General Physics 2 (Reviewer)

2nd Semester - 4th Quarter

12 STEM - EINSTEIN
(c)and (d) show solenoids (1) connected to a
Lesson 1: Electromagnetic galvanometer and (2) placed
between the poles of an electromagnet.
Induction
Varying the magnetic field of this magnet
permitted the observation of the following
The Induction Experiments
results. As you go through them, make
-​ Electromagnetic induction (or inferences about the conditions that allowed
simply, induction) refers to the process the induction of current in the coil.
in which either a conductor or a
magnetic field is kept varying to 1.​ Zero current in the electromagnet
produce an electromotive force or emf yielded no magnetic field (B = 0).
across the current-carrying conductor. 2.​ Turning on the electromagnet
allowed current to flow through
Several experiments were conducted by two temporarily (B increases).
scientists, Michael Faraday and Joseph 3.​ The current once again returns to
Henry, regarding magnetically-induced zero as the magnetic field B eases.
electromotive force. Most of these 4.​ Decreasing or increasing the
experiments consisted of a solenoid solenoid’s cross-sectional area by
(conducting coil of wire) and a magnet. compressing and decompressing it
Initially, when the magnet is yet untouched, allows the current to flow through, but
no current is observed. As the magnet is only during the deformation.
being moved to and fro the solenoid, current 5.​ Rotating the solenoid back and
is generated. This is called induced current, forth, and or thrusting it out of the
and the electromotive force that causes it is field, also permitted current to flow
called an induced emf. through.
6.​ Decreasing and increasing the
number of turns in the coil induced
current as the coil is being wound and
unwound.
7.​ Another temporary current (in the
opposite direction) is observed when
(a)​A stationary magnet does NOT induce the magnet is turned off.
a current in a coil 8.​ Greater current is observed the faster
(b)​Moving the magnet toward or away Steps 4, 5, and 6 are done.
from the coil 9.​ Conducting these experiments on a
(c)​Moving a second, current carrying coil coil of similar shape but different
toward or away from the coil material and resistance will result in an
(d)​Varying the current in the second coil electric current that is inversely
(by closing or reopening a switch) proportional to the total resistance of
the circuit. It thus shows that the
Actions (b) to (d) DO induce a current in the induced emfs that cause current are
coil. What do they have in common? They not affected by the composition of a
cause the magnetic field through the coil to material but by its geometry and
change. magnetic field, and current may only
 General Physics 2 (Reviewer)
2nd Semester - 4th Quarter
12 STEM - EINSTEIN
be induced when these are varying numbers of loops connected
manipulated. by a metal conductor, which allows the
magnetic flux to pass through from one
coil to the other. This causes the
-​ Induced current and induced emf refer induction of emf in the second coil.
to the respective current and emf 3.​ Eddy Currents
produced by a changing magnetic flux. -​ An eddy current (also called Foucault’s
-​ A changing magnetic flux Φ𝐵 as current) contains loops of induced
observed in the results of the electrical current made possible by a
experiments, causes a change of the changing magnetic field within the
magnetic field over a period of time. device. This current “whirls” (hence
The rate of this change is the term eddy) as the electrons in its
proportional to the electromotive plane wind at right angles to the
force induced in the circuit. magnetic field. This is commonly
used in the brakes of trains, where
the metal wheels are subjected to the
Applications of Electromagnetic Induction
magnetic field through an
electromagnet, which then induces
1.​ Generators and Dynamos
eddy currents into the wheels as the
-​ A generator converts heat,
train slows down to a halt.
mechanical, or chemical energy into
4.​ Magnetic Card Stripes
electrical energy. A dynamo refers to
-​ You may have wondered why the black
a generator that transforms
stripes on some of your IDs or ATM
mechanical energy into electricity.
cards are put there for. Those stripes
The Main parts of a generator are
are magnetized layers that have
Stator, Rotor, and Shaft. The
different magnetic field orientations
generator’s electromagnetic rotor (a
that store encoded information.
rotating component of the motor), is
When the card is swiped through a
made by coiling wires around metal
card reader (which contains a coil in a
core poles. The stator, which
closed loop), the magnetic flux
contains a pair of plates connected
changes and induces an
to the axle, works with the rest of the
electromotive force.
device to allow the induced current to
flow through the system. Electromotive
force is generated once the shaft and Lesson 2: Faraday’s Law
the coil begin to rotate around Michael Faraday’s 1831 experiments
-​ the shaft. revealed that an electromotive force is
2.​ Transformers induced from a changing magnetic field in
-​ Transformers permit electricity to be a circuit and that its magnitude is
transmitted from long distances. equivalent to the rate at which the
The Law of Induction accounts for the magnetic flux of the field changes. These
reduction of electric current as the experiments led to the formulation of some of
power is kept constant, thus permitting the most fundamental principles of
the increase of voltage and the electromagnetism, one of the most important
decrease of current or the opposite. A
transformer makes use of coils with
 General Physics 2 (Reviewer)
2nd Semester - 4th Quarter
12 STEM - EINSTEIN
of which is called Faraday’s Law of have opposite directions. Recall that when
Induction. the emf is produced by a change in magnetic
flux, the “induced emf” generates an electric
Magnetic Flux current whose magnetic field opposes this
flux. If this is not observed, it will result in the
-​ refers to the total magnetic field that
creation of huge amounts of new energies,
flows through a given surface area.
which is, in fact, a violation of the Law of
-​ If B and A are parallel, angle is zero
the Conservation of Energy. This topic
-​ If B and A are perpendicular, angle is
will be discussed in more detail under Lenz’s
90
Law.
ϕ𝐵 = 𝐵𝐴 𝑐𝑜𝑠 θ
Direction of the Induced emf
Faraday’s Law of Induction The sign of the magnetic flux passing through
-​ Faraday’s Law of Electromagnetic a given surface area is arbitrary since there
Induction states that “the magnitude of are always two directions at right angles to it.
the electromotive force ℰ is Nonetheless, sign conventions for the
proportional to the rate of change of induced emf must be carefully observed to
the magnetic flux in the circuit.” avoid confusion and ensure consistency. The
-​ This principle is one of the basic laws following are the steps in determining the
of electromagnetism that shows how a direction of an induced electromotive force:
given magnetic field will produce an
electromotive force (emf or ℰ) in an 1.​ Determine the loop and set a positive
electrical circuit. You have learned direction for the vector area .
from Faraday’s experiments the three 2.​ Identify the magnetic flux ΦB through
crucial relationships of the this loop, including its sign and rate of
electromotive force with three change ΔΦ𝐵/Δt, If the value of the
electromagnetic variables. They are as current is unknown, you may use
follows: Ohm’s Law to solve for it.
1.​ The electromotive force E is directly
proportional to the change in
magnetic flux ΔΦ𝐵.
2.​ It is inversely proportional to the
change in time Δt.
3.​ It is directly proportional to the
number of turns N that a coil has.

The electromotive force or emf is the electric

potential difference across a loop when no
electric current is flowing through it. Like
voltage, it is expressed in units of volts (V).

The negative sign used in the Law of

Induction signifies that the induced
electromotive force and the change in flux
 General Physics 2 (Reviewer)
2nd Semester - 4th Quarter
12 STEM - EINSTEIN
-​ An increasing rate of change ΔΦ𝐵/Δt magnetism. Maxwell’s evaluation of and
of the magnetic flux Φ𝐵 yields a addendum for Faraday’s Law includes how a
a varying electric field induces a changing
negative induced emf or current. A magnetic field.
decreasing flux yields a positive
induced emf or current. James Clerk Maxwell improved Faraday’s
Law by proving that if an electric field is
Key Formula induced from a moving magnetic field, “a
R = Current in a loop magnetic field is in turn also “induced”
ℰ when an electric field changes over time.”
𝐼= 𝑅 Similar to the proportionality between the
R = Magnetic Flux induced emf and the change of magnetic flux,
​ Φ𝐵 = 𝐵𝐴 or ​ Φ𝐵 = 𝐵𝐴 𝑐𝑜𝑠 θ the same relationship is also observed
R = Induced emf between the induced electric field and the
△Φ𝐵 rate of change of the flux. These induced
​ ℰ = −𝑁 △𝑡 electric and magnetic fields are found to be
R = change in magnetic flux perpendicular to each other.
ε(∆𝑡)
​ ∆Φ𝐵 = 𝑁
James Clerk Maxwell showed a close
R = time interval
∆𝑡1 𝑐𝑜𝑠θ2
relationship between electric and
​ ∆𝑡2 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠θ1 magnetic phenomena. From Faraday’s Law
stating how a varying magnetic field induces
an emf, and hence an electric field, Maxwell
Area of Solenoid
2 proposed that, in turn, magnetic fields can
𝐴 = π𝑟 also be generated by varying electric fields.
Area of square
2
𝐴 = 𝑙 Applications of Faraday’s Law and
Maxwell’s Evaluation

Lesson 3: Maxwell’s Evaluation Electrostatic Fields

Michael Faraday conducted a series of Since it is understood that if a conductor is

experiments to establish solid pragmatic and stationary, a magnetic force could not have
mathematical proofs for electromagnetic caused the motion of charges because the
induction, which later became known as loop is not situated in a magnetic field. What
Faraday’s Law. It explains that “a magnetic is, in fact, responsible for this work is an
field that is changing over time can induce electrostatic field caused by the changing
an electric field in that region.” In the flux in the conductor. An electrostatic field
1960s, the Scottish mathematical physicist is by all means conservative (i.e., the
James Clerk Maxwell used these principles integral along its closed path is zero), and
to provide a more unified view of thus corresponds to a given electric
electromagnetism, which aimed to potential.
demonstrate a clear symmetry and
interrelationship between electricity and An electrostatic field arises when electrons
are stationary (hence the term “static”) and
 General Physics 2 (Reviewer)
2nd Semester - 4th Quarter
12 STEM - EINSTEIN
thus produces a corresponding electric his world expedition to probe the Atlantic,
potential. Pacific, and Indian Oceans to investigate the
barometric pressure and salinity of seawater.
Non-electrostatic Electric Fields
Aside from the condition mentioned above, Direction of the Induced Current
Faraday’s Law may also be applied to The “cause” mentioned in the statement of
time-varying magnetic fields that induce Lenz’s law, as you have learned in the past
electric fields and electromotive forces even lessons, may either be (1) a changing
in the absence of a conductor. Here, when an magnetic flux caused by the motion of
electric charge travels around a closed loop, conductor(s), (2) a changing magnetic flux
the field does a non-zero amount of work caused by a varying/non-uniform magnetic
upon it, thus making electric potential field in a stationary circuit, or (3) a
irrelevant and the field to be nonconservative. combination of both. Lenz’s law predicts the
This field is referred to as a direction of the induced current as follows:
non-electrostatic or induced field.
1.​ In the case of a changing magnetic
Key Formula flux in a motionless/stationary
circuit, the induced current will
ε = ∮ 𝐸(𝑑𝑙) generate its own magnetic field
around it. This induced current
Where: opposes the direction of the change in
magnetic flux through the loop.
∮ 𝐸(𝑑𝑙) is the the line integral of the
2. For a changing magnetic flux caused
electric field around the loop by moving conductors, the induced
current generated from the moving
𝑑Φ𝐵 ∆Φ𝐵 conductor will have a direction
ε= − 𝑑𝑡
or = − ∆𝑡 opposite of the conductor’s
Where: magnetic-field force.
∆Φ𝐵
− is the time rate of change of the
∆𝑡 In Lenz’s law, it is the direction of the change
magnetic flux through the loop. in flux and not the flux itself that is taken into
consideration.

Lesson 4: Lenz’s Law When the induced magnetic field that

opposes the flux change is upward, the
Lenz’s law is particularly beneficial in helping
induced current produced must be in a
us analyze the effects of induction. It also
counterclockwise direction.On the other
validates the Law of Conservation of Energy
hand, when the induced magnetic field that
using electromagnetism. It states that: “The
opposes the flux change is downward, the
magnetic induction effect always opposes
induced current must be in a clockwise
its cause.”
direction.
Lenz’s law was formulated by the Russian
geophysicist Heinrich Friedrich Emil Lenz
(pronounced /lentz/). He was renowned for
 General Physics 2 (Reviewer)
2nd Semester - 4th Quarter
12 STEM - EINSTEIN
Lenz’s Law and the Response to Flux
Change
Lenz’s law is merely a qualitative law, i.e.,
its aim is simply to predict and describe the
direction of the induced current. The
current’s magnitude, as proven by Ohm’s
law, will ultimately depend on the resistance
present in the circuit. Thus, we can conclude
that the amount of induced current that
opposes any flux change will be inversely
proportional to the resistance present in
the system.

The greater the resistance, the less

induced current will flow in the
circuit. The lesser the induced current, the
greater the change in flux. The same is true
for the opposite. It follows, therefore, that the
conductance and resistance of the loop are
factors that also affect the flow of the induced
current in the circuit.