Power System Operations and Control (EPE 609)

Lecture Set (5)

Optimal Power Flow
Prof. Muwaffaq I. Alomoush

Department of Electrical Power Engineering

Faculty of Engineering Technology
Yarmouk University

e-mail: [email protected]

First Semester 2023/2024

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Optimal Power Flow (OPF)
 𝐎𝐏𝐅 = 𝐄𝐃 + 𝐋𝐨𝐚𝐝 𝐅𝐥𝐨𝐰 + (𝐂𝐨𝐧𝐬𝐭𝐫𝐚𝐢𝐧𝐭𝐬 𝐚𝐧𝐝 𝐋𝐢𝐦𝐢𝐭𝐬)
 OPF is a non-convex, nonlinear, and large-scale
problem.
 The main aim of using OPF in power systems is to
obtain the optimal objective functions by setting the
control variables.
 The control variables involve real power output of
generation units except the slack bus, the voltages
magnitude at generator buses, regulating tap setting
at transformers, and the VAR compensators
connected to transmission lines
 OPF requires satisfying equality and inequality
constraints, and technical limits.
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Prof. Muwaffaq I. Alomoush, Yarmouk University, Irbid, Jordan
Optimal Power Flow (OPF)
The objective functions that will be optimized are:
 The total fuel cost of generation units
 Active power losses in transmission lines
 Total emission
 Total voltage deviation
 Voltage stability index of system
 Other functions
 Weighted combinations of the above functions
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Prof. Muwaffaq I. Alomoush, Yarmouk University, Irbid, Jordan
Optimal Power Flow (OPF): Cont.
 OPF considers the impact of the transmission system
 OPF functionally combines the power flow with
economic dispatch, constraints, and limits
 OPF minimizes cost function (or other objective),
such as operating cost, taking into account realistic
equality and inequality constraints and limits:
 Equality constraints
 Inequality constraints
 Limits
 Available Controls: generator MW outputs,
transformer taps and phase shift angles, voltage
magnitudes at generator buses (controlled by
exciters), reactive power from VAR resources, etc.

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Prof. Muwaffaq I. Alomoush, Yarmouk University, Irbid, Jordan
 Equality constraints
 Bus real and reactive power balance
 Generator voltage setpoints
 Area MW interchange
 Inequality constraints
 Transmission line/transformer/interface flow limits
 Generator MW limits
 Generator reactive power capability curves
 Bus voltage magnitudes
 Available Controls
 Generator MW outputs
 Transformer taps and phase shift angles

The aim of the optimal power flow problem is to optimize

the objective functions while fulfilling various equality and
inequality constraints.
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Prof. Muwaffaq I. Alomoush, Yarmouk University, Irbid, Jordan
Objective Functions: Can be one or a combination of many
functions. The most commonly used objectives in the OPF are:
1. Production (Fuel) Cost
The production (operating) cost 𝐶𝑖 (𝑃𝐺𝑖 ) of a generator 𝑖 is
usually given by the following quadratic (second-order) cost
function:
𝑪𝒊 𝑷𝑮𝒊 = 𝜶𝒊 + 𝜷𝒊 𝑷𝑮𝒊 + 𝜸𝒊 𝑷𝟐𝑮𝒊 $/𝒉
𝛼𝑖 : Constant cost coefficient of generating unit 𝑖, $/ℎ
𝛽𝑖 : Linear cost coefficient of unit 𝑖, $/𝑀𝑊ℎ
𝛾𝑖 : Quadratic cost coefficient of unit 𝑖, $/(𝑀𝑊 2 ℎ)
The target is to minimize the total generation production cost. If
𝑁𝑔 indicates the number of generating units, then the objective
function is:
𝑵𝒈

𝒇𝟏 = ෍ 𝑪𝒊 𝑷𝑮𝒊
𝒊=𝟏
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Prof. Muwaffaq I. Alomoush, Yarmouk University, Irbid, Jordan
The Valve-Point Effect

• In thermal-generating power plants, to control the

generating unit’s output power, multiple valves are
used (to increase steam to turbines (primemovers)).
• The main function of these valves is to control the
flow of inlet steam of the generator’s turbine. Thus,
these steam valves are opened during the increase in
power output in response to increase demand.
• During this process, a sudden increase in losses is
observed, resulting in ripples in the cost curve
characteristics.
This occurrence is called the valve-point loading
effect.
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Prof. Muwaffaq I. Alomoush, Yarmouk University, Irbid, Jordan
• In a practical generation unit, steam valve admission
effects lead to the ripples in the production cost .
• The valve point effect introduce ripples in the heat rate
function and make the fuel cost function highly non-linear,
discontinuous and having multiple local optimum.
• In order to model this effect more accurately, a sinusoidal
term is added to the quadratic cost function. Considering
valve-point effects make the problem non-convex and
non-differentiable.
• The unit cost function considering valve-point effects is
represented as follows:
𝒑
𝑪𝒊 𝑷𝑮𝒊 = 𝜶𝒊 + 𝜷𝒊 𝑷𝑮𝒊 + 𝜸𝒊 𝑷𝟐𝑮𝒊 + 𝝀𝒊 𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝝆𝒊 𝑷𝑷𝒎𝒊𝒏
𝑮𝒊 − 𝑷𝑮𝒊
where 𝝀𝒊 and 𝝆𝒊 are cost coefficients for modeling valve-
point effects.

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Prof. Muwaffaq I. Alomoush, Yarmouk University, Irbid, Jordan
 Figure: Fuel cost considering valve-point effects

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Prof. Muwaffaq I. Alomoush, Yarmouk University, Irbid, Jordan
Objective Functions: cont.
2. Active Power Losses
 The purpose of using this objective function is to
minimize the active power transmission losses in the
power system ( 𝑃𝐿𝑜𝑠𝑠 ). The objective function is
described as follow:
𝑁𝐿

𝑓2 = 𝑃𝐿𝑜𝑠𝑠 = ෍ 𝑔𝑘 [𝑉𝑖2 + 𝑉𝑗2 − 2𝑉𝑖 𝑉𝑗 𝑐𝑜𝑠(𝛿𝑖 − 𝛿𝑗 )

𝑘=1

where 𝑔𝑘 is the conductance of branch 𝑘, 𝑁𝐿 is the

total number of branches.

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Prof. Muwaffaq I. Alomoush, Yarmouk University, Irbid, Jordan
Objective Functions: Cont.
3. Emission objective
The emission produced by a generating unit can be expressed as a
quadratic emission function, as follows:
𝑬𝒊 𝑷𝑮𝒊 = 𝒂𝒊 + 𝒃𝒊 𝑷𝑮𝒊 + 𝒄𝒊 𝑷𝟐𝑮𝒊 + 𝒅𝒊 𝐞𝐱𝐩 ( 𝒊 𝑷𝒎𝒂𝒙
𝑮𝒊 ) 𝒌𝒈/𝒉
𝑎𝑖 : Constant emission coefficient of unit 𝑖, 𝑘𝑔/ℎ
𝑏𝑖 : Linear emission coefficient of unit 𝑖, 𝑘𝑔/𝑀𝑊ℎ
𝑐𝑖 : Quadratic emission coefficient of unit 𝑖, 𝑘𝑔/(𝑀𝑊 2 ℎ)
𝑑𝑖 , 𝑖 : Constant for valve position of unit 𝑖, 𝑘𝑔/ℎ, 1/𝑀𝑊

The minimization of emission function can be given as the sum of all

types of emission which considered emissions such as Sox, Nox, etc.,
with proper pricing on each pollutant emitted. The objective function
can be expressed as below:
𝑵𝒈

𝒇𝟑 = ෍ 𝑬𝒊 𝑷𝑮𝒊
𝒊=𝟏
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Prof. Muwaffaq I. Alomoush, Yarmouk University, Irbid, Jordan
Objective Functions: Cont.

4. Voltage profile improvement

This objective function is minimizing the voltage

deviations of load buses from a specified voltage. The
required objective function can formulate as follows:
𝑵𝒑𝒒

𝒇𝟒 = ෍ |𝑽𝒊 − 𝟏|
𝒊=𝟏

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Prof. Muwaffaq I. Alomoush, Yarmouk University, Irbid, Jordan
Objective Functions: Cont.
5. Voltage stability enhancement

• There are many voltage stability indicators (indices) that measure

stability. One of them is the Voltage stability index (𝑳).

• Voltage stability index (𝐿) is an important value to indicate system

stability. This value is calculated for all load buses, which vary
between 0 (no load case) to 1 maximum loading point (voltage
collapse case) hence, the minimizing of this value keeps the
system far away from voltage collapse of power system.

This objective function can be formulated as follows:

𝒇𝟓 = 𝒎𝒂𝒙 𝑳𝒋 ; 𝒋 = 𝟏, 𝟐, … , 𝑵𝑫

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Prof. Muwaffaq I. Alomoush, Yarmouk University, Irbid, Jordan
 Steady-State Voltage Stability Index Calculations
Let 𝑁𝑔 number of generator buses, and 𝑁𝑑 number of load buses. Using
nodal analysis, the power system can be described by the equation:
𝑰=𝒀𝑽
If system buses are numbered such that the first 𝑁𝑔 buses are the generator
buses and the rest 𝑁𝑑 buses are the load buses, then the last equation can
be written as:
𝑰𝐺 𝒀𝐺𝐺 𝒀𝐺𝐷 𝑽𝐺
=
𝑰𝐷 𝒀𝐷𝐺 𝒀𝐷𝐷 𝑽𝐷
With some manipulations, the last system of equations can be written in the
following hybrid from:
𝑽𝐷 𝒁 𝑭𝐷𝐺 𝑰𝐷
= 𝐷𝐷
𝑰𝐺 𝑲𝐺𝐷 𝒀𝐺𝐺 𝑽𝐺
where,
−1
𝒁𝐷𝐷 = 𝒀𝐷𝐷 𝑭𝐷𝐺 = −𝒀−1 𝐷𝐷 𝒀𝐷𝐺
𝑲𝐺𝐷 = 𝒀𝐺𝐷 𝒀−1 𝐷𝐷 𝒀𝐺𝐷 = 𝒀𝐺𝐺 − 𝒀𝐺𝐷 𝒀𝐷𝐷−1
𝒀𝐷𝐺
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Prof. Muwaffaq I. Alomoush, Yarmouk University, Irbid, Jordan
The sub-matrix 𝑭𝑫𝑮 is the one that we will use for steady-state stability
purposes. This sub-matrix is a 𝑁𝑑 × 𝑁𝑔 complex matrix, whose jth row
refers to the jth load bus and ith column refers to the ith generator bus. If
the jith complex entry of 𝑭𝐷𝐺 is referred to as 𝑭𝐷𝐺 𝑗𝑖 , then this entry can
be expressed in rectangular form as:
𝑭𝐷𝐺 𝑗𝑖 = 𝑀𝑗𝑖 + 𝑗𝑁𝑗𝑖
The steady-state voltage stability indicator (index) at bus load bus 𝑗,
which is referred to as 𝐿𝑗 , can be expressed as :
𝑁𝑔
𝑭𝐷𝐺 𝑗𝑖 𝑽𝑖
𝐿𝑗 = 1 − ෍ ; 𝑗 ∈ 𝑆𝐿
𝑽𝑗
𝑖=1
where 𝑺𝑳 is the set of load buses. By substituting the values of the
complex quantities in rectangular form in the last equation we can
express the L-index as follows:
𝑁𝑔 𝑉𝑖 𝑀𝑗𝑖 +𝑗𝑁𝑗𝑖 (𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛿𝑖 +𝑗 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛿𝑖 )
𝐿𝑗 = 1 − σ𝑖=1 ; 𝑗 ∈ 𝑆𝐿
𝑉𝑗 (𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛿𝑗 +𝑗 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛿𝑗 )
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Prof. Muwaffaq I. Alomoush, Yarmouk University, Irbid, Jordan
The L-index is expressed as:
𝑁𝑔
𝑉𝑖 𝑀𝑗𝑖 + 𝑗𝑁𝑗𝑖 (𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛿𝑖 + 𝑗 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛿𝑖 )
𝐿𝑗 = 1 − ෍ ; 𝑗 ∈ 𝑆𝐿
𝑉𝑗 (𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛿𝑗 + 𝑗 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛿𝑗 )
𝑖=1

The 𝐿 − 𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑥 values lie in the range [0,1]. As 𝐿 − 𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑥 decreases

towards zero the stability margin increases and as it increases towards 1
the stability margin decreases, where 𝐿𝑗 = 1 indicates that stability limit
at load bus 𝑗 is reached, which in turn indicates that the system is
approaching point of voltage collapse. On the other hand, the index
𝐿𝑗 = 0 indicates maximum stability margin. Therefore, if the acceptable
level of stability index at bus 𝑗 is 𝐿𝑗𝑚𝑎𝑥 , then 𝐿𝑗 should be such that:
0 ≤ 𝐿𝑗 ≤ 𝐿𝑗𝑚𝑎𝑥 ; 𝑗 ∈ 𝑆𝐿

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Prof. Muwaffaq I. Alomoush, Yarmouk University, Irbid, Jordan
 Minimization of multi-objective function

The weighted sum method transforms multiple objectives into a scalar

objective function by multiplying each function by a weighting factor and
summing up all contributors as follows. The objective function that
comprises generation fuel cost, active power loss, emission, and other
objective functions is formulated as:
𝑵𝒐

𝒇 = ෍ 𝒘𝒊 𝒇𝒊 = 𝒘𝟏 𝒇𝟏 + 𝒘𝟐 𝒇𝟐 + 𝒘𝟑 𝒇𝟑 + ⋯ + 𝒘𝑵𝒐 𝒇𝑵𝒐
𝒊=𝟏
Where 𝑤𝑖 is the weighting factor of the 𝑖 𝑡ℎ objective function. There are
many approaches to determine 𝑤𝑖 , one of them is given by:
𝒇𝒊
𝒘𝒊 =
𝒔𝒇𝒊
where 𝑓𝑖 is the 𝑖 𝑡ℎ objective function and 𝑠𝑓𝑖 is a scalar factor of 𝑓𝑖 . The
target of using this objective function is to minimize the active power loss,
generation fuel cost, emission , and others, simultaneously.

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Prof. Muwaffaq I. Alomoush, Yarmouk University, Irbid, Jordan
 Constraints and Limits
The above objective functions are subjected to the equality and
inequality constraints and limits as follows:

Equality constraints : 𝟐 × 𝑵𝒃 constraints

The equality constraints are real and reactive power flow balance
equations at each bus, which are expressed, respectively, as:
𝒏

𝑃𝐺𝑖 − 𝑃𝐷𝑖 = ෍ 𝑉𝑖 𝑉𝑗 [𝐺𝑖𝑗 𝑐𝑜𝑠(𝛿𝑖 −𝛿𝑗 ) + 𝐵𝑖𝑗 𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝛿𝑖 −𝛿𝑗 )] ; 𝑖 = 1, 2, … , 𝑁𝑏

𝑗=1
𝒏

𝑄𝐺𝑖 − 𝑄𝐷𝑖 = ෍ 𝑉𝑖 𝑉𝑗 𝐺𝑖𝑗 𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝛿𝑖 −𝛿𝑗 − 𝐵𝑖𝑗 𝑐𝑜𝑠(𝛿𝑖 −𝛿𝑗 )] ; 𝑖 = 1, 2, … , 𝑁𝑏

𝑗=1

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Prof. Muwaffaq I. Alomoush, Yarmouk University, Irbid, Jordan
 Inequality constraints

Voltage limits at generation buses

The target of determining bus voltage limits are to keep the buses
working between desirable per unit voltage limits and specify the
reactive power output related to the voltage profile.

Bus voltages are state variables originated from the solution of the
power flow problem. If 𝑉𝐺𝑖 is the terminal voltages at the voltage
controlled bus 𝑖, these constraints with regard to the bus voltage
limits are defined as:

𝑚𝑖𝑛 𝑚𝑎𝑥
𝑉𝐺𝑖 ≤ 𝑉𝐺𝑖 ≤ 𝑉𝐺𝑖 ; 𝑖 = 1, 2, … , 𝑁𝑔

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Prof. Muwaffaq I. Alomoush, Yarmouk University, Irbid, Jordan
 Inequality constraints
Capacity limits for switchable capacitor banks:
Capacitor banks can modify capacity by switching/removing some
of the capacitors. If 𝑁𝐶 indicates the number shunt VAR
compensators and 𝑄𝐶𝑖 is the output of shunt VAR compensators at
bus 𝑖, these have a zone of operation with lower and upper limits
and defined as:
𝑸𝒎𝒊𝒏
𝑪𝒊 ≤ 𝑸𝑪𝒊 ≤ 𝑸𝒎𝒂𝒙
𝑪𝒊 ; 𝒊 = 𝟏, 𝟐, … , 𝑵𝒄
Transformer tap setting constraints:
There are transformers can modify the output voltage by
changing their taps. Transformers can accomplish this
operation while energized. If 𝑁𝑘 indicates the number of tap
changing transformers, these limits associated with tap ratio of
transmission line 𝑘 (𝑡𝑘 ) can be defined as:
𝒕𝒎𝒊𝒏
𝒌 ≤ 𝒕𝒌 ≤ 𝒕𝒎𝒂𝒙
𝒌 ; 𝒌 = 𝟏, 𝟐, … , 𝑵𝒌
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Prof. Muwaffaq I. Alomoush, Yarmouk University, Irbid, Jordan
 Inequality constraints
Security constraints for transmission lines:
Line flow through each transmission line must be restricted
by their capacity limits. Capacity limits are usually
expressed in terms of apparent power or real power flow
or current. 𝑆𝑙 or |𝑺𝑙 | defines the apparent power flow of
ith transmission line and 𝑆𝑙𝑚𝑎𝑥 defines the maximum
apparent power flow limit of transmission line 𝑙. This
constraint is usually formulated, in terms of apparent
power or real power or current in the line 𝑙, as follows:
𝑺𝑙 ≤ 𝑆𝑙𝑚𝑎𝑥 ; 𝑙 = 1, 2, … , 𝑁𝐿
or 𝑃𝑙 ≤ 𝑃𝑙𝑚𝑎𝑥 ; 𝑙 = 1, 2, … , 𝑁𝐿
or | 𝑰𝑙 | ≤ 𝐼𝑙𝑚𝑎𝑥 ; 𝑙 = 1, 2, … , 𝑁𝐿

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Prof. Muwaffaq I. Alomoush, Yarmouk University, Irbid, Jordan
DC OPF
Recall that the DC load flow (DCLF) is concerned only with real
power and phase angles. It does not consider reactive power
and changes in voltage magnitudes. In DCLF, we assume that
the power system is lossless, the system has a flat profile of
voltages, and differences in phase angles are very small.

Assumptions in DCLFF:
 𝑟𝑖𝑗 = 0 : neglect resistances in transmission lines.
 𝑉𝑖 = 𝑉𝑗 = 1 𝑝. 𝑢. ; 𝑖 = 1, 2, … , 𝑛: the system has a flat profile of
voltages
 (𝛿𝑖 −𝛿𝑗 ) is very small: differences in phase angles are very
small for a system operating in normal conditions, therefore
𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝛿𝑖 −𝛿𝑗 ) ≅ (𝛿𝑖 −𝛿𝑗 ) (angles in rad).
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Prof. Muwaffaq I. Alomoush, Yarmouk University, Irbid, Jordan
The net injected real power at bus 𝑖 (𝑃𝑖 = 𝑃𝐺𝑖 − 𝑃𝐷𝑖 ) at bus 𝑖 is:
𝒏 𝒏
(𝛿𝑖 −𝛿𝑗 )
𝑃𝑖 = ෍ 𝐵𝑖𝑗 (𝛿𝑖 −𝛿𝑗 ) = ෍
𝑥𝑖𝑗
𝑗=1 𝑗=1

Note that the angle of the reference bus is known, therefore we

must remove the row and the column of the reference bus from
the above matrix solution of the DCLF. Therefore, the DCLF
solution can be expressed as:
−𝟏
𝜹 = − 𝑩′ 𝑷 where 𝑷 = 𝑷𝐺 − 𝑷𝐷
𝑩′ = 𝑩 − 𝑟𝑜𝑤 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑐𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑟𝑒𝑓𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑏𝑢𝑠

In the above equation, phase angles are in radians. After finding

angles, you can find line real power flows 𝑃𝑖𝑗 as follows:
𝛿𝑖 −𝛿𝑗
𝑃𝑖𝑗 = − 𝑏𝑖𝑗 𝛿𝑖 −𝛿𝑗 = = −𝑃𝑗𝑖
𝑥𝑖𝑗
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Prof. Muwaffaq I. Alomoush, Yarmouk University, Irbid, Jordan
DC OPF Mathematical Formulation

Minimization of Production Cost

The production (operating) cost 𝐶𝑖 (𝑃𝐺𝑖 ) of a generator 𝑖 is usually given by
the following quadratic (second-order) cost function:
𝑁𝑔 𝑁𝑔
2
𝑀𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑚𝑖𝑧𝑒 𝑓 = ෍ 𝐶𝑖 𝑃𝐺𝑖 = ෍ 𝛼𝑖 + 𝛽𝑖 𝑃𝐺𝑖 + 𝛾𝑖 𝑃𝐺𝑖
𝑖=1 𝑖=1
𝑆𝑢𝑏𝑗𝑒𝑐𝑡 𝑇𝑜
𝒏
1
𝑃𝐺𝑖 − 𝑃𝐷𝑖 = ෍ [𝐵𝑖𝑗 (𝛿𝑖 −𝛿𝑗 )] ; 𝑖 = 1, 2, … , 𝑁𝑏 ; 𝐵𝑖𝑗 =
𝑥𝑖𝑗
𝑗=1
𝑚𝑖𝑛 𝑚𝑎𝑥
𝑃𝐺𝑖 ≤ 𝑃𝐺𝑖 ≤ 𝑃𝐺𝑖 ; 𝑖 = 1, 2, … , 𝑁𝑔

𝑃𝑙𝑚𝑖𝑛 ≤ |𝑃𝑙 | ≤ 𝑃𝑙𝑚𝑎𝑥 ; 𝑙 = 1, 2, … , 𝑁𝐿

The sum σ𝑛𝑗=1 [𝐵𝑖𝑗 (𝛿𝑖 −𝛿𝑗 )] in the above equation represents the sum line
power flows out of bus 𝑖 to the other buses, i.e., it is 𝑃𝑖1 + 𝑃𝑖2 + ⋯ + 𝑃𝑖𝑁𝑏 .
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Prof. Muwaffaq I. Alomoush, Yarmouk University, Irbid, Jordan
Example: DC OPF (2-Bus System)
For the system shown, bus 1 is the reference bus, and the line power
limit is 1.5 𝑝. 𝑢. The operating (production) costs and limits of the two
units are:
2 $
𝐶1 𝑃𝐺1 = 100 + 400 𝑃𝐺1 + 200 𝑃𝐺1 ; 0.0 ≤ 𝑃𝐺1 ≤ 6.0
ℎ
$2
𝐶2 𝑃𝐺2 = 200 + 800 𝑃𝐺2 + 400 𝑃𝐺2
; 0.5 ≤ 𝑃𝐺2 ≤ 4.0
ℎ
Write the mathematical model of the DC OPF of this system.

25
Prof. Muwaffaq I. Alomoush, Yarmouk University, Irbid, Jordan
Solution:
𝑁𝑔=2
2 2
𝑓 = ෍ 𝐶𝑖 𝑃𝐺𝑖 = 𝐶1 𝑃𝐺1 + 𝐶2 𝑃𝐺2 = 𝛼1 + 𝛽1 𝑃𝐺1 + 𝛾1 𝑃𝐺1 + 𝛼2 + 𝛽2 𝑃𝐺2 + 𝛾2 𝑃𝐺2
𝑖=1

2 2
𝑀𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑚𝑖𝑧𝑒 𝑓 = 𝛼1 + 𝛽1 𝑃𝐺1 + 𝛾1 𝑃𝐺1 + 𝛼2 + 𝛽2 𝑃𝐺2 + 𝛾2 𝑃𝐺2
(𝛿1 −𝛿2 )
𝑆𝑢𝑏𝑗𝑒𝑐𝑡 𝑇𝑜 𝑃𝐺1 − 𝑃𝐷1 = 𝑃12 ; 𝑃12 =
𝑥12
(𝛿2 −𝛿1 )
𝑃𝐺2 − 𝑃𝐷2 = 𝑃21 ; 𝑃21 =
𝑥21
𝑚𝑖𝑛 𝑚𝑎𝑥
𝑃𝐺1 ≤ 𝑃𝐺1 ≤ 𝑃𝐺1
𝑚𝑖𝑛 𝑚𝑎𝑥
𝑃𝐺2 ≤ 𝑃𝐺2 ≤ 𝑃𝐺2
𝑚𝑖𝑛 𝑚𝑎𝑥
𝑃12 ≤ |𝑃12 | ≤ 𝑃12
2 2
𝑀𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑚𝑖𝑧𝑒 𝑓 = 100 + 4 𝑃𝐺1 + 0.02 𝑃𝐺1 + 200 + 8 𝑃𝐺2 + 0.04 𝑃𝐺2
𝑆𝑢𝑏𝑗𝑒𝑐𝑡 𝑇𝑜
(𝛿1 −𝛿2 )
𝑃𝐺1 − 4 = or 𝑃𝐺1 −20 𝛿1 + 20 𝛿2 − 4 = 0
0.05
(𝛿2 −𝛿1 )
𝑃𝐺2 − 5 = 0.05 or 𝑃𝐺2 +20 𝛿2 − 20 𝛿2 − 5 = 00.0 ≤ 𝑃𝐺1 ≤ 6.0
0.5 ≤ 𝑃𝐺2 ≤ 4.0
−1.5 ≤ |𝑃12 | ≤ 1.5

But 𝛿1 = 0 (reference bus)

26
Prof. Muwaffaq I. Alomoush, Yarmouk University, Irbid, Jordan
𝑴𝒊𝒏𝒊𝒎𝒊𝒛𝒆 𝒇 = 𝟏𝟎𝟎 + 𝟒𝟎𝟎 𝑷𝑮𝟏 + 𝟐𝟎𝟎 𝑷𝟐𝑮𝟏 + 𝟐𝟎𝟎 + 𝟖𝟎𝟎 𝑷𝑮𝟐 + 𝟒𝟎𝟎 𝑷𝟐𝑮𝟐

𝑺𝒖𝒃𝒋𝒆𝒄𝒕 𝑻𝒐
𝑷𝑮𝟏 + 𝟐𝟎 𝜹𝟐 − 𝟒 = 𝟎
𝑷𝑮𝟐 − 𝟐𝟎 𝜹𝟐 − 𝟓 = 𝟎𝟎. 𝟎 ≤ 𝑷𝑮𝟏 ≤ 𝟔. 𝟎
𝟎. 𝟓 ≤ 𝑷𝑮𝟐 ≤ 𝟒. 𝟓
−𝟏. 𝟓 ≤ |𝑷𝟏𝟐 | ≤ 𝟏. 𝟓
The above optimization problem can be solved by any nonlinear optimization
solver (such as 𝑓𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑜𝑛 in MATLAB). The solution is:
𝛿1 = 0 𝑟𝑎𝑑 = 0 𝑑𝑒𝑔
𝛿2 = −0.075 𝑟𝑎𝑑 = −4.2972 𝑑𝑒𝑔
𝑃𝐺1 = 5.5 𝑝. 𝑢. = 550 𝑀𝑊
𝑃𝐺2 = 3.5 𝑝. 𝑢. = 350 𝑀𝑊
𝑃12 = 1.5 𝑝. 𝑢. = 150 𝑀𝑊
𝐶1 𝑃𝐺1 = 5.5 = 8350 $/ℎ
𝐶2 𝑃𝐺2 = 3.5 = 7900 $/ℎ
𝐶𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 = 16250 $/ℎ
27
Prof. Muwaffaq I. Alomoush, Yarmouk University, Irbid, Jordan
Example: DC OPF (3-Bus System)
For the three-bus system shown, if all values are given in p.u. and let bus 1 is
the reference bus. The line power limits for lines 1 − 2 and line 1 − 3 are 5
and 3 p.u., respectively. The operating (production) costs and limits of the
three units are:
2
$
𝐶1 𝑃𝐺1 = 100 + 400 𝑃𝐺1 + 200 𝑃𝐺1 ; 0.0 ≤ 𝑃𝐺1 ≤ 6.0
ℎ
2
$
𝐶2 𝑃𝐺2 = 200 + 800 𝑃𝐺2 + 400 𝑃𝐺2 ; 0.5 ≤ 𝑃𝐺2 ≤ 4.0
ℎ
2
$
𝐶3 𝑃𝐺3 = 100 + 800 𝑃𝐺3 + 200 𝑃𝐺3 ; 1.0 ≤ 𝑃𝐺3 ≤ 5.0
ℎ
Write the mathematical model of the DC OPF of this system.

28
Prof. Muwaffaq I. Alomoush, Yarmouk University, Irbid, Jordan
 −𝑗40 𝑗20 𝑗20 0 0 0 −40 20 20
𝒀 = 𝑗20 −𝑗20 0 = 0 0 0 + 𝑗 20 −20 0
𝑗20 0 −𝑗20 0 0 0 20 0 −20
−40 20 20
𝑩 = 20 −20 0
20 0 −20

Bus 1 is the reference bus, therefore, we remove the first row and the
first column from 𝑩:

−20 0 20 0 0.05 0
𝑩′ = ; −𝑩′ = , − 𝑩′ −1
=
0 −20 0 20 0 0.05
𝑁𝑔=3

𝑓 = ෍ 𝐶𝑖 𝑃𝐺𝑖 = 𝐶1 𝑃𝐺1 + 𝐶2 𝑃𝐺2 + 𝐶3 𝑃𝐺3

𝑖=1

29
Prof. Muwaffaq I. Alomoush, Yarmouk University, Irbid, Jordan
 2 2
𝑀𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑚𝑖𝑧𝑒 𝑓 = 𝛼1 + 𝛽1 𝑃𝐺1 + 𝛾1 𝑃𝐺1 + 𝛼2 + 𝛽2 𝑃𝐺2 + 𝛾2 𝑃𝐺2
2
+𝛼3 +𝛽3 𝑃𝐺3 + 𝛾3 𝑃𝐺3
𝑆𝑢𝑏𝑗𝑒𝑐𝑡 𝑇𝑜
(𝛿1 −𝛿2 ) (𝛿1 −𝛿3 )
𝑃𝐺1 − 𝑃𝐷1 = 𝑃12 + 𝑃13 ; 𝑃12 = , 𝑃13 =
𝑥12 𝑥13
(𝛿2 −𝛿1 )
𝑃𝐺2 − 𝑃𝐷2 = 𝑃21 ; 𝑃21 =
𝑥21
(𝛿3 −𝛿1 )
𝑃𝐺3 − 𝑃𝐷3 = 𝑃31 ; 𝑃31 =
𝑥31
𝑚𝑖𝑛 𝑚𝑎𝑥
𝑃𝐺1 ≤ 𝑃𝐺1 ≤ 𝑃𝐺1
𝑚𝑖𝑛 𝑚𝑎𝑥
𝑃𝐺2 ≤ 𝑃𝐺2 ≤ 𝑃𝐺2
𝑚𝑖𝑛 𝑚𝑎𝑥
𝑃𝐺3 ≤ 𝑃𝐺3 ≤ 𝑃𝐺3
𝑚𝑖𝑛 𝑚𝑎𝑥
𝑃12 ≤ | 𝑃12 | ≤ 𝑃12
𝑚𝑖𝑛 𝑚𝑎𝑥
𝑃13 ≤ |𝑃13 | ≤ 𝑃13

30
Prof. Muwaffaq I. Alomoush, Yarmouk University, Irbid, Jordan
 2 2 2
𝑀𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑚𝑖𝑧𝑒 𝑓 = 100 + 4 𝑃𝐺1 + 0.02 𝑃𝐺1 + 200 + 8 𝑃𝐺2 + 0.04 𝑃𝐺2 + 100 + 8 𝑃𝐺3 + 0.02 𝑃𝐺3
𝑆𝑢𝑏𝑗𝑒𝑐𝑡 𝑇𝑜
𝑃𝐺1 − 5 = 20(𝛿1 −𝛿2 ) + 20(𝛿1 −𝛿3 )

𝑃𝐺2 − 6 = 20((𝛿2 −𝛿1 )

𝑃𝐺3 − 1 = 20(𝛿3 −𝛿1 )

0.0 ≤ 𝑃𝐺1 ≤ 5.0

0.5 ≤ 𝑃𝐺2 ≤ 3.5

1.0 ≤ 𝑃𝐺3 ≤ 5.0
−5 ≤ | 𝑃12 | ≤ 5

−3 ≤ |𝑃13 | ≤ 3
But 𝛿1 = 0 (reference bus)

31
Prof. Muwaffaq I. Alomoush, Yarmouk University, Irbid, Jordan
 2 2 2
𝑀𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑚𝑖𝑧𝑒 𝑓 = 100 + 4 𝑃𝐺1 + 0.02 𝑃𝐺1 + 200 + 8 𝑃𝐺2 + 0.04 𝑃𝐺2 + 100 + 8 𝑃𝐺3 + 0.02 𝑃𝐺3
𝑆𝑢𝑏𝑗𝑒𝑐𝑡 𝑇𝑜

Prof. Muwaffaq I. Alomoush, Yarmouk University, Irbid, Jordan

𝑃𝐺1 + 20𝛿2 + 20𝛿3 − 5 = 0
𝑃𝐺2 − 20𝛿2 −6=0
𝑃𝐺3 − 20𝛿3 − 1 = 0
0.0 ≤ 𝑃𝐺1 ≤ 5.0
0.5 ≤ 𝑃𝐺2 ≤ 3.5
1.0 ≤ 𝑃𝐺3 ≤ 5.0
−5 ≤ | 𝑃12 | ≤ 5
−3 ≤ | 𝑃13 | ≤ 3
The solution is:
𝛿1 = 0 𝑟𝑎𝑑 = 0 𝑑𝑒𝑔
𝛿2 = −0.18333 𝑟𝑎𝑑 = −10.5042 𝑑𝑒𝑔
𝛿3 = +0.15000 𝑟𝑎𝑑 = + 8.5944 𝑑𝑒𝑔
𝑃𝐺1 = 5.6667 𝑝. 𝑢. = 566.67 𝑀𝑊
𝑃𝐺2 = 2.3333 𝑝. 𝑢. = 233.33 𝑀𝑊
𝑃𝐺3 = 4.0000 𝑝. 𝑢. = 400.00 𝑀𝑊
𝑃12 = 3.6667 𝑝. 𝑢. = 366.67 𝑀𝑊
𝑃13 = −3.0000 𝑝. 𝑢. = −300.00 𝑀𝑊
𝐶1 𝑃𝐺1 = 5.6667 = 8788.8889 $/ℎ
𝐶2 𝑃𝐺2 = 2.3333 = 4244.4444 $/ℎ
𝐶3 𝑃𝐺3 = 4.0000 = 6500.0000 $/ℎ
32
𝐶𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 = 19533.3333 $/ℎ
Example: AC OPF (2-Bus System)
For the system shown, bus 1 is the reference bus, and the real line power flow limit is 1.5 p.u.
The operating (production) costs and limits of the two units are:
2
$
𝐶1 𝑃𝐺1 = 100 + 400 𝑃𝐺1 + 200 𝑃𝐺1 ; 0.0 ≤ 𝑃𝐺1 ≤ 6.0
ℎ
2 $
𝐶2 𝑃𝐺2 = 200 + 800 𝑃𝐺2 + 400 𝑃𝐺2 ; 0.5 ≤ 𝑃𝐺2 ≤ 4.0
ℎ
The limits of bus voltage magnitudes and reactive power of generators are:
−5.0 ≤ 𝑄𝐺𝑖 ≤ 5.0 ; 𝑖 = 1, 2
0.95 ≤ 𝑉𝑖 ≤ 1.05 ; 𝑖 = 1, 2
Write the mathematical model of the AC OPF of this system. Use real power flow (𝑃𝑖𝑗 ) for
line limits.

33
Prof. Muwaffaq I. Alomoush, Yarmouk University, Irbid, Jordan
Solution:
𝒚12 = 4 − 𝑗20 = 𝑔12 + 𝑗𝑏12 ; 𝑔12 = 4 ; 𝑏12 = −20
𝒚21 = 4 − 𝑗20 = 𝑔21 + 𝑗𝑏21 ; 𝑔21 = 4 ; 𝑏21 = −20
𝑁𝑔=2

𝑓 = ෍ 𝐶𝑖 𝑃𝐺𝑖 = 𝐶1 𝑃𝐺1 + 𝐶2 𝑃𝐺2

𝑖=1
2 2
= 𝛼1 + 𝛽1 𝑃𝐺1 + 𝛾1 𝑃𝐺1 + 𝛼2 + 𝛽2 𝑃𝐺2 + 𝛾2 𝑃𝐺2

𝑃12 = 𝑉12 𝑔12 − 𝑉1 𝑉2 [𝑔12 cos 𝛿1 −𝛿2 + 𝑏12 sin 𝛿1 −𝛿2 ]

𝑃21 = 𝑉22 𝑔21 − 𝑉2 𝑉1 [𝑔21 cos 𝛿2 −𝛿1 + 𝑏21 sin 𝛿2 −𝛿1 ]
𝑄12 = −𝑉12 𝑏12 − 𝑉1 𝑉2 [𝑔12 sin 𝛿1 −𝛿2 − 𝑏12 cos 𝛿1 −𝛿2 ]
𝑄21 = −𝑉22 𝑏21 − 𝑉2 𝑉1 [𝑔21 sin 𝛿2 −𝛿1 − 𝑏21 cos 𝛿2 −𝛿1 ]

34
Prof. Muwaffaq I. Alomoush, Yarmouk University, Irbid, Jordan
 2 2
𝑀𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑚𝑖𝑧𝑒 𝑓 = 𝛼1 + 𝛽1 𝑃𝐺1 + 𝛾1 𝑃𝐺1 + 𝛼2 + 𝛽2 𝑃𝐺2 + 𝛾2 𝑃𝐺2

𝑆𝑢𝑏𝑗𝑒𝑐𝑡 𝑇𝑜 𝑃𝐺1 − 𝑃𝐷1 = 𝑃12 ; 𝑃12 = 𝑉12 𝑔12 − 𝑉1 𝑉2 [𝑔12 cos 𝛿1 −𝛿2 + 𝑏12 sin 𝛿1 −𝛿2 ]
𝑃𝐺2 − 𝑃𝐷2 = 𝑃21 ; 𝑃21 = 𝑉22 𝑔21 − 𝑉2 𝑉1 [𝑔21 cos 𝛿2 −𝛿1 + 𝑏21 sin 𝛿2 −𝛿1 ]
𝑄𝐺1 − 𝑄𝐷1 = 𝑄12 ; 𝑄12 = −𝑉12 𝑏12 − 𝑉1 𝑉2 [𝑔12 sin 𝛿1 −𝛿2 − 𝑏12 cos 𝛿1 −𝛿2 ]
𝑄𝐺2 − 𝑄𝐷2 = 𝑄21 ; 𝑄21 = −𝑉22 𝑏21 − 𝑉2 𝑉1 [𝑔21 sin 𝛿2 −𝛿1 − 𝑏21 cos 𝛿2 −𝛿1 ]
𝑚𝑖𝑛 𝑚𝑎𝑥
𝑃𝐺1 ≤ 𝑃𝐺1 ≤ 𝑃𝐺1
𝑚𝑖𝑛 𝑚𝑎𝑥
𝑃𝐺2 ≤ 𝑃𝐺2 ≤ 𝑃𝐺2
𝑚𝑖𝑛 𝑚𝑎𝑥
𝑄𝐺1 ≤ 𝑄𝐺1 ≤ 𝑄𝐺1
𝑚𝑖𝑛 𝑚𝑎𝑥
𝑄𝐺2 ≤ 𝑄𝐺2 ≤ 𝑄𝐺2
𝑉1𝑚𝑖𝑛 ≤ 𝑉1 ≤ 𝑉1𝑚𝑎𝑥
𝑉2𝑚𝑖𝑛 ≤ 𝑉2 ≤ 𝑉2𝑚𝑎𝑥
𝑚𝑖𝑛 𝑚𝑎𝑥
𝑃12 ≤ |𝑃12 | ≤ 𝑃12
𝑚𝑖𝑛 𝑚𝑎𝑥
𝑃21 ≤ |𝑃21 | ≤ 𝑃21

𝑚𝑖𝑛 𝑚𝑖𝑛
In the solution, we assume that 𝑃12 = 𝑃21 = 0.

35
Prof. Muwaffaq I. Alomoush, Yarmouk University, Irbid, Jordan
 2 2
𝑀𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑚𝑖𝑧𝑒 𝑓 = 100 + 4 𝑃𝐺1 + 0.02 𝑃𝐺1 + 200 + 8 𝑃𝐺2 + 0.04 𝑃𝐺2

𝑆𝑢𝑏𝑗𝑒𝑐𝑡 𝑇𝑜 𝑃𝐺1 − 4 = 𝑃12 ; 𝑃12 = 𝑉12 (4) − 𝑉1 𝑉2 [(4) cos 𝛿1 −𝛿2 + −20 sin 𝛿1 −𝛿2 ]
𝑃𝐺2 − 5 = 𝑃21 ; 𝑃21 = 𝑉22 (4) − 𝑉2 𝑉1 [(4) cos 𝛿2 −𝛿1 + −20 sin 𝛿2 −𝛿1 ]
𝑄𝐺1 − 1 = 𝑄12 ; 𝑄12 = −𝑉12 −20 − 𝑉1 𝑉2 [(4) sin 𝛿1 −𝛿2 − (−20) cos 𝛿1 −𝛿2 ]
𝑄𝐺2 − 2 = 𝑄21 ; 𝑄21 = −𝑉22 −20 − 𝑉2 𝑉1 [(4) sin 𝛿2 −𝛿1 − (−20) cos 𝛿2 −𝛿1 ]
0.0 ≤ 𝑃𝐺1 ≤ 6.0
0.5 ≤ 𝑃𝐺2 ≤ 4.0
−5.0 ≤ 𝑄𝐺1 ≤ 5.0
−5.0 ≤ 𝑄𝐺2 ≤ 5.0
0.95 ≤ 𝑉1 ≤ 1.05
0.95 ≤ 𝑉2 ≤ 1.05
0.00 ≤ |𝑃12 | ≤ 1.5
0.00 ≤ |𝑃21 | ≤ 1.5

But 𝛿1 = 0 (reference bus)

36
Prof. Muwaffaq I. Alomoush, Yarmouk University, Irbid, Jordan
The solution is:

Prof. Muwaffaq I. Alomoush, Yarmouk University, Irbid, Jordan

𝛿1 = 0 𝑟𝑎𝑑 = 0 𝑑𝑒𝑔
𝛿2 = −0.06618 𝑟𝑎𝑑 = −3.7919 𝑑𝑒𝑔
𝑉1 = 1.0500
𝑉2 = 1.0385
𝑃𝐺1 = 5.5000 𝑝. 𝑢. = 550.00 𝑀𝑊
𝑃𝐺2 = 3.5196 𝑝. 𝑢. = 351.96𝑀𝑊
𝑄𝐺1 = 1.0000 𝑝. 𝑢. = 100.00 𝑀𝑣𝑎𝑟
𝑄𝐺2 = 2.0981 𝑝. 𝑢. = 209.81 𝑀𝑣𝑎𝑟
𝑃12 = 1.5000 𝑝. 𝑢. = 150.00 𝑀𝑊
𝑃21 = −1.4804 𝑝. 𝑢. = −148.04 𝑀𝑊
𝑃𝐿𝑜𝑠𝑠12 = 0.019623 𝑝. 𝑢. = 1.9623 𝑀𝑊
𝑄12 = 0.000000 𝑝. 𝑢. = 0.00 𝑀𝑣𝑎𝑟
𝑄21 = 0.098116 𝑝. 𝑢. = 9.8116 𝑀𝑣𝑎𝑟
𝑄𝐿𝑜𝑠𝑠12 = 0.098116 𝑝. 𝑢. = 9.8116 𝑀𝑣𝑎𝑟
𝐶1 𝑃𝐺1 = 5.5000 = 8350.0000 $/ℎ
𝐶2 𝑃𝐺2 = 3.5196 = 7970.7977 $/ℎ
𝐶𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 = 16320.7977 $/ℎ 37
Example: AC OPF (3-Bus System)
For the three-bus system shown, if all values are given in p.u. and bus 1 is the reference bus.
The line power limits for lines 1 − 2, line 1 − 3, and line 2 − 3 are 5, 3, and 4 p.u., respectively.
The operating (production) costs and limits of the three units are:

2
$
𝐶1 𝑃𝐺1 = 100 + 400 𝑃𝐺1 + 200 𝑃𝐺1 ; 0.0 ≤ 𝑃𝐺1 ≤ 6.0
ℎ

2
$
𝐶2 𝑃𝐺2 = 200 + 800 𝑃𝐺2 + 400 𝑃𝐺2 ; 0.5 ≤ 𝑃𝐺2 ≤ 4.0
ℎ

$ 2
𝐶3 𝑃𝐺3 = 100 + 800 𝑃𝐺3 + 200 𝑃𝐺3
; 1.0 ≤ 𝑃𝐺3 ≤ 5.0
ℎ
The limits of bus voltage magnitudes and reactive power of generators are:

−5.0 ≤ 𝑄𝐺𝑖 ≤ 5.0 ; 𝑖 = 1, 3

0.95 ≤ 𝑉𝑖 ≤ 1.05 ; 𝑖 = 1, 3
Write the mathematical model of the AC OPF of this system. Use real power flow for line
limits.

38
Prof. Muwaffaq I. Alomoush, Yarmouk University, Irbid, Jordan
 39
Prof. Muwaffaq I. Alomoush, Yarmouk University, Irbid, Jordan
 The Formulation of the AC OPF Optimization Problem of the example is:

Prof. Muwaffaq I. Alomoush, Yarmouk University, Irbid, Jordan

𝒚12 = 4 − 𝑗20 = 𝑔12 + 𝑗𝑏12 ; 𝑔12 = 4 ; 𝑏12 = −20
𝒚21 = 4 − 𝑗20 = 𝑔21 + 𝑗𝑏21 ; 𝑔21 = 4 ; 𝑏21 = −20
𝒚13 = 4 − 𝑗25 = 𝑔13 + 𝑗𝑏13 ; 𝑔13 = 4 ; 𝑏13 = −25
𝒚31 = 4 − 𝑗25 = 𝑔31 + 𝑗𝑏31 ; 𝑔21 = 4 ; 𝑏31 = −25
𝒚23 = 5 − 𝑗20 = 𝑔23 + 𝑗𝑏23 ; 𝑔23 = 4 ; 𝑏23 = −20
𝒚32 = 4 − 𝑗20 = 𝑔32 + 𝑗𝑏32 ; 𝑔32 = 4 ; 𝑏32 = −20
𝑁𝑔=2

𝑓 = ෍ 𝐶𝑖 𝑃𝐺𝑖 = 𝐶1 𝑃𝐺1 + 𝐶2 𝑃𝐺2 + 𝐶3 𝑃𝐺3

𝑖=1

𝑃12 = 𝑉12 𝑔12 − 𝑉1 𝑉2 [𝑔12 cos 𝛿1 −𝛿2 + 𝑏12 sin 𝛿1 −𝛿2 ]

𝑃21 = 𝑉22 𝑔21 − 𝑉2 𝑉1 [𝑔21 cos 𝛿2 −𝛿1 + 𝑏21 sin 𝛿2 −𝛿1 ]
𝑄12 = −𝑉12 𝑏12 − 𝑉1 𝑉2 [𝑔12 sin 𝛿1 −𝛿2 − 𝑏12 cos 𝛿1 −𝛿2 ]
𝑄21 = −𝑉22 𝑏21 − 𝑉2 𝑉1 [𝑔21 sin 𝛿2 −𝛿1 − 𝑏21 cos 𝛿2 −𝛿1 ]
𝑃13 = 𝑉12 𝑔13 − 𝑉1 𝑉3 [𝑔13 cos 𝛿1 −𝛿3 + 𝑏13 sin 𝛿1 −𝛿3 ]
𝑃31 = 𝑉32 𝑔31 − 𝑉3 𝑉1 [𝑔31 cos 𝛿3 −𝛿1 + 𝑏31 sin 𝛿3 −𝛿1 ]
𝑄13 = −𝑉12 𝑏13 − 𝑉1 𝑉3 [𝑔13 sin 𝛿1 −𝛿3 − 𝑏13 cos 𝛿1 −𝛿3 ]
𝑄31 = −𝑉32 𝑏31 − 𝑉3 𝑉1 [𝑔31 sin 𝛿3 −𝛿1 − 𝑏31 cos 𝛿3 −𝛿1 ]
𝑃23 = 𝑉22 𝑔23 − 𝑉2 𝑉3 [𝑔23 cos 𝛿2 −𝛿3 + 𝑏23 sin 𝛿2 −𝛿3 ]
𝑃32 = 𝑉32 𝑔32 − 𝑉3 𝑉2 [𝑔32 cos 𝛿3 −𝛿2 + 𝑏32 sin 𝛿3 −𝛿2 ]
𝑄23 = −𝑉22 𝑏23 − 𝑉2 𝑉3 [𝑔23 sin 𝛿2 −𝛿3 − 𝑏23 cos 𝛿2 −𝛿3 ]
𝑄32 = −𝑉32 𝑏32 − 𝑉3 𝑉2 [𝑔32 sin 𝛿3 −𝛿2 − 𝑏32 cos 𝛿3 −𝛿2 ] 40
By substituting the values of conductance and susceptance in the above equations, we obtain:
𝑃12 = 𝑉12 (4) − 𝑉1 𝑉2 [(4) cos 𝛿1 −𝛿2 + −20 sin 𝛿1 −𝛿2 ]

𝑃13 = 𝑉12 (4) − 𝑉1 𝑉3 [(4) cos 𝛿1 −𝛿3 + −25 sin 𝛿1 −𝛿3 ]

𝑃21 = 𝑉22 (4) − 𝑉2 𝑉1 [(4) cos 𝛿2 −𝛿1 + −20 sin 𝛿2 −𝛿1 ]
𝑃23 = 𝑉22 (5) − 𝑉2 𝑉3 [(5) cos 𝛿2 −𝛿3 + −20 sin 𝛿2 −𝛿3 ]
𝑃31 = 𝑉32 (4) − 𝑉3 𝑉1 [(4) cos 𝛿3 −𝛿1 + −25 sin 𝛿3 −𝛿1 ]
𝑃32 = 𝑉32 (5) − 𝑉3 𝑉2 [(5) cos 𝛿3 −𝛿2 + −20 sin 𝛿3 −𝛿2 ]
𝑄12 = −𝑉12 −20 − 𝑉1 𝑉2 [(4) sin 𝛿1 −𝛿2 − (−20) cos 𝛿1 −𝛿2 ]
𝑄13 = −𝑉12 −20 − 𝑉1 𝑉3 [(4) sin 𝛿1 −𝛿3 − (−25) cos 𝛿1 −𝛿3 ]
𝑄21 = −𝑉22 −20 − 𝑉2 𝑉1 [(4) sin 𝛿2 −𝛿1 − (−20) cos 𝛿2 −𝛿1 ]
𝑄23 = −𝑉22 −20 − 𝑉2 𝑉3 [(5) sin 𝛿2 −𝛿3 − (−20) cos 𝛿2 −𝛿3 ]
𝑄31 = −𝑉32 −25 − 𝑉3 𝑉1 [(4) sin 𝛿3 −𝛿1 − (−25) cos 𝛿3 −𝛿1 ]
𝑄32 = −𝑉32 −20 − 𝑉3 𝑉2 [(5) sin 𝛿3 −𝛿2 − (−20) cos 𝛿3 −𝛿2 ]

41
Prof. Muwaffaq I. Alomoush, Yarmouk University, Irbid, Jordan
 2 2 2
𝑀𝑖𝑛 𝑓 = 𝛼1 + 𝛽1 𝑃𝐺1 + 𝛾1 𝑃𝐺1 + 𝛼2 + 𝛽2 𝑃𝐺2 + 𝛾2 𝑃𝐺2 + 𝛼3 + 𝛽3 𝑃𝐺3 + 𝛾3 𝑃𝐺3

𝑆𝑢𝑏𝑗𝑒𝑐𝑡 𝑇𝑜
𝑃𝐺1 − 𝑃𝐷1 = 𝑃12 + 𝑃13
𝑃𝐺2 − 𝑃𝐷2 = 𝑃21 + 𝑃23
𝑃𝐺3 − 𝑃𝐷3 = 𝑃31 + 𝑃32
𝑄𝐺1 − 𝑄𝐷1 = 𝑄12 + 𝑄13
𝑄𝐺2 − 𝑄𝐷2 = 𝑄21 + 𝑄23
𝑄𝐺3 − 𝑄𝐷3 = 𝑄31 + 𝑄32
𝑚𝑖𝑛 𝑚𝑎𝑥 𝑚𝑖𝑛 𝑚𝑎𝑥 𝑚𝑖𝑛 𝑚𝑎𝑥
𝑃𝐺1 ≤ 𝑃𝐺1 ≤ 𝑃𝐺1 𝑃𝐺2 ≤ 𝑃𝐺2 ≤ 𝑃𝐺2 𝑃𝐺3 ≤ 𝑃𝐺3 ≤ 𝑃𝐺3
𝑚𝑖𝑛 𝑚𝑎𝑥 𝑚𝑖𝑛 𝑚𝑎𝑥 𝑚𝑖𝑛 𝑚𝑎𝑥
𝑄𝐺1 ≤ 𝑄𝐺1 ≤ 𝑄𝐺1 𝑄𝐺2 ≤ 𝑄𝐺2 ≤ 𝑄𝐺2 𝑄𝐺3 ≤ 𝑄𝐺3 ≤ 𝑄𝐺3
𝑉1𝑚𝑖𝑛 ≤ 𝑉1 ≤ 𝑉1𝑚𝑎𝑥 𝑉2𝑚𝑖𝑛 ≤ 𝑉2 ≤ 𝑉2𝑚𝑎𝑥 𝑉3𝑚𝑖𝑛 ≤ 𝑉3 ≤ 𝑉3𝑚𝑎𝑥
𝑚𝑖𝑛 𝑚𝑎𝑥 𝑚𝑖𝑛 𝑚𝑎𝑥
𝑃12 ≤ |𝑃12 | ≤ 𝑃12 𝑃21 ≤ |𝑃21 | ≤ 𝑃21
𝑚𝑖𝑛 𝑚𝑎𝑥 𝑚𝑖𝑛 𝑚𝑎𝑥
𝑃13 ≤ |𝑃13 | ≤ 𝑃13 𝑃31 ≤ |𝑃31 | ≤ 𝑃31
𝑚𝑖𝑛 𝑚𝑎𝑥 𝑚𝑖𝑛 𝑚𝑎𝑥
𝑃23 ≤ |𝑃23 | ≤ 𝑃23 𝑃32 ≤ |𝑃32 | ≤ 𝑃32
The minimum real power line limits is zero, or 𝑃𝑖𝑗𝑚𝑖𝑛 = 0 .
42
Prof. Muwaffaq I. Alomoush, Yarmouk University, Irbid, Jordan
 2 2 2
𝑀𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑚𝑖𝑧𝑒 𝑓 = 100 + 4 𝑃𝐺1 + 0.02 𝑃𝐺1 + 200 + 8 𝑃𝐺2 + 0.04 𝑃𝐺2 + 100 + 8 𝑃𝐺3 + 0.02 𝑃𝐺3

Prof. Muwaffaq I. Alomoush, Yarmouk University, Irbid, Jordan

𝑆𝑢𝑏𝑗𝑒𝑐𝑡 𝑇𝑜
𝑃𝐺1 − 5 = 𝑃12 + 𝑃13 ; 𝑃12 = 𝑉12 (4) − 𝑉1 𝑉2 [(4) cos 𝛿1 −𝛿2 + −20 sin 𝛿1 −𝛿2 ]

𝑃13 = 𝑉12 (4) − 𝑉1 𝑉3 [(4) cos 𝛿1 −𝛿3 + −25 sin 𝛿1 −𝛿3 ]

𝑃𝐺2 − 6 = 𝑃21 + 𝑃23 ; 𝑃21 = 𝑉22 (4) − 𝑉2 𝑉1 [(4) cos 𝛿2 −𝛿1 + −20 sin 𝛿2 −𝛿1 ]
𝑃23 = 𝑉22 (5) − 𝑉2 𝑉3 [(5) cos 𝛿2 −𝛿3 + −20 sin 𝛿2 −𝛿3 ]
𝑃𝐺3 − 1 = 𝑃31 + 𝑃32 ; 𝑃31 = 𝑉32 (4) − 𝑉3 𝑉1 [(4) cos 𝛿3 −𝛿1 + −25 sin 𝛿3 −𝛿1 ]
𝑃32 = 𝑉32 (5) − 𝑉3 𝑉2 [(5) cos 𝛿3 −𝛿2 + −20 sin 𝛿3 −𝛿2 ]
𝑄𝐺1 − 2 = 𝑄12 + 𝑄13 ; 𝑄12 = −𝑉12 −20 − 𝑉1 𝑉2 [(4) sin 𝛿1 −𝛿2 − (−20) cos 𝛿1 −𝛿2 ]
𝑄13 = −𝑉12 −20 − 𝑉1 𝑉3 [(4) sin 𝛿1 −𝛿3 − (−25) cos 𝛿1 −𝛿3 ]
𝑄𝐺2 − 2 = 𝑄21 +𝑄23 ; 𝑄21 = −𝑉22 −20 − 𝑉2 𝑉1 [(4) sin 𝛿2 −𝛿1 − (−20) cos 𝛿2 −𝛿1 ]
𝑄23 = −𝑉22 −20 − 𝑉2 𝑉3 [(5) sin 𝛿2 −𝛿3 − (−20) cos 𝛿2 −𝛿3 ]
𝑄𝐺3 − 1 = 𝑄31 +𝑄32 ; 𝑄31 = −𝑉32 −25 − 𝑉3 𝑉1 [(4) sin 𝛿3 −𝛿1 − (−25) cos 𝛿3 −𝛿1 ]
𝑄32 = −𝑉32 −20 − 𝑉3 𝑉2 [(5) sin 𝛿3 −𝛿2 − (−20) cos 𝛿3 −𝛿2 ]
0.0 ≤ 𝑃𝐺1 ≤ 6.0 0.5 ≤ 𝑃𝐺2 ≤ 4.0 1.0 ≤ 𝑃𝐺3 ≤ 5.0
−5.0 ≤ 𝑄𝐺1 ≤ 5.0 −5.0 ≤ 𝑄𝐺2 ≤ 5.0 −5.0 ≤ 𝑄𝐺3 ≤ 5.0
0.95 ≤ 𝑉1 ≤ 1.05 0.95 ≤ 𝑉2 ≤ 1.05 0.95 ≤ 𝑉3 ≤ 1.05
0.00 ≤ |𝑃12 | ≤ 5.0 0.00 ≤ |𝑃21 | ≤ 5.0 0.00 ≤ |𝑃13 | ≤ 3.0 0.00 ≤ |𝑃31 | ≤ 3.0
0.00 ≤ |𝑃23 | ≤ 4.0 0.00 ≤ |𝑃32 | ≤ 4.0
But 𝛿1 = 0 (reference bus) (or 0.00 ≤ 𝛿1 ≤ 0.00 )
43
The solution of the previous AC OPF optimization is:
𝛿1 = 0 𝑟𝑎𝑑 = 0 𝑑𝑒𝑔

Prof. Muwaffaq I. Alomoush, Yarmouk University, Irbid, Jordan

𝑃𝐿𝑜𝑠𝑠13 = 0.0060114 𝑝. 𝑢. = 0.60114 𝑀𝑊
𝛿2 = −0.064069 𝑟𝑎𝑑 = −3.6709 𝑑𝑒𝑔 𝑃23 = −2.2482 𝑝. 𝑢. = −224.82 𝑀𝑊
𝛿3 = 0.036871 𝑟𝑎𝑑 = 2.1125 𝑑𝑒𝑔 𝑃32 = 2.3049 𝑝. 𝑢. = 230.49 𝑀𝑊
𝑉1 = 1.0471 𝑃𝐿𝑜𝑠𝑠23 = 0.056736 𝑝. 𝑢. = 5.6736 𝑀𝑊
𝑉2 = 1.0323 𝑄12 = 0.077134 𝑝. 𝑢. = 7.7134 𝑀𝑣𝑎𝑟
𝑉3 = 1.05 𝑄21 = 0.015952 𝑝. 𝑢. = 1.5952 𝑀𝑣𝑎𝑟
𝑃𝐺1 = 5.4327𝑝. 𝑢. = 543.27 𝑀𝑊 𝑄𝐿𝑜𝑠𝑠12 = 0.093086 𝑝. 𝑢. = 9.3086 𝑀𝑣𝑎𝑟
𝑃𝐺2 = 2.3154 𝑝. 𝑢. = 231.54𝑀𝑊 𝑄13 = 0.10524 𝑝. 𝑢. = = 10.5.24 𝑀𝑣𝑎𝑟
𝑃𝐺3 = 4.3333 𝑝. 𝑢. = 433.33𝑀𝑊 𝑄31 = −0.067665 𝑝. 𝑢. = −6.7665 𝑀𝑣𝑎𝑟
𝑄𝐺1 = 2.1824 𝑝. 𝑢. = 218.24 𝑀𝑣𝑎𝑟 𝑄𝐿𝑜𝑠𝑠13 = 0.037571 𝑝. 𝑢. = 3.7571 𝑀𝑣𝑎𝑟

𝑄𝐺2 = 2.3076 𝑝. 𝑢. = 230.76 𝑀𝑣𝑎𝑟 𝑄23 = 0.29165 𝑝. 𝑢. = 29.165 𝑀𝑣𝑎𝑟

𝑄32 = −0.064707 𝑝. 𝑢. = −6.4707 𝑀𝑣𝑎𝑟
𝑄𝐺3 = 0.36763 𝑝. 𝑢. = 36.763 𝑀𝑣𝑎𝑟
𝑄𝐿𝑜𝑠𝑠23 = 0.22694 𝑝. 𝑢. = 22.694 𝑀𝑣𝑎𝑟
𝑃12 = 1.455 𝑝. 𝑢. = 145.5 𝑀𝑊
𝐶1 𝑃𝐺1 = 2.1824 = 8175.8100 $/ℎ
𝑃21 = −1.4364 𝑝. 𝑢. = −143.64 𝑀𝑊
𝐶2 𝑃𝐺2 = 2.3154 = 4196.8815 $/ℎ
𝑃𝐿𝑜𝑠𝑠12 = 0.018617 𝑝. 𝑢. = 1.8617 𝑀𝑊
𝐶3 𝑃𝐺3 = 4.3333 = 7322.0365 $/ℎ
𝑃13 = −1.0223 𝑝. 𝑢. = −102.23 𝑀𝑊
𝐶𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 = 19694.728$/ℎ
𝑃31 = 1.0283 𝑝. 𝑢. = 102.83 𝑀𝑊
44
Check Results:

Prof. Muwaffaq I. Alomoush, Yarmouk University, Irbid, Jordan

Total Real Power Generated 𝑃𝐺1 + 𝑃𝐺2 + 𝑃𝐺3 = 12.081364
Total Real Power Demand 𝑃𝐷1 + 𝑃𝐷2 + 𝑃𝐷3 = 12.000000
Total Real Power Loss 𝑃𝐿𝑜𝑠𝑠12 + 𝑃𝐿𝑜𝑠𝑠13 + 𝑃𝐿𝑜𝑠𝑠23 = 0.081364
𝑃𝐺1 + 𝑃𝐺2 + 𝑃𝐺3 =𝑃𝐷1 + 𝑃𝐷2 + 𝑃𝐷3 + 𝑃𝐿𝑜𝑠𝑠12 + 𝑃𝐿𝑜𝑠𝑠13 + 𝑃𝐿𝑜𝑠𝑠23
Total Reactive Power Generated 𝑄𝐺1 + 𝑄𝐺2 + 𝑄𝐺3 = 4.8576
Total Reactive Power Demand 𝑄𝐷1 + 𝑄𝐷2 + 𝑄𝐷3 = 4.5000
Total Reactive Power Loss 𝑄𝐿𝑜𝑠𝑠12 + 𝑄𝐿𝑜𝑠𝑠13 + 𝑄𝐿𝑜𝑠𝑠23 = 0.3576
𝑄𝐺1 + 𝑄𝐺2 + 𝑄𝐺3 = 𝑄𝐷1 + 𝑄𝐷2 + 𝑄𝐷3 + 𝑄𝐿𝑜𝑠𝑠12 + 𝑄𝐿𝑜𝑠𝑠13 + 𝑄𝐿𝑜𝑠𝑠23

Real Power Equality (Balance) Constraints at System Buses:

Bus 1: 𝑃𝐺1 − 𝑃𝐷1 − 𝑃12 − 𝑃13 = 0
Bus 2: 𝑃𝐺2 − 𝑃𝐷2 − 𝑃21 − 𝑃23 = 0
Bus 3: 𝑃𝐺3 − 𝑃𝐷3 − 𝑃31 − 𝑃32 = 0
Reactive Power Equality (Balance) Constraints at System Buses
Bus 1: 𝑄𝐺1 − 𝑄𝐷1 − 𝑄12 − 𝑄13 = 0
Bus 2: 𝑄𝐺2 − 𝑄𝐷2 − 𝑄21 − 𝑄23 = 0
Bus 3: 𝑄𝐺3 − 𝑄𝐷3 − 𝑄31 − 𝑄32 = 0 45