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PHARMA 121L: HUMAN PHYSIOLOGY & PATHOPHYSIOLOGY FOR

PHARMACY (LAB)
UNIT 5: The Nervous System
B.​ PERIPHERAL NERVOUS SYSTEM (PNS)
TOPIC OUTLINE -​ consists of all nervous tissue outside the CNS
COMPONENTS:
I.​ Introduction of Nervous System
a.​ Nerves
II.​ Divisions
-​ bundle of hundreds to thousands of
A.​ Central Nervous System
axons plus associated connective tissue
B.​ Peripheral Nervous System
and blood vessels that lies outside the
III.​ Functions
brain and spinal cord
IV.​ Nervous Tissues
12 cranial nerves - brain
A.​ Neuroglia
31 spinal nerves - spinal cord
B.​ Neurons
b.​ Ganglia (swelling or knot)
V.​
VI.​

VII.​

VIII.​
DC
Collections of Nervous Tissue
Electrical signals
A.​ Graded Potential
B.​ Action Potential
C.​ Synaptic Transmission
D.​ Process
Neurotransmitters
A.​ Excitatory & Inhibitor
B.​ Examples of Neurotransmitters
C.​ Net Effect
Autonomic Nervous System
A.​ Somatic vs. Autonomic
B.​ SANS vs. PANS
C.​ Physiological effects of the ANS
-​ small masses of nervous tissue consisting
primarily of neuron cell bodies located
outside the brain and spinal cord
-​ closely associated with the brain and
spinal nerves
c.​ Enteric Plexuses
-​ extensive networks of neurons located in
the walls of organs of the GIT
-​ neurons in these plexuses help regulate
the digestive system
d.​ Sensory Receptors
-​ structure monitors changes in the
external or internal environment
IX.​ Pathophysiology ex.
●​ phonoreceptors (inner ears) — sense of
bound body balance
ER
●​ photoreceptors (eyes) — sense of sight
I.​ Introduction of Nervous System
●​ olfactory receptors (nose) — sense of smell
-​ have a mass of 2 kg (4.5 lb), 3% of normal body
●​ thermoreceptors (skin) — sense of
weight
touch/pain/heat
-​ smallest yet most complex part of the body
●​ gustatory receptors (tongue) — sense of
-​ regulates body activities by responding rapidly using
taste
nerve impulse (the endocrine system responds by
FURTHER DIVISION of PNS:
releasing hormones) mnemonic [ASEM] —afferent-sensory; efferent-motor
-​ responsible for our perceptions, behaviors, and 1.​ SENSORY / AFFERENT DIVISION
memories, and it initiates all voluntary movements -​ conveys input into the CNS from sensory
NEUROLOGY receptors in the body
-​ deals with normal functioning and disorders of the -​ provides the CNS with sensory
nervous system information about the somatic senses
(tactile, thermal, pain, and
II.​ Divisions proprioceptive sensations) and special
senses (smell, taste, vision, hearing, and
A.​ CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM (CNS) equilibrium)
-​
PURPOSE: process different kinds of incoming sensory -​ mostly unipolar neurons
information, source of thoughts, emotions, and 2.​ MOTOR / EFFERENT DIVISION
memories -​ conveys output from the CNS to
-​ most signals that stimulate muscles to contract and effectors (muscles and glands).
glands to secrete originates here -​ mostly multipolar
FURTHER DIVISION: SUBDIVISION:
1.​ BRAIN a.​ Somatic Nervous System [soma=body]
-​ located in the skull -​ conveys output from the CNS to
-​ contains about 85 billion neurons skeletal muscles only
2.​ SPINAL CORD -​ voluntary: its motor responses
-​ connected to the brain through the can be consciously controlled
foramen magnum of the occipital bone b.​ Autonomic Nervous System [auto=self,
and is encircled by the bones of the nomic=law]
vertebral column -​ conveys output from the CNS to
-​ contains about 100 million neurons smooth muscle, cardiac muscle,
and glands.
-​ involuntary: its motor responses
are not normally under

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 conscious control
MAIN BRANCHES:
❖​ effectors receive innervation from
both of the first branches, and
usually the two branches have
opposing actions
ex: neurons of the sympathetic
nervous system increase heart
rate, and neurons of the
parasympathetic nervous system
slow it down
i. Sympathetic Nervous System / Acute
Stress Response
-​ fight or flight responses during
emergency or exercise
ex. carrying a washing machine

DC
when a house is caught on fire
Physical Signs:
dilation of pupils
pale/flushed skin
rapid heart or breathing

mnemonic ; para — stop

-​
-​
trembling
ii. Parasympathetic Nervous System

rest and digest activities

control body’s ability to relax
(downregulating)
Vagus Nerve: mainly where
parasympathetic nervous system
functions
INTERACTION BETWEEN THE PNS AND THE CNS:

sends impulse from the brain to the

body and also back from the body to
the brain — tells the brain what is
ER
happening, instead of the brain telling III.​ Functions
the body what to do
Sensory
Signs: Example:
Sensory receptors detect internal
contraction of pupils answering phone
stimuli, such as an increase in blood
tear production in the eyes
pressure, or external stimuli (ex. a
relaxation of muscle during urination The sound of the
raindrop landing on your arm).
and defecation ringing cell phone
This sensory information is then
erections in men stimulates sensory
carried into the brain and spinal
increased rate of digestion receptors in your
cord through cranial and spinal
c.​ Enteric Nervous System (ENS) ears.
nerves
[enteron=intestines]
-​ an extensive network of over 100 This auditory
million neurons confined to the Integrative information is
wall of the gastrointestinal (GI) The nervous system processes subsequently
tract sensory information by analyzing it relayed into your
-​ helps regulate the activity of the and making decisions for brain where it is
smooth muscle and glands of appropriate responses—an activity processed and the
the GI tract known as integration. decision to answer
-​ although can function the phone is made.
independently, it communicates Motor Then the brain
with and is regulated by the Once sensory information is stimulates the
other branches of the ANS integrated, the nervous system may contraction of
SUMMARY DIAGRAMS: elicit an appropriate motor response specific muscles
by activating effectors (muscles and that will allow you to
glands) through cranial and spinal grab the phone
nerves. Stimulation of the effectors and press the
causes muscles to contract and appropriate button
glands to secrete. to answer it.

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 ●​ produce an insulating barrier called the
IV.​ Nervous Tissue myelin sheath (like oligodendrocytes)
2.​ Satellite cells
A.​ NEUROGLIA ●​ Provides structural support
-​ Relatively smaller cells than the neuron. More ●​ Regulates exchange of materials between
abundant than the neuron by about 25 times. neuronal cell bodies and interstitial fluid.
-​ Nourishes, supports, and protects the neurons. ●​ surround and support neuron cell bodies (like
“GLUES” the nervous tissue together. astrocytes)
-​ Cannot generate or propagate action potentials.
-​ Can divide throughout an individual’s lifetime.
-​ Brain tumors derived from glia are termed as
GLIOMAS.
TYPES OF NEUROGLIA:
a.​ Found in CNS
1.​ Astrocytes
●​ Star-shaped cells; largest among all

neurons.

impulses.
DC
neuroglia, most abundant
●​ Contain microfilaments that support

●​ In the embryo, it is responsible to regulate

the growth and interconnection among
neurons in the brain.
●​ Maintain an appropriate chemical
environment for the generation of nerve

●​ Plays a role in learning and memory.

●​ support, regulate ions
2.​ Oligodendrocytes
●​ Resembles astrocytes but are smaller.
●​ Responsible for forming and maintaining the
-​
-​
-​

-​

-​
B.​ NEURONS
also called nerve cells
fundamental units of the brain and nervous system
forms complex networks and connects all regions
within the brain and the spinal cord,
responsible for receiving sensory input from the
external world, sending motor commands to our
muscles, and for transforming and relaying the
electrical signals at every step in between
as a result of the specialization role of neuron
MYELIN SHEATH around CNS axons. One (sensing, thinking, remembering, controlling muscle
oligodendrocyte myelinates several axons. activity, and regulating glandular secretions), they
●​ wrap and insulate, form myelin sheath lost the ability to undergo mitotic divisions (does not
ER
3.​ Microglia regenerate)
●​ Function as phagocytes: removes cellular PARTS OF NEURON
debris formed during normal development Cell body
of the nervous system and phagocytize (also known as perikaryon or soma)
microbes and damaged nervous tissues contains a nucleus
●​ defend surrounded by cytoplasm
4.​ Ependymal cells that includes cellular
●​ Produce, possibly monitor, and assist in the Nucleus organelles: lysosome,
circulation of CerebroSpinal Fluid. mitochondria, and golgi
●​ line cavities complex
free ribosomes
— sites of protein synthesis
which are used to replace
cellular components, as
Nissl bodies material for growth of
neurons, and to regenerate
damaged axons in the PNS
prominent clusters of rough
endoplasmic reticulum
neurofibrils
composed of bundles of
intermediate filaments that
provide the cell shape and
Cytoskeleton support
microtubules
assist in moving materials
b.​ Found in PNS between the cell body and
1.​ Schwann cells axon
●​ encircles PNS axons by forming MYELIN pigment that occurs as
SHEATH clumps of yellowish brown
●​ One Schwann cells myelinates a single axon granules in the cytoplasm
Lipofuscin
●​ single Schwann cell can also enclose as a product of neuronal
many as 20 or more unmyelinated axons lysosomes that accumulates
(axons that lack a myelin sheath) as the neuron ages, but

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 does not seem to harm the
neuron
collection of neuron cell
Ganglion (ganglia-plural)
bodies outside the CNS
general term for any
neuronal process (extension)
Nerve fiber
that emerges from the cell
body of a neuron
Dendrites
(little trees)
are the receiving or input portions of a neuron
short, tapering, and highly branched
contain numerous receptor
Plasma membrane sites for binding chemical
messengers from other cells
contains Nissl bodies,
cytoplasm

DC
Axon
(axis)
mitochondria, and other
organelles.

propagates nerve impulses toward another neuron, a

muscle fiber, or a gland cell
contains mitochondria, microtubules, and neurofibrils.
Because rough endoplasmic reticulum is not present,
protein synthesis does not occur in the axon

Axon hillock
(small hill)
cone-shaped elevation
where axon,long, thin,
cylindrical projection, joint
to the cell body
part of the axon closest to
Initial Segment
the axon hillock
an area where nerve
ER
impulses arise at the junction
Trigger zone
of the axon hillock and the
initial segment
axoplasm cytoplasm of axon
axolemma plasma membrane TRANSPORT SYSTEMS
(lemma=sheath/husk) surrounding axoplasm that carry materials from the cell body to the axon
side branches, at the right terminals and back
axon collaterals Slow axonal transport slower system, which moves
angle to the axon
axon and its collaterals end materials about 1–5 mm per
axon terminals day
by dividing into many fine
/ axon telodendria conveys axoplasm in one
processes
direction only—from the cell
site of communication
body toward the axon
between two neurons or
synapse terminals
between a neuron and an
supplies new axoplasm to
effector cell
developing or regenerating
tips of some axon terminals
axons and replenishes
synaptic end bulbs swell into bulb-shaped
axoplasm in growing and
structures
mature axons
varicosities string of swollen bumps
Fast axon transport capable of moving
tiny membrane-enclosed
occurs in materials a distance of
sacs contained in both
synaptic vesicles anterograde (forward) 200–400 mm per day
synaptic end bulbs and
direction moves organelles uses proteins that function
varicosities
and synaptic vesicles from as “motors” to move
neurotransmitter chemical stored in synaptic
the cell body to the axon materials along the surfaces
(Many neurons contain two vesicles
terminals of microtubules of the
or even three types of molecule released from a
retrograde (backward) neuron’s cytoskeleton
neurotransmitters, each with synaptic vesicle that excites
direction moves membrane moves materials in both
diff erent eff ects on the or inhibits another neuron,
vesicles and other cellular directions—away from and
postsynaptic cell) muscle fiber, or gland cell
materials from the axon toward the cell body
terminals to the cell body to
be degraded or recycled

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CLASSIFICATION OF NEURONS V.​ Collection of Nervous Tissue
located in PNS located in CNS

1.​ Multipolar neurons Clusters of Ganglion Nucleus

-​ have several dendrites Neuronal Bodies
and one axon Bundles of Axon Nerve Tract
-​ Most neurons in the brain *Cranial nerves
and spinal cord are of connect the brain
this type, as well as all to the periphery
motor neurons * Spinal nerves
connect the spinal
cord to the
Gray and White MATTER

2.​ Bipolar neurons

-​ have one main dendrite
and one axon

DC
-​ found in the retina of the
eye, the inner ear, and
the olfactory area
(olfact = to smell) of the
brain.

3.​ Unipolar neurons

-​ have dendrites and one
axon that are fused
together to form a
continuous process that
emerges from the cell
White Matter
Composed primarily of
myelinated axons
Gray Matter
Contains neuronal cell
bodies, dendrites,
unmyelinated axons, axon
terminals, and neuroglia.
Nissl bodies impart a gray
color.
body
-​ called pseudounipolar CEREBELLUM & CEREBRUM
GREY MATTER in outermost portion
ER
neurons because they
begin in the embryo as SPINAL CORD
bipolar neurons. WHITE MATTER in periphery
-​ During development, GREY MATTER closer to the center (forming H or butterfly
the dendrites and axon image)
fuse together and
become a single
process. The dendrites of most unipolar neurons
function as sensory receptors that detect a
sensory stimulus such as touch, pressure, pain,
or thermal stimuli. The trigger zone for nerve
impulses in a unipolar neuron is at the junction
of the dendrites and axon (Figure 12.3c). The
impulses then propagate toward the synaptic
end bulbs. The cell bodies of most unipolar
neurons are located in the ganglia of spinal
and cranial nerves
VI.​ Electrical Signals
EXAMPLES OF CNS NEURONS -​ manner of communication between neurons
A.​ GRADED POTENTIAL
-​ used for short-distances communication
-​ site: dendrites
-​ response to a stimulus, like sensory input or
neurotransmitter binding to receptors on a neuron
-​ localized changes in the neuron's membrane
potential and vary in magnitude based on the
strength of the stimulus
-​ decrease in strength as they travel towards the axon
hillock, where decisions about action potentials are
made
B.​ ACTION POTENTIAL
-​ allow communication over long distances within the
body
-​ response to a stimulus, like sensory input or
neurotransmitter binding to receptors on a neuron

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-​ localized changes in the neuron's membrane ELECTRICAL SYNAPSE CHEMICAL SYNAPSE
potential and vary in magnitude based on the direct transmission of nerve neurotransmitters are released
strength of the stimulus impulses through gap junctions from the presynaptic neuron
●​ muscle action potential: an action (bidirectional) and bind to receptors on the
faster communication, postsynaptic neuron
potential in a muscle fiber
synchronization (unidirectional)
●​ nerve action potential/ nerve impulses:
slower communication
action potential occurs in neuron (nerve
cell)
-​ SITE: axon D.​ PROCESS
-​ SALTATORY: as the nerve impulse travel through the
axon, the myelinated actin which fastens the
impulse, in which the transmission jumps in between
the spaces: node of ranvier
-​ CONTINUOUS: occurs in unmyelinated sheath where
continuous impulses travels, slower than saltatory
-​ decrease in strength as they travel towards the axon

made

DC
hillock, where decisions about action potentials are
GRADED POTENTIAL
1.​ Channel ions are in resting state at -70 mV
2.​ Environmental stimuli trigger mechanically-gated
channels to open, increasing the change inside
the membrane.
-​ A lot of voltage-gated Na+ channels are present
in our body making a local current strong
enough to change the voltage of other channels
beside them.

ACTION POTENTIAL
3.​ As the charge increases till threshold (-55 mV) by
the continuous entrance of Na+, the
voltage-gated sodium channels now open.
●​ if the change is too weak and not hit the
-55 mV level, neurons just returns to its
ER
resting state, like a false alarm
C.​ SYNAPTIC TRANSMISSION ●​ weak stimulus tends to trigger less
-​ SITE: axon terminals/synapse frequent action potentials
-​ transmission of impulse across the INTERPHASE 4.​ Then all Na+ rush in, making the cell massively
-​ INTERPHASE: area of connection between 2 neurons depolarized till 40mV.
or a neuron and the effector organ -​ a temporary reversal of a membrane potential, a
-​ SITE: axon terminals/synapse brief depolarization caused by change in
INVOLVES: currents
1.​ PRESYNAPTIC NEURONS “sending cells” 5.​ REPOLARIZATION: Na+ closes, and voltage-gated
2.​ SYNAPSE “communication place” K ion channels open, letting K+ out attempting to
SYNAPSES BETWEEN NEURONS: rebalance the charges.
ACTION POTENTIAL TRAVELING THROUGH AXON:

a.​ Axodendritic—an axon connecting to a dendrite,

enabling the transmission of signals to the receiving
neuron.
b.​ Axosomatic—an axon synapses directly onto the cell
body of another neuron, often influencing the overall
excitability of the postsynaptic neuron 6.​ HYPERPOLARIZATION: when the voltage drops to
c.​ Axoaxonic—an axon synapsing onto another axon,
-75 mV even before the gates close and
playing a pivotal role in modulating neurotransmitter
sodium-potassium pumps take over and bring
release
3.​ POSTSYNAPTIC NEURONS “receiving cell” things back to their resting level.
add nerve impulses together, then decide if 7.​ REFRACTORY PERIOD: where during the process,
action potential will be fired axons cannot respond to any other stimulus, no
SPATIAL SUMMATION- processing of postsynaptic matter how strong
potential that occur in different location but at
the same time

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 SYNAPTIC TRANSMISSION C.​ NET EFFECT
1.​ Action potential arrives at the axon terminal Identify the net effect (Greatly Increased/ Increased/
2.​ Triggers voltage-gated calcium (Ca²⁺) channels Greatly Decreased/ Decreased) of the neuronal
in the presynaptic membrane to open, Ca+ ions interactions on neurotransmission from B to C. Each
flow into the presynaptic terminal interaction presupposes that the other neurons are
3.​ Synaptic vesicles (contains neurotransmitters) quiescent at that time.
fused with presynaptic membrane, and the
neurotransmitters are released into the synaptic A, B, C, D, E, and F are neurons (figure below) in a tract
cleft through exocytosis that projects from left to right. Neurons B, D, and E release
4.​ Neurotransmitters diffuse across the synaptic cleft excitatory neurotransmitters (+). Neurons A and F release
and bind to specific receptors on the inhibitory neurotransmitters (–).
postsynaptic membrane, which causes ion
channels on the postsynaptic cell to open or
close, leading to changes in its membrane
potential.
5.​ RESULTS in either:

VII.​
-​

-​
DC
a.​ excitatory postsynaptic potential (EPSP),
which moves the postsynaptic neuron
closer to firing an action potential
b.​ inhibitory postsynaptic potential (IPSP),
which makes it less likely to fire

Neurotransmitters
Serves as messengers that enable neurons to
communicate with one another.
Synthesized in neuronal bodies of nerve terminals;
stored in vesicles until they are released into the
synapse.
INTERACTION
A→B

D→A→B
EFFECT OF NEUROTRANSMISSION
A inactivates the excitability of B,
which reduces the neurotransmission
from B to C
Effect: decreased (↓)
D increases the activity of A to
-​ The release of neurotransmitters is activated by
inhibit B, resulting to the further
membrane depolarization and calcium influx into
inhibition of B, greatly reducing the
the cell.
B’s neurotransmission to C
ER
-​ After exocytosis, the neurotransmitter may
Effect: greatly decreased (↓↓↓)
activate presynaptic and postsynaptic receptors.
F→A→B F decreases the inhibition of A,
meaning B is less inhibited, leading
A.​ EXCITATORY & INHIBITORY to increase of neurotransmission of B
to C
Effect: increase(↑)
E→B E increases the excitability of B
Effect: increase(↑)

VIII.​ Autonomic Nervous System

A.​ SOMATIC vs. AUTONOMIC

SOMATIC AUTONOMIC
B.​ EXAMPLES OF NEUROTRANSMITTERS Neuronal Set-up 1 2
Activities Skeletal Muscle Smooth and
Effector Organ Cardiac Muscle

B.​ SANS vs. PANS

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 SYMPATHETIC PARASYMPATHETIC
AUTONOMIC AUTONOMIC D.​ PHYSIOLOGICAL EFFECTS OF THE ANS
NERVOUS SYSTEM NERVOUS SYSTEM
Other Name fight and flight rest and digest
responses
Origin thoracic, lumbar cervical, sacral
region
Gang Preganglionic shorter longer
lia fiber
Postganglionic long short
fiber
Location closer to spinal cord further away from
spinal cord
Neurotransmitter at ACh ACh *Ileus — temporary condition where your intestine can’t push food and
waste out of your body
ganglia
Neurotransmitter at ACh, norepinephrine ACh
innervated organ epinephrine

Receptors at ganglia

Receptors at
innervated organ
DC
dopamine
nAChrs
Nicotinic acetylcholine
receptors
Dopamine receptors
Adrenergic receptors
(responds to
norepinephrine and
epinephrine)
Alpha (α) receptors:
α1: Found in smooth
muscles (e.g., blood
vessels), causing
vasoconstriction
α2: Found in presynaptic
terminals, inhibiting
Muscarinic receptors

neurotransmitter release.
mAChRs
Muscarinic
acetylcholine
receptors (responds to
ACh)

Beta (β) receptors:

β1: Found in the heart,
increasing heart rate and
ER
contractility.
β2: Found in smooth
muscles (e.g., bronchi),
causing relaxation
(bronchodilation)β3:
Found in adipose tissue,
involved in lipolysis.

C.​ NEUROTRANSMITTERS and their RECEPTORS

EXCITATORY RECEPTORS
ACh Nicotinic Receptors
Muscarinic Receptors
Norepinephrine α & β adrenergic receptors
Epinephrine
Glutamate Glutamate Receptor :
Ionotropic
Metabotropic
MIXED
Dopamine Dopamine Receptors
Serotonin 5-HT Receptor :
5-HT1 Receptor — inhibitory
5-HT2 Receptor — excitatory
5-HT3 Receptor — ionotropic & excitatory
INHIBITORY
GABA Metabotropic Glutamate Receptors
(Gamma-Aminobutyric Acid) (mGluRs)

RECEPTOR RECEPTOR RECEPTOR RECEPTOR RECEPTOR

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IX.​ Pathophysiology

DISEASE PATHOLOGY SIGNS & SYMPTOMS TREATMENTS/ MEDICATIONS

a.​ personalization ❖​ Antidepressants
b.​ overgeneralization -​ SSRI -etine, -opram
c.​ magnification (Selective Serotonin
d.​ jumping into conclusion Reuptake Inhibitors)
●​ Depressed mood most of : Fluoxetine (Prozac)
the time or persists for a : Sertraline (Zoloft)
Neurotrophic hypothesis: long time. : Escitalopram (Lexapro)
●​ ↓ BDNF (Brain-derived ●​ Feelings of guilt, suicidal : Paroxetine (Paxil)
Major Depressive Neurotrophic Factor) tendencies, disturbed -​ SNRI -faxine, -oxetine
Disorder Monoamine hypothesis: bodily functions (weight loss, (Serotonin-Norepinephrin
●​ ↓ amount of biogenic anorexia, loss of libido, e Reuptake Inhibitors)
amines activity disturbed sleep pattern). : Venlafaxine (Effexor XR)
Depressed people are : Duloxetine (Cymbalta)

Anxiety Disorders DC ●​
caught in a feedback loop ❖​ CBT (cognitive behavioral
in which distorted thoughts
cause negative feelings,
which distort thinking
further.
Depends on the type
●​

●​
acute episodes of severe
anxiety with marked
psychological and
physiological symptoms
during a panic attack, an
individual may feel an
impending sense of doom that
is often accompanied by
therapy)- improves the
patient’s ETB (emotions,
thoughts, and behaviors)
❖​ Psychotherapy- counseling

Panic Disorder sweating, tachycardia,

tremor, and other visceral
symptoms.
ER
●​ can coexist with
Agarophobia, an intense fear
of being in a public place
from which it might be difficult
or embarrassing to cope up
with a panic attack
●​ characterized by obsessions,
which are recurring or
persistent thoughts and
Obsessive-compulsive
impulses, and compulsions ❖​ Anxiolytics (-am)
disorder
defined as repetitive -​ Alprazolam (Xanax)
behaviors in response to
-​ Clonazepam (Klonopin)
obsessions.
●​ ↑ NE, 5-HT -​ Diazepam (Valium)
●​ may develop after exposure
●​ ↓ GABA -​ Lorazepam (Ativan)
Post traumatic Stress to a traumatic event, such as
Disorder sexual assault and military ❖​ Antidepressants
combat. ❖​ CBT
●​ intense fear and/or ❖​ Psychotherapy
avoidance to situations which
Social Phobia the individual feels that he/she
may be scrutinized by others;
excessive form of shyness
●​ Eating disorders characterized
by an abnormally low body
weight, and intense fear of
gaining weight, and distorted
perception of weight.
●​ Patients control their body
Anorexia Nervosa
weight through vomiting after
eating, misuse laxatives and
diet aids, and exercising
excessively. No matter how
much weight is lost, the person
continues to fear weight gain.
●​ Patients secretly binge —
eating large amounts of food
Bulimia nervosa with a loss of control over the
eating — and then purge,
trying to get rid of the extra

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 calories in an unhealthy way.
●​ ↑ Dopamine ❖​ Antipsychotics
Psychosis ●​ ↓ Serotonin a.​ atypical – have side effects
(mixed neurotransmitters) second generation(-pine,
-done)
Schizophrenia
-​ Clozapine
Other forms: 3 STAGES:
-​ Olanzapine
●​ Schizoaffective 1.​ Prodromal —- social
disorder
-​ Risperidone
withdrawal
●​ Delusional disorder -​ Quetiapine
2.​ Psychotic (acute) —-
●​ Substance-induced -​ Ziprasidone
particular kind and the most positive behavior
psychotic disorder b.​ typical – modern drugs,
common form of psychosis 3.​ Residual (chronic) —-
●​ Paraphrenia/ minimal side effects
Paranoid negative behavior
first generation (-zine)
Schizophrenia
-​ Haloperidol
●​ Psychotic disorder
-​ Chlorpromazine
due to a medical
condition
-​ Fluphenazine

Epilepsy
DC●​
●​
↑ Glutamate
↓ GABA
●​ Convulsions
-​ involuntary movements
of Skeletal Muscle
-​ “pangingisay”
-​ cause: ↑ body
temperature, ↑ firing of
electrical impulse
●​ Seizures
-​ absence of
“pangingisay”, but in a
“lutang” state — to the
point of just staring
-​ cause: ↑ firing of
-​ Thioridazine

❖​ Antiepileptic Drugs
-​ Phenytoin
-​ Carbamazepine
-​ Valproic Acid
-​ Phenobarbital
-​ Levetiracetam
-​ Lamotrigine
-​ Topiramate
-​ Gabapentin

electrical impulse
●​ paralysis agitans, shaking
ER
palsy
●​ Neurodegenerative
❖​ Dopaminergic Drugs
disorder
-dopa, -ole, tine
●​ BRADYKINESIA (slowness or
-​ Levodopa
poverty of movement)
-​ Carbidopa
Parkinson’s Disease ●​ ↓ Dopamine ●​ RIGIDITY (inability to initiate
-​ Pramipexole
movements)
-​ Ropinirole
●​ RESTING TREMOR
-​ Bromocriptine
(involuntary trembling
when a limb is at rest)
●​ Abnormalities in posture
and gait
●​ Most common type of
dementia.
●​ Characterized as a severe,
chronic, progressive,
❖​ Acetylcholinesterase inhibitor
irreversible
-​ Donepezil
neurodegenerative and
-​ Rivastigmine
incurable disorder with
●​ ↑ Glutamate -​ Galantamine
Alzheier’s Disease memory loss, cognition
●​ ↓ ACh -​ Donepezil/Memantine
impairment, abnormalities
combi.
in behavior, and
~delay the symptom, not
personality changes as the
treat the disease
main clinical
manifestations.
●​ Characterized by
NEURONAL DEATH.
●​ Progressive destruction of ❖​ Immunotherapy
myelin sheaths surrounding -mab (suppresses the
●​ Destruction of myelin
neurons. Auto-immune activity of immune cells)
sheath by the attacks
disease. -​ Rituximan
Multiple Sclerosis of immune cells,
●​ The destruction of myelin -​ Infliximab
causing the delays in
sheaths slows and then -​ Adalimumab
neurotransmission
short-circuits the -​ Trastuzumab
propagation of nerve -​ Pembrolizuman

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 impulses.
●​ Most common in whites, less
common in blacks, and rare
in Asians.
❖​ Thrombolytics
●​ totally occluded
(to dissolve the clot, to be
●​ brain death due to ●​ coma
given immediately after the
blood clots ●​ no properly functioning of
stroke)
Cerebrovascular formed/ruptured brain
-​
Accident (CVA) artery on small blood ●​ paralysis (if right side of the
❖​ Thrombolytics
vessels, causing brain is affected, the left
(prevent re-clotting, to be
hypoxia side of the body will be
given after thrombolytics)
paralyzed)

DC
ER

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