Trigonometric Equations

Introduction to Trigonometric Identities and Equations

When we think of tennis as a game of angles, we may imagine players racing up to the net, creating options to deliver
powerful cross shots that will leave their opponent stumbling toward the line. This is an exciting and effective method of
play, though it brings greater risk.

But while the excitement of the game interplays with all types of geometry, some of the newest innovations make even
more use of mathematics. With balls traveling well over 100 miles per hour judges cannot always discern the centimeter
or millimeters of difference between a ball that is in or out of bounds. Professional tennis was among the first sports to
rely on an advanced tracking system called Hawk-Eye to help make close calls. The system uses several high-resolution
cameras that are able to monitor and the ball's movement and its position on the court. Using the images from several
cameras at once, the system's computers use trigonometric calculations to triangulate the ball's exact position and,
essentially, turn a series of two-dimensional images into a three-dimensional one. Also, since the ball travels faster than
the cameras' frame rate, the system also must make predictions to show where a ball is at all times. These technologies
generally provide a more accurate game that builds more confidence and fairness. Similar technologies are used for
baseball, and automated strike-calling is under discussion.

9.1 Verifying Trigonometric Identities and Using Trigonometric

Identities to Simplify Trigonometric Expressions
Learning Objectives
In this section, you will:
Verify the fundamental trigonometric identities.
Simplify trigonometric expressions using algebra and the identities.
822 9 • Trigonometric Identities and Equations

Figure 1 International passports and travel documents

In espionage movies, we see international spies with multiple passports, each claiming a different identity. However, we
know that each of those passports represents the same person. The trigonometric identities act in a similar manner to
multiple passports—there are many ways to represent the same trigonometric expression. Just as a spy will choose an
Italian passport when traveling to Italy, we choose the identity that applies to the given scenario when solving a
trigonometric equation.

In this section, we will begin an examination of the fundamental trigonometric identities, including how we can verify
them and how we can use them to simplify trigonometric expressions.

Verifying the Fundamental Trigonometric Identities

Identities enable us to simplify complicated expressions. They are the basic tools of trigonometry used in solving
trigonometric equations, just as factoring, finding common denominators, and using special formulas are the basic tools
of solving algebraic equations. In fact, we use algebraic techniques constantly to simplify trigonometric expressions.
Basic properties and formulas of algebra, such as the difference of squares formula and the perfect squares formula, will
simplify the work involved with trigonometric expressions and equations. We already know that all of the trigonometric
functions are related because they all are defined in terms of the unit circle. Consequently, any trigonometric identity
can be written in many ways.

To verify the trigonometric identities, we usually start with the more complicated side of the equation and essentially
rewrite the expression until it has been transformed into the same expression as the other side of the equation.
Sometimes we have to factor expressions, expand expressions, find common denominators, or use other algebraic
strategies to obtain the desired result. In this first section, we will work with the fundamental identities: the Pythagorean
identities, the even-odd identities, the reciprocal identities, and the quotient identities.

We will begin with the Pythagorean identities (see Table 1), which are equations involving trigonometric functions
based on the properties of a right triangle. We have already seen and used the first of these identifies, but now we will
also use additional identities.

Pythagorean Identities

Table 1

The second and third identities can be obtained by manipulating the first. The identity is found by
rewriting the left side of the equation in terms of sine and cosine.

Prove:

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 9.1 • Verifying Trigonometric Identities and Using Trigonometric Identities to Simplify Trigonometric Expressions 823

Similarly, can be obtained by rewriting the left side of this identity in terms of sine and cosine. This
gives

Recall that we determined which trigonometric functions are odd and which are even. The next set of fundamental
identities is the set of even-odd identities. The even-odd identities relate the value of a trigonometric function at a
given angle to the value of the function at the opposite angle. (See Table 2).

Even-Odd Identities

Table 2

Recall that an odd function is one in which for all in the domain of The sine function is an odd
function because The graph of an odd function is symmetric about the origin. For example, consider
corresponding inputs of and The output of is opposite the output of Thus,

This is shown in Figure 2.

Figure 2 Graph of

Recall that an even function is one in which

The graph of an even function is symmetric about the y-axis. The cosine function is an even function because
For example, consider corresponding inputs and The output of is the same as the
824 9 • Trigonometric Identities and Equations

output of Thus,

See Figure 3.

Figure 3 Graph of

For all in the domain of the sine and cosine functions, respectively, we can state the following:

• Since sine is an odd function.

• Since, cosine is an even function.

The other even-odd identities follow from the even and odd nature of the sine and cosine functions. For example,
consider the tangent identity, We can interpret the tangent of a negative angle as
Tangent is therefore an odd function, which means that for
all in the domain of the tangent function.

The cotangent identity, also follows from the sine and cosine identities. We can interpret the
cotangent of a negative angle as Cotangent is therefore an odd function, which
means that for all in the domain of the cotangent function.

The cosecant function is the reciprocal of the sine function, which means that the cosecant of a negative angle will be
interpreted as The cosecant function is therefore odd.

Finally, the secant function is the reciprocal of the cosine function, and the secant of a negative angle is interpreted as
The secant function is therefore even.

To sum up, only two of the trigonometric functions, cosine and secant, are even. The other four functions are odd,
verifying the even-odd identities.

The next set of fundamental identities is the set of reciprocal identities, which, as their name implies, relate
trigonometric functions that are reciprocals of each other. See Table 3. Recall that we first encountered these identities
when defining trigonometric functions from right angles in Right Angle Trigonometry.

Reciprocal Identities

Table 3

The final set of identities is the set of quotient identities, which define relationships among certain trigonometric
functions and can be very helpful in verifying other identities. See Table 4.

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 9.1 • Verifying Trigonometric Identities and Using Trigonometric Identities to Simplify Trigonometric Expressions 825

Quotient Identities

Table 4

The reciprocal and quotient identities are derived from the definitions of the basic trigonometric functions.

Summarizing Trigonometric Identities

The Pythagorean identities are based on the properties of a right triangle.

The even-odd identities relate the value of a trigonometric function at a given angle to the value of the function at
the opposite angle.

The reciprocal identities define reciprocals of the trigonometric functions.

The quotient identities define the relationship among the trigonometric functions.

EXAMPLE 1

Graphing the Equations of an Identity

Graph both sides of the identity In other words, on the graphing calculator, graph and
826 9 • Trigonometric Identities and Equations

Solution
See Figure 4.

Figure 4

Analysis
We see only one graph because both expressions generate the same image. One is on top of the other. This is a good
way to confirm an identity verified with analytical means. If both expressions give the same graph, then they are most
likely identities.

...
HOW TO

Given a trigonometric identity, verify that it is true.

1. Work on one side of the equation. It is usually better to start with the more complex side, as it is easier to
simplify than to build.
2. Look for opportunities to factor expressions, square a binomial, or add fractions.
3. Noting which functions are in the final expression, look for opportunities to use the identities and make the
proper substitutions.
4. If these steps do not yield the desired result, try converting all terms to sines and cosines.

EXAMPLE 2

Verifying a Trigonometric Identity

Verify

Solution
We will start on the left side, as it is the more complicated side:

Analysis
This identity was fairly simple to verify, as it only required writing in terms of and

TRY IT #1 Verify the identity

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 9.1 • Verifying Trigonometric Identities and Using Trigonometric Identities to Simplify Trigonometric Expressions 827

EXAMPLE 3

Verifying the Equivalency Using the Even-Odd Identities

Verify the following equivalency using the even-odd identities:

Solution
Working on the left side of the equation, we have

EXAMPLE 4

Verifying a Trigonometric Identity Involving sec2θ

Verify the identity

Solution
As the left side is more complicated, let’s begin there.

There is more than one way to verify an identity. Here is another possibility. Again, we can start with the left side.

Analysis
In the first method, we used the identity and continued to simplify. In the second method, we split the
fraction, putting both terms in the numerator over the common denominator. This problem illustrates that there are
multiple ways we can verify an identity. Employing some creativity can sometimes simplify a procedure. As long as the
substitutions are correct, the answer will be the same.

TRY IT #2 Show that

EXAMPLE 5

Creating and Verifying an Identity

Create an identity for the expression by rewriting strictly in terms of sine.
828 9 • Trigonometric Identities and Equations

Solution
There are a number of ways to begin, but here we will use the quotient and reciprocal identities to rewrite the
expression:

Thus,

EXAMPLE 6

Verifying an Identity Using Algebra and Even/Odd Identities

Verify the identity:

Solution
Let’s start with the left side and simplify:

TRY IT #3 Verify the identity

EXAMPLE 7

Verifying an Identity Involving Cosines and Cotangents

Verify the identity:

Solution
We will work on the left side of the equation.

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 9.1 • Verifying Trigonometric Identities and Using Trigonometric Identities to Simplify Trigonometric Expressions 829

Using Algebra to Simplify Trigonometric Expressions

We have seen that algebra is very important in verifying trigonometric identities, but it is just as critical in simplifying
trigonometric expressions before solving. Being familiar with the basic properties and formulas of algebra, such as the
difference of squares formula, the perfect square formula, or substitution, will simplify the work involved with
trigonometric expressions and equations.

For example, the equation resembles the equation which uses the
factored form of the difference of squares. Using algebra makes finding a solution straightforward and familiar. We can
set each factor equal to zero and solve. This is one example of recognizing algebraic patterns in trigonometric
expressions or equations.

Another example is the difference of squares formula, which is widely used in many areas
other than mathematics, such as engineering, architecture, and physics. We can also create our own identities by
continually expanding an expression and making the appropriate substitutions. Using algebraic properties and formulas
makes many trigonometric equations easier to understand and solve.

EXAMPLE 8

Writing the Trigonometric Expression as an Algebraic Expression

Write the following trigonometric expression as an algebraic expression:

Solution
Notice that the pattern displayed has the same form as a standard quadratic expression, Letting
we can rewrite the expression as follows:

This expression can be factored as If it were set equal to zero and we wanted to solve the equation, we
would use the zero factor property and solve each factor for At this point, we would replace with and solve for

EXAMPLE 9

Rewriting a Trigonometric Expression Using the Difference of Squares

Rewrite the trigonometric expression using the difference of squares:

Solution
Notice that both the coefficient and the trigonometric expression in the first term are squared, and the square of the
number 1 is 1. This is the difference of squares.

Analysis
If this expression were written in the form of an equation set equal to zero, we could solve each factor using the zero
factor property. We could also use substitution like we did in the previous problem and let rewrite the
expression as and factor Then replace with and solve for the angle.

TRY IT #4 Rewrite the trigonometric expression using the difference of squares:

EXAMPLE 10

Simplify by Rewriting and Using Substitution

Simplify the expression by rewriting and using identities:
830 9 • Trigonometric Identities and Equations

Solution
We can start with the Pythagorean identity.

Now we can simplify by substituting for We have

TRY IT #5 Use algebraic techniques to verify the identity:

(Hint: Multiply the numerator and denominator on the left side by

MEDIA

Access these online resources for additional instruction and practice with the fundamental trigonometric identities.

Fundamental Trigonometric Identities (http://openstax.org/l/funtrigiden)

Verifying Trigonometric Identities (http://openstax.org/l/verifytrigiden)

9.1 SECTION EXERCISES

Verbal

1. We know is an 2. Examine the graph of 3. After examining the

even function, and on the interval reciprocal identity for
and How can we tell explain why the function is
are odd whether the function is even undefined at certain points.
functions. What about or odd by only observing the
graph of
and Are they
even, odd, or neither? Why?

4. All of the Pythagorean

identities are related.
Describe how to manipulate
the equations to get from
to the
other forms.

Algebraic

For the following exercises, use the fundamental identities to fully simplify the expression.

5. 6. 7.

8. 9.

10. 11.

12. 13.

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 9.1 • Verifying Trigonometric Identities and Using Trigonometric Identities to Simplify Trigonometric Expressions 831

14. 15.

For the following exercises, simplify the first trigonometric expression by writing the simplified form in terms of the
second expression.

16. 17. 18.

19. 20.

21. 22.

23. 24.

25. 26. 27.

28.

For the following exercises, verify the identity.

29. 30.

31. 32.

33.

Extensions

For the following exercises, prove or disprove the identity.

34. 35.

36. 37.

38. 39.

For the following exercises, determine whether the identity is true or false. If false, find an appropriate equivalent
expression.

40. 41. 42.