ME 325 Control Systems

(3-0-0-6)

2/11/2025 ME 325 Control Systems

 Instructor

Dr. Karuna Kalita

Professor
Mechanical Engineering Department
[email protected]
[email protected]
Office: D302

2/11/2025 ME 325 Control Systems

 Summary from last lecture
MATLAB demonstration of ode45

2/11/2025 ME 325 Control Systems

 Power dissipation in electrical systems
i (t )
+ −
v (t )

Instantaneous power dissipation

P (t ) = i (t )  v(t )

Unit of power: 1 Watt

2/11/2025 ME 325 Control Systems

 DC Motor as a system

i (t ) , v(t ) T (t ),  (t )
DC Motor
i (t )
−
Pin = Pout
v (t ) T (t ),  (t )

Without considering loss +

i(t )  v(t ) = T (t )   (t )

2/11/2025 ME 325 Control Systems

 Lorentz law: Faraday law:
Magnetic field applies force to a current Moving in a magnetic field results in
(Lorentz force) potential (back EMF)

F = (i  B )  l = iBl (i ⊥ B ) ve = (V  B )  l = VBl (V ⊥ B )

2/11/2025 ME 325 Control Systems

DC Motor: Principle and simplified equations of motion

2/11/2025 ME 325 Control Systems

DC Motor: Principle and simplified equations of motion

Lorentz law:
T = 2 Fr = 2(iBNl ) r = K mi

where
K m = 2 BNl r torque constant

Faraday law:
ve = 2VBNl = 2( r )BNl = K v

where K v = 2 BNl r back-emf constant

2/11/2025 ME 325 Control Systems

DC Motor: Principle and simplified equations of motion

ve  2 BNlr 0   
i= 0 1  
   
2 BNrl  T
or
Kv 0 
 e 
v   
i= 0 1  
 T 
 
 Km 

Pin = Pout  ive = T  K v i = K mi  K v = K m

2/11/2025 ME 325 Control Systems

DC motor with mechanical load and realistic electrical properties
(R, L)

Inductance dissipation
(due to windings) (resistance of windings)

dissipation load
(viscous friction in motor (inertia)
bearings)
2/11/2025 ME 325 Control Systems
DC motor with mechanical load and realistic electrical properties
(R, L)
Equation of motion - Electrical
Inductance dissipation KCL: vs − vL − vR − ve = 0
(due to windings) (resistance of windings)
di
 vs − L − Ri − K v = 0
dt
Equation of motion - Mechanical
Torque Balance: T = Tb + TJ
d
 K mi − b = J
dt
Combined equations of motion
di
L + Ri + K v = vs
dt
d
dissipation load J + b = K mi
(viscous friction in motor (inertia) dt
bearings)
2/11/2025 ME 325 Control Systems
DC motor with mechanical load and realistic electrical properties
Inductance dissipation (R, L) Equation of motion - Electrical
(due to windings) (resistance of windings) KCL: Vs (s ) − VL (s ) − VR (s ) − Ve (s ) = 0
 Vs (s ) − LsI (s ) − RI (s ) − K v (s ) = 0
Equation of motion - Mechanical
Torque Balance: T (s ) = Tb (s ) + TJ (s )
 K m I (s ) − b (s ) = Js (s )
Combined equations of motion
LsI (s ) + RI (s ) + K v I (s ) = Vs (s )
Js(s ) + b(s ) = K m I (s )

  Js + b  
 (Ls + R )  + K v  (s ) = Vs (s )
dissipation load   Km  
(viscous friction in (inertia)
motor bearings)
 LJ  Lb   K K 
+ J s +  b + m v (s ) = m Vs (s )
K
  s2 + 
R  R   R  R
2/11/2025 ME 325 Control Systems
DC motor with mechanical load and realistic electrical properties
Inductance dissipation (R, L) Neglecting the impedance
(due to windings) (resistance of windings)
L0
  K K 
  Js +  b + m v (s ) = m Vs (s )
K
  R  R
This is a 1st –order system

If we are given step input vs (t ) = V0u (t )

 (t ) =
Km 1
R b + Km Kv
( )
V0 1 − e −t  u ( t )

R
where now the time constant is
J
dissipation load =
(viscous friction in (inertia)  K K 
motor bearings) b + m v 
 R 

2/11/2025 ME 325 Control Systems

DC motor with mechanical load and realistic electrical properties

  K K 
  Js +  b + m v (s ) = m Vs (s )
K
  R  R
 Km Kv 
 b +  Km
s +
R
  ( s ) = Vs ( s )
vs (t ) = V0u (t ) and Vs ( s ) =
V0
 J  RJ
s  

Km 1
( s) =
1 A B
= + V0
s(s + a) s (s + a) RJ  Km Kv 
 b + 
s s + R
1 1 
A= and B=−  J 
a a  
 

1


 (t ) =
Km 1
R b + Km Kv
(
1 − e−t  V0)
Km 1 1
( s) = V0  −  R
R b + Km Kv  s K K
b+ m v 
R  R  J
 s+  where  =
 J  K K
b+ m v
R
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 Step response of 1st order system we have discussed
Inertia with bearings (viscous friction)
Step input Ts (t ) = T0u (t )  Step response

 (t ) =
T0
b
(
1 − e −t  )

where J
=
b
DC motor with inertia load, bearings and negligible inductance
Step input vs (t ) = V0u (t )  Step response

 (t ) =
Km 1
R b + Km Kv
( )
V0 1 − e −t  u ( t )

R
where
J
=
 Km Kv 
b + 
 R 
2/11/2025 ME 325 Control Systems
DC motor with mechanical load and realistic electrical properties
Inductance dissipation (R, L) Neglecting the impedance
(due to windings) (resistance of windings)
L0
  K K 
  Js +  b + m v (s ) = m Vs (s )
K
  R  R
This is a 1st –order system

If we are given step input vs (t ) = V0u (t )

 (t ) =
Km 1
R b + Km Kv
( )
V0 1 − e −t  u ( t )

R
where now the time constant is
J
dissipation load =
(viscous friction in (inertia)  K K 
motor bearings) b + m v 
 R 

2/11/2025 ME 325 Control Systems

DC motor with mechanical load and realistic electrical properties

  K K 
  Js +  b + m v (s ) = m Vs (s )
K
  R  R
 Km Kv 
 b +  Km
s +
R
  ( s ) = Vs ( s )
vs (t ) = V0u (t ) and Vs ( s ) =
V0
 J  RJ
s  

Km 1
( s) =
1 A B
= + V0
s(s + a) s (s + a) RJ  Km Kv 
 b + 
s s + R
1 1 
A= and B=−  J 
a a  
 

1


 (t ) =
Km 1
R b + Km Kv
(
1 − e−t  V0)
Km 1 1
( s) = V0  −  R
R b + Km Kv  s K K
b+ m v 
R  R  J
 s+  where  =
 J  K K
b+ m v
R
2/11/2025 ME 325 Control Systems
 Step response of 1st order system we have discussed
Inertia with bearings (viscous friction)
Step input Ts (t ) = T0u (t )  Step response

 (t ) =
T0
b
(
1 − e −t  )

where J
=
b
DC motor with inertia load, bearings and negligible inductance
Step input vs (t ) = V0u (t )  Step response

 (t ) =
Km 1
R b + Km Kv
( )
V0 1 − e −t  u ( t )

R
where
J
=
 Km Kv 
b + 
 R 
2/11/2025 ME 325 Control Systems
DC motor with mechanical load and realistic electrical properties
Inductance dissipation (R, L) Neglecting the impedance
(due to windings) (resistance of windings)
L0
  K K 
  Js +  b + m v (s ) = m Vs (s )
K
  R  R
This is a 1st –order system

If we are given step input vs (t ) = V0u (t )

 (t ) =
Km 1
R b + Km Kv
( )
V0 1 − e −t  u ( t )

R
where now the time constant is
J
dissipation load =
(viscous friction in (inertia)  K K 
motor bearings) b + m v 
 R 

2/11/2025 ME 325 Control Systems

DC motor with mechanical load and realistic electrical properties

  K K 
  Js +  b + m v (s ) = m Vs (s )
K
  R  R
 Km Kv 
 b +  Km
s +
R
  ( s ) = Vs ( s )
vs (t ) = V0u (t ) and Vs ( s ) =
V0
 J  RJ
s  

Km 1
( s) =
1 A B
= + V0
s(s + a) s (s + a) RJ  Km Kv 
 b + 
s s + R
1 1 
A= and B=−  J 
a a  
 

1


 (t ) =
Km 1
R b + Km Kv
(
1 − e−t  V0)
Km 1 1
( s) = V0  −  R
R b + Km Kv  s K K
b+ m v 
R  R  J
 s+  where  =
 J  K K
b+ m v
R
2/11/2025 ME 325 Control Systems
 Step response of 1st order system we have discussed
Inertia with bearings (viscous friction)
Step input Ts (t ) = T0u (t )  Step response

 (t ) =
T0
b
(
1 − e −t  )

where J
=
b
DC motor with inertia load, bearings and negligible inductance
Step input vs (t ) = V0u (t )  Step response

 (t ) =
Km 1
R b + Km Kv
( )
V0 1 − e −t  u ( t )

R
where
J
=
 Km Kv 
b + 
 R 
2/11/2025 ME 325 Control Systems
 Poles and Zeros
Complex variable s =  + j   Real part and   Imaginary part

Complex function G ( s ) = Gx + jGy Gx and Gy are real functions

Gs = Gx2 + Gy2
 Gy 
−1
angle  of G(s) is tan  
 Gx 
j 


 →
ME 325 Control Systems
A complex function G(s) is said to be analytic in the region if G(s) and all its
derivatives exist in that region

d G (s +  s) − G (s) G
G ( s ) = lim = lim
dt  s → 0 s  s →0  s

Since  s =  + j 

 s can approach zero along an infinite number of different paths. It can be shown, but is
stated without a proof here, that if the derivatives taken along two particular paths, that is,
 s =  and  s = j  are equal, then the derivative is unique for any other path
 s =  + j  and so the derivative exists.

ME 325 Control Systems

A complex function G(s) is said to be analytic in the region if G(s) and all its
derivatives exist in that region
d G (s +  s) − G (s) G
G ( s ) = lim = lim
dt  s →0 s  s →0  s

For a particular path  s = 

d  Gx Gy  Gx Gy
G ( s ) = lim  +j  = +j
dt   →0
     
 s = j
d  Gx G y  Gx G y
G ( s ) = lim  +j = − j +
dt j   → 0
 j  j    

Gx G y G y Gx
=+ =−
   
Cauchy-Riemann Condition
ME 325 Control Systems
 1 1
G (s) = G ( + j ) = = Gx + jGy
s +1  + j + 1
 +1 −
Gx = Gy =
( + 1) +  2 ( + 1) +  2
2 2

1
Hence G ( s ) = is analytic in the entire s plane except s = −1
s +1
d Gx Gy Gy G
G (s) = +j = −j x
dt    

Gx G y  2 − ( + 1)
2

= =
   ( + 1)2 +  2  2
 
Gy Gx 2 ( + 1)
=− =
   ( + 1)2 +  2  2
 
ME 325 Control Systems
d Gx G y G y G 1 1
G (s) = +j = − j x =− = −
    (  +  + ) ( )+
2 2
dt j 1 s 1

The points at which the function is analytic are called ordinary points. The

points at which the function is not analytic are called singular points.

Singular points at which the function G(s) or its

derivative approach infinity are called poles. Singular
points at which the function G(s) equals zero are called
zeros.

ME 325 Control Systems

 Poles of a Transfer Function
The poles of a transfer function are (1) the values of the Laplace transform variable, s, that
cause the transfer function to become infinite or (2) any roots of the denominator of the
transfer function that are common to roots of the numerator.

Zeros of a Transfer Function

The zeros of a transfer function are (1) the values of the Laplace transform variable, s, that
cause the transfer function to become zero, or (2) any roots of the numerator of the transfer
function that are common to roots of the denominator.

2/11/2025 ME 325 Control Systems

 K ( s + 2 )( s + 10 )
G (s) =
s ( s + 1)( s + 5 )( s + 15 )
2

G(s) has zeros at s = −2, −10

G(s) has poles at s = 0, −1, −5 and a double pole at s = −15.

Note that G(s) becomes zero at s =  since for large value of s

K
G (s) =
s3
G(s) posses a triple zero (multiple zero of order 3) at s = 

G(s) has zeros at s = −2, −10, , , 

G(s) has poles at s = 0, −1, −5, − 15, −15

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 Dynamics in DC motor system we have discussed
LsI ( s ) + RI ( s ) + K v  ( s ) = Vs ( s )
Js(s ) + b(s ) = K m I (s )

 LJ 2  Lb   Km Kv  Km
R s +  + J  
s + b +  ( )
 s = Vs ( s )
  R   R  R

( Js + b )  ( s ) = K m I ( s )
DC motor with inertia load, bearings and negligible inductance
Km Transfer function for the angular velocity is of the form
( s) RJ
=
Vs ( s ) 1 Km Kv  A 1 Km Kv 
s+  b +  p=  b +  pole
J R  s+ p J R 

1 b
 s +  Transfer function for the current is of the form
I (s) R J
=
Vs ( s ) 1 K K 
s + b + m v 
B(s + z) 1 Km Kv  b
p=  b +  , z = zero
J R  s+ p J R  J

2/11/2025 ME 325 Control Systems

 Poles and zeros in the s-plane

j
Left half−plane Right half−plane

imaginary axis
s−plane

−p −z real axis 
pole zero

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 DC motor step response: numerical example
L ≈ 0, R = 6Ω, Kv = 6V·sec, Km = 6 N·m/A, J = 2 kg·m2,
b = 4 kg·m2·Hz.
The system’s response (both angular velocity and current) to the
step input vs(t) = 30 u(t) V.
Substituting the numerical values into the system TF

( s) 1 1
The Laplace transform of the input is =
Vs ( s ) 2 s + 5[Hz]
30
Vs ( s )  vs ( t )  = 30u ( t )  = I ( s ) 1 ( s + 2[Hz])
s =
Vs ( s ) 6 s + 5[Hz]
1. Angular velocity
15 K K  1 1
( s) = = 15  1 + 2  where K1 = K2 = −
s ( s + 5)  s s +5 5 5

 ( t ) = 3(1 − e−5t ) u ( t )
rad
1 1  sec
 ( s ) = 3 −  
 s s +5
Forced response Homogeneous response
(Natural response)
2/11/2025 ME 325 Control Systems
 DC motor step response: numerical example
L ≈ 0, R = 6Ω, Kv = 6V·sec, Km = 6 N·m/A, J = 2 kg·m2,
b = 4 kg·m2·Hz.
The system’s response (both angular velocity and current) to the
step input vs(t) = 30 u(t) V.
Substituting the numerical values into the system TF

( s) 1 1
The Laplace transform of the input is =
Vs ( s ) 2 s + 5[Hz]
30
Vs ( s )  vs ( t )  = 30u ( t )  = I ( s ) 1 ( s + 2[Hz])
s =
Vs ( s ) 6 s + 5[Hz]
2. Current
5( s + 2)  K K  2 3
I (s) = = 5 1 + 2  where K1 = K 2 =
s ( s + 5)  s s +5 5 5

2 3 
( )
i ( t ) = 2 + 3e −5t u ( t ) A
I (s) =  +  
 s s +5
Forced response Homogeneous response
(Natural response)
2/11/2025 ME 325 Control Systems
 1st order system response from s-plane representation

1. A pole of the input function generates the form of the forced response (that is, the pole at
the origin generated a step function at the output).
2. A pole of the transfer function generates the form of the natural response (that is, the
pole at −5 generated e−5t).
3. A pole on the real axis generates an exponential response of the form e−at , where a is the
pole location on the real axis. Thus, the farther to the left a pole is on the negative real
axis, the faster the exponential transient response will decay to zero.
4. The zeros and poles generate the amplitudes for both the forced and natural responses.

2/11/2025 ME 325 Control Systems

 1st order system: transient response properties
Step response
in the s − domain
a
s(s + a)
in the time domain
( )
c ( t ) = 1 − e − at u ( t )
time constant
1
=
a
rise time (10% →90%)
2.2
Tr =
a
settling time (98%)
4
Ts =
a
Time constant: The time constant can be described as the time for e−at to decay to 37% of its
initial value. The time constant is the time it takes for the step response to rise to 63% of its final
value.
2/11/2025 ME 325 Control Systems
 The final value theorem: steady-state
Let F(s) denote the Laplace transform of the function f (t). The first property is the

Final Value theorem:

f (  ) = lim s →0 sF ( s )
Let us see how this applies to the step response of a general 1st — order system with a pole
at −a and without a zero (e.g., the angular velocity response of the DC motor.) We select
the system gain such that the steady — state is equal 1.
The step response in the s —domain then is
a 1 1 a
F1 ( s ) = = − also, sF1 ( s ) =
s(s + a) s s + a (s + a)
Using the partial fraction expansion above, we find the time domain step response as

( )
f1 ( t ) = 1 − e − at u ( t )  f1 (  ) = 1

Applying the final value theorem, we find, consistently,

a
f1 (  ) = lim s →0 sF1 ( s ) = lim s →0 =1
s+a

2/11/2025 ME 325 Control Systems

 The initial value theorem: initial slope
The second property of the Laplace transform is the

Initial Value theorem:

f ( 0 + ) = lim s → sF ( s )
Let us use this property to compute the initial slope of the step response, i.e. the value of
the derivative of the step response at t = 0+ for the same general 1st — order system with a
pole at −a and without a zero. We select the system gain such that the steady — state will
equal 1. Since we are interested in the derivative of f (t), the Laplace transform of interest
is  df1 ( t )  as
H1 ( s ) =   = sF ( s )  sH ( s ) = s 2
F ( s ) =
 d t 
1 1 1
(s + a)
Applying the initial value theorem,
df1 as a
( )
0 + = lim = lim =a
dt
s →
(s + a) s →
(1 + a s )
Again, this is consistent with the result we get directly from the time domain

( )
f1 ( 0 ) = 1 − e− at 
df1
dt
df
( t ) = − ( −a ) e− at  1 ( 0 + ) = a
dt

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 Initial and final value of 1st order system with a zero
We consider the same 1st order system with unity steady state, a pole at – a, but we also
add a zero at –z. In that case, the Laplace transforms of the step response and its derivative
are
F2 ( s ) = a
( s + z) z (a − z)
= + ; sF2 ( s ) = a
( s + z)
; s F2 ( s ) = a
2 s(s + z)
s(s + a) s (s + a) ( s + a ) (s + a)
We can readily see that,
d f2
f 2 (  ) = lim s →0 sF2 ( s ) = z; f 2 ( 0 + ) = lim s → sF2 ( s ) = a; ( 0 + ) = lim s → s 2 F2 ( s ) = ;
dt
We can see that the effects of the zero −z on the 1st — order system are (in comparison
to a system with the same pole at −a but without the zero)
• amplify the steady—state response by z;
• raise the initial value from zero to a;
• raise the initial slope to infinity.
The infinite initial slope is non—physical; in the case of the DC motor, it occurs
because we neglected the inductance L.

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DC motor with mechanical load and realistic electrical properties
Inductance dissipation (R, L) Equation of motion - Electrical
(due to windings) (resistance of windings) KCL: Vs (s ) − VL (s ) − VR (s ) − Ve (s ) = 0

 Vs (s ) − LsI (s ) − RI (s ) − K v (s ) = 0
Equation of motion - Mechanical
Torque Balance: T (s ) = Tb (s ) + TJ (s )
 K m I (s ) − b (s ) = Js (s )
Combined equations of motion
LsI (s ) + RI (s ) + K v I (s ) = Vs (s )
Js(s ) + b(s ) = K m I (s )

  Js + b  
 (Ls + R )  + K v  (s ) = Vs (s )
dissipation load   Km  
(viscous friction in (inertia)
motor bearings)
 LJ  Lb   K K 
+ J s +  b + m v (s ) = m Vs (s )
K
  s2 + 
R  R   R  R
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 Dynamics in DC motor system we have discussed
LsI ( s ) + RI ( s ) + K v  ( s ) = Vs ( s )
Js(s ) + b(s ) = K m I (s )

 LJ 2  Lb   Km Kv  Km
R s +  + J  
s + b +   ( s ) = Vs ( s )
  R   R  R

( Js + b )  ( s ) = K m I ( s )
DC motor with inertia load, bearings and non-negligible inductance

 ( s ) Km 1
= Quadratic polynomial denominator
Vs ( s ) LJ  b R   bR + K m K v 
s +  + s + 
2
 Second-order system
J L  LJ 

 b
 s+ 
I ( s ) Km  J
=
Vs ( s ) LJ 2  b R   bR + K m K v 
s +  + s +  
J L  LJ 

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 Step response of 2nd order system – large R/L
L ≈ 0.1 H, R = 6Ω, Kv = 6V·sec, Km = 6 N·m/A, J = 2 kg·m2, b = 4 kg·m2·Hz, vs(t) = 30 u(t) V.

Overdamped response

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 Step response of 2nd order system – large R/L
L = 0.1 H, R = 6Ω, Kv = 6V·sec, Km = 6 N·m/A, J = 2 kg·m2, b = 4 kg·m2·Hz, vs(t) = 30 u(t) V.

Overdamped response

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 Comparison of 1st order and 2nd order overdamped

2nd order (L = 0.1 H)

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 Comparison of 1st order and 2nd order overdamped

1st order system

2nd order system

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 Step response of 2nd order system – small R/L
L = 1.0 H, R = 6Ω, Kv = 6V·sec, Km = 6 N·m/A, J = 2 kg·m2, b = 4 kg·m2·Hz, vs(t) = 30 u(t) V.

Underdamped response

Overshoot

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 Comparison of 1st order and 2nd order underdamped

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 Comparison of 1st order and 2nd order underdamped

Overshoot

2nd order (L = 1.0 H)

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 Overdamped system: derivation of the step response
L = 0.1 H, R = 6Ω, Kv = 6V·sec, Km = 6 N·m/A, J = 2 kg·m2, b = 4 kg·m2·Hz, vs(t) = 30 u(t) V.

 ( s ) Km 1 ( s)  rad  1
= = 30  
Vs ( s ) LJ  b R   bR + K m K v  Vs ( s )  sec V   rad   rad  2 
s +  + s + 
2
 s + 62 
2
 s + 300   
J L  LJ   sec   sec  
Therefore, the transfer function for the angular velocity is
( s) 30 A 2nd order system is overdamped is the transfer
= 2
Vs ( s ) s + 62s + 300 function denominator has two real roots

( s) 30
s1 = −5.290 s2 = −56.7099 =
Vs ( s ) ( s + 5.290 )( s + 56.7099 )
30
Vs ( s )  vs ( t )  = 30u ( t )  =
s
900 3 3.3 0.3
( s) = = − +
s ( s + 5.290 )( s + 56.7099 ) s ( s + 5.290 ) ( s + 56.7099 )

 ( t ) = 3 − 3.3e−5.290t + 0.3e−56.7099  u ( t )

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 Overdamped system DC motor in the s-domain

j
2nd order overdamped system
poles

Input pole
-5

-56.7099 -5.29 0 

1st order system pole

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 Undamped system: derivation of the step response
L = 0.1 H, R = 0, Kv = 6V·sec, Km = 6 N·m/A, J = 2 kg·m2, b = 0, vs(t) = 30 u(t) V.

 ( s ) Km 1 ( s)  rad  1
= = 30  
Vs ( s ) LJ  b R   bR + K m K v  Vs ( s )  sec V   rad 2 
s +  + s + 
2
 s + 0s + 180 
2
 
J L  LJ   sec  
Therefore, the transfer function for the angular velocity is
( s) 30 A 2nd order system is un-damped if the transfer function
= 2
Vs ( s ) s + 180 denominator has a conjugate pair of two imaginary roots

( s) 30
s1,2 =  j13.42Hz =
Vs ( s ) ( s + j13.42 )( s − j13.42 )
30
Vs ( s )  vs ( t )  = 30u ( t )  =
s
900 5 3.3
( s) = = − 2
s ( s + j13.42 )( s − j13.42 ) s (
s + 13.422 )
 ( t ) = 5 − 5cos (13.42t )  u ( t )

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 Undamped DC motor in the s-domain
Natural frequency n = 13.42 rad/s
Period T = 2/n = 4.24 s
2nd order un-
damped system
j poles

j13.42

Input pole
-5
0 

−j13.42

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 Underdamped system: derivation of the step response
L = 1.0 H, R = 6Ω, Kv = 6V·sec, Km = 6 N·m/A, J = 2 kg·m2, b = 4 kg·m2·Hz, vs(t) = 30 u(t) V.

 ( s ) Km 1 ( s)  rad  1
= = 30  
Vs ( s ) LJ  b R   bR + K m K v  Vs ( s )  sec V   rad   rad 2 
s +  + s + 
2
 s + 8
2
 s + 30   
J L  LJ   sec   sec  
Therefore, the transfer function for the angular velocity is
( s) 30
A 2nd order system is underdamped is the transfer
= 2 function denominator has a conjugate pair of two
Vs ( s ) s + 8s + 30 complex roots
( s) 30
s1,2 = −4  j 3.74 =
Vs ( s ) ( s + 4 + j 3.74 )( s + 4 − j 3.74 )
30
Vs ( s )  vs ( t )  = 30u ( t )  =
s
90 90
( s) = =
(
s ( s + 4 + j 3.74 )( s + 4 − j 3.74 ) s s 2 + 8s + 30 )
K K s + K3  1 1 8
 ( s ) = 90  1 + 2 2  We can find K1 = , K2 = − , K3 = −
 s s + 8s + 30  30 30 30

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 Underdamped system: derivation of the step response
L = 1.0 H, R = 6Ω, Kv = 6V·sec, Km = 6 N·m/A, J = 2 kg·m2, b = 4 kg·m2·Hz, vs(t) = 30 u(t) V.

1 s +8 
 ( s ) = 30  + 2 
 s s + 8s + 30 

−1


( s + 4) + 4  −4t
 = e cos ( 3.74t ) + 4sin ( 3.74t ) 
 ( s + 4 ) + ( 3.74 ) 
2 2

Combining all of the above results, we can finally compute the step response for the
angular velocity of the DC motor as

 ( t ) = 3 − 3 ( e−4t cos ( 3.74t ) + 4sin ( 3.74t ))  u ( t )

 ( t ) = 3 − 4.39e−4t cos ( 3.74t − 0.82 )  u ( t )

So the step response of the 2nd order underdamped system is characterized by a phase—
shifted sinusoid enveloped by an exponential decay.

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 What the real and imaginary parts of the poles do?

 2 
 
1 Undamped ("natural") period 1  n 
Damping ratio,  = =
2 Time constant of exponential decay 2  1 
 
 n 
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 Underdamped DC motor in the s-domain
2nd order under-
damped system
poles

j
− 4+j3.42
j3.42

Input pole

−4
0 

− j3.42
− 4 − j3.42

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 The general 2nd order system
We can write the transfer function of the general 2nd — order system with unit steady
state response as follows: n2 where
s + 2n s + n
2 2

n is the system’s natural frequency and

 is the system’s damping ratio
The natural frequency indicates the oscillation frequency of the undamped (“natural”) system, i.e.
the system with energy storage elements only and without any dissipative elements. The damping
ratio denotes the relative contribution to the system dynamics by energy storage elements and
dissipative elements. Recall,  2 
 
1 Undamped ("natural") period 1  n 
Damping ratio,  = =
2 Time constant of exponential decay 2  1 
 
Depending on the damping ratio , the system response is   n 
• undamped if  < 0
• unerdamped if 0 <  < 1
• critically damped if  = 1
• overdamped if  > 1
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 The general 2nd order system

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 The underdamped 2nd order system
n2
C (s) = 2 , 0   1
s + 2n s + n
2

The step response’s Laplace transform is

1 n2 K1 K 2 s + K3
 2 = +
s s + 2n s + n2 s s 2 + 2n s + n2
1 1 2
We find K1 = , K2 = − , K3 = −
n
2
n 2
n

( s + n ) +  1 −  2

1
C (s) = −
(1 −  2 ) n

( s + n ) + n2 (1 −  2 )
2
s

Using the frequency shifting property of Laplace transforms we finally obtain the step
response in the time domain as
 
C (t ) = 1 − e −n t
(
cos n 1 −  2 t +


)
1− 2
(
sin n 1 −  2 t ) 


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 The underdamped 2nd order system
n2
, 0   1
s + 2n s + n
2 2


 d = n , d = n 1 −  2 , tan  =
1− 2
We can rewrite the step response as
1
1−  e− d t  cos (d t −  ) j
1− 2

The definition above can be re-written + jn 1 −  2 = jd

d
=
n s − plane

d −n = − d
1− 2 =
n
0 
d 1− 2
tan  = =
d 

− jn 1 −  2 = − jd
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 The underdamped 2nd order system
n2
, 0   1
s + 2n s + n
2 2


 d = n , d = n 1 −  2 , tan  =
1− 2
We can rewrite the step response as
1
1−  e− d t  cos (d t −  )
1− 2

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 Transients in the underdamped 2nd order system

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1. Rise time, Tr. The time required for the waveform to go from 0.1 of the final
value to 0.9 of the final value.
2. Peak time, TP. The time required to reach the first, or maximum, peak.
3. Percent overshoot, %OS. The amount that the waveform overshoots the
steadystate, or final, value at the peak time, expressed as a percentage of the
steady-state value.
4. Settling time, Ts. The time required for the transient’s damped oscillations to
reach and stay within 2% of the steady-state value.

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 Thank you

2/11/2025 ME 325 Control Systems