Research Methods Of Education Autumn, 2024

ASSIGNMENT N0. 1
Units: 1-5
QUESTION NO. 01:
Discuss scientific methods as a tool of acquiring knowledge. Compare it with
various steps in research process.

Introduction

The acquisition of knowledge is a fundamental goal of scientific and academic inquiry.

Researchers use various methods to acquire, validate, and expand knowledge. Two major
frameworks used in acquiring scientific knowledge are the scientific method and the research
process. Both these approaches allow researchers to systematically investigate and explain
phenomena, but they operate at different levels of detail and focus. While the scientific method is
a tool for acquiring knowledge, the research process is a broader strategy that includes the
scientific method among its stages.

The Scientific Method:

The scientific method is a systematic, empirical approach used by scientists to test hypotheses
and gain knowledge. It relies on observation, experimentation, and evidence to form conclusions
about the natural world. Here is a detailed breakdown of the steps involved:

1. Observation

 The process begins with observing a phenomenon or problem in the world around us.
Observations are made through the senses or by reviewing existing data and research.
 Example: A biologist might observe that plants in a particular area are not growing well.

2. Questioning

 Based on the observations, a research question is formed. This is the central inquiry that
the researcher seeks to answer. The question must be clear, focused, and researchable.
 Example: The biologist might ask, “Why are the plants in this area not growing well?”

3. Hypothesis Formation

 A hypothesis is a proposed explanation or prediction based on the initial observations. It

is usually stated as a clear, testable statement that can be proven true or false through
experimentation.
  Example: “The plants are not growing well because the soil in this area lacks enough
nitrogen.”

4. Experimentation (Testing the Hypothesis)

 In this step, experiments are designed and conducted to test the hypothesis. This stage
involves gathering data in controlled environments to ensure that the results are reliable
and reproducible.
 Example: The biologist may set up an experiment by adding nitrogen to the soil in some
areas and leaving other areas untreated to observe any changes in plant growth.

5. Data Collection and Analysis

 Data are collected during the experiment. This can involve quantitative data (numerical)
or qualitative data (descriptive). The collected data are then analyzed using statistical
tools or other methods.
 Example: After several weeks, the biologist measures the growth of plants in both treated
and untreated soil areas.

6. Conclusion

 After analyzing the data, the researcher draws a conclusion based on whether the data
support or refute the hypothesis.
 Example: If plants in nitrogen-treated soil grow better than those in untreated soil, the
hypothesis is supported.

7. Reporting and Verification

 The final step is to communicate the results, often by publishing them in scientific
journals or presenting them at conferences. This allows other researchers to verify the
results and possibly replicate the experiment.
 Example: The biologist publishes the findings in a scientific journal, allowing others to
review and test the results.

The Research Process:

The research process is a broader, more comprehensive framework that includes the scientific
method but involves additional steps for conducting a research project. The research process is
often used in academic and scientific investigations to explore new topics, answer important
questions, and contribute to the existing body of knowledge.

1. Identifying the Research Problem

  The research process starts by identifying a problem or area of interest. This is the key
challenge or question the researcher intends to solve. It could arise from gaps in existing
knowledge, practical issues, or unresolved debates in the field.
 Example: The researcher identifies a gap in knowledge about the effects of soil nitrogen
on plant growth in certain ecosystems.

2. Literature Review

 Before conducting the research, a literature review is conducted. This is a critical

examination of existing research, theories, and findings in the area of study. This helps
refine the research question and identify methodologies previously used.
 Example: The biologist reviews past studies on plant growth and soil nutrients,
discovering that nitrogen is often implicated in poor plant growth but is not well studied
in this particular ecosystem.

3. Formulating a Hypothesis or Research Objective

 Based on the identified research problem and literature review, the researcher forms a
hypothesis (in the case of experimental research) or a research objective (for non-
experimental research).
 Example: The biologist hypothesizes that nitrogen deficiency in the soil limits plant
growth.

4. Research Design and Methodology

 The research design outlines how the research will be conducted. This includes choosing
the research methodology (qualitative, quantitative, or mixed methods), determining the
methods of data collection (surveys, experiments, interviews, etc.), and selecting
appropriate instruments.
 Example: The biologist decides on an experimental design, where nitrogen levels are
manipulated in the soil, and plant growth is measured using standardized tools.

5. Data Collection

 Data are collected according to the methods outlined in the research design. The
researcher may gather data from experiments, surveys, interviews, observations, or
secondary sources.
 Example: The biologist collects data on plant height, leaf number, and overall health
over a period of time.

6. Data Analysis and Interpretation

 Once data are collected, they are analyzed using appropriate statistical or qualitative
analysis tools. The researcher interprets the results in the context of the original research
question and hypothesis.
  Example: The biologist uses statistical analysis to compare plant growth in nitrogen-
treated soil versus untreated soil and interprets the results to draw conclusions about the
hypothesis.

7. Reporting and Dissemination

 The findings are then reported through academic papers, reports, presentations, or
conferences. Researchers share their conclusions with the broader scientific community,
enabling further review and replication.
 Example: The biologist publishes the research findings in a scientific journal, providing
detailed explanations of the experimental design, data, analysis, and conclusions.

8. Conclusion and Recommendations

 The final stage of the research process involves summarizing the conclusions drawn from
the study and suggesting directions for future research or practical applications.
 Example: The biologist concludes that nitrogen supplementation can improve plant
growth in nitrogen-deficient soils, suggesting further studies on the optimal nitrogen
levels for different plant species.

Comparison between the Scientific Method and the Research Process:

While the scientific method is a tool for testing hypotheses through controlled experiments and
observations, the research process is the broader framework that includes multiple steps to
design and complete a full research project. Here’s a detailed comparison:

 Scope:
o The scientific method focuses specifically on how to test hypotheses and draw
conclusions.
o The research process is a broader framework that includes not only hypothesis
testing (using the scientific method) but also stages such as literature review,
designing the research, and disseminating findings.
 Steps:
o The scientific method involves a direct cycle of observation → hypothesis →
experimentation → analysis → conclusion.
o The research process includes these steps but adds others, such as literature
review, research design, and reporting, to ensure the research is thorough and
comprehensive.
 Purpose:
o The purpose of the scientific method is to test a hypothesis in a structured,
empirical manner.
o The research process, on the other hand, is designed to facilitate a comprehensive
study, from identifying a problem to analyzing results and sharing findings.
 Flexibility:
 o The scientific method tends to be more rigid, requiring repeatable and controlled
testing of a hypothesis.
o The research process is more flexible, with opportunities to adjust the approach,
change research designs, and adapt based on new findings.

Conclusion:

The scientific method is an essential tool for acquiring knowledge in a systematic and empirical
way. It enables researchers to test hypotheses and derive conclusions based on data and evidence.
However, the research process is a more comprehensive approach that integrates the scientific
method within a broader framework of inquiry. While the scientific method focuses on the steps
involved in testing a hypothesis, the research process includes all stages of a study, from
identifying a problem to disseminating findings. Together, they form the backbone of scientific
and academic exploration, ensuring that knowledge is developed and validated in a rigorous and
replicable manner. Both the scientific method and the research process are essential tools in the
pursuit of knowledge. While the scientific method provides a structured approach to testing
hypotheses and drawing conclusions based on data, the research process is a more
comprehensive framework that includes planning, conducting, and reporting the research.
Together, they ensure that scientific inquiry is thorough, evidence-based, and reproducible,
which are critical elements in the development of reliable knowledge.

QUESTION NO. 02
Compare and contrast the types of research by method. Why and where we
used these types (descriptive, historical , and correlational) research to discuss
the educational phenomena.

Introduction:

In educational research, different methods of research are employed to address distinct types of
questions, phenomena, and problems. These methods guide how data is collected, analyzed, and
interpreted. Among the most common research methods are descriptive, historical, and
correlational research. Each type of research serves different purposes and is suitable for
answering different kinds of educational questions. Understanding the characteristics, uses, and
contexts of these research methods is crucial for researchers, educators, and policymakers.

Types of Research Methods:

1. Descriptive Research
Descriptive research is a method that aims to describe characteristics of a population or
phenomenon being studied. It does not focus on manipulating variables but instead provides a
comprehensive picture of what is happening or has happened in a particular context. This type of
research seeks to answer "what," "who," "where," and "when" questions.

 Characteristics:
o Describes current phenomena without influencing them.
o Uses surveys, observations, case studies, and content analysis.
o It is often used for exploratory purposes to gather basic information about
educational situations or trends.
 Examples in Education:
o Describing students' attitudes toward online learning.
o Profiling the demographic characteristics of a specific student population (age,
gender, socioeconomic status).
o Documenting the frequency and types of classroom behaviors.
 Why and Where Used in Education:
o Why: It is used when a researcher wants to explore educational phenomena as
they naturally occur. It is suitable for providing foundational knowledge or
insights into how something works without manipulating or changing any
variables. This method helps educators understand the existing state of a
particular issue in education.
o Where: It is particularly useful in classroom studies, educational settings, or
when gathering data on a large scale. For example, understanding how
widespread bullying is in schools or measuring teachers' satisfaction with
professional development programs.

2. Historical Research:

Historical research focuses on understanding past events and analyzing how they have shaped
the present or could inform the future. It is concerned with collecting and interpreting historical
data, documents, and artifacts to explain educational phenomena from the past.

 Characteristics:
o Relies heavily on primary and secondary sources such as documents, records,
interviews, and artifacts.
o Interpretative and aims to understand the significance of past events.
o Often examines long-term educational trends, the evolution of policies, or shifts
in pedagogical approaches.
 Examples in Education:
o Investigating the historical development of public education in a particular
country or region.
o Analyzing the impact of historical educational reforms, such as the
implementation of special education laws.
 o Examining the legacy of influential educational theorists like John Dewey or
Maria Montessori.
 Why and Where Used in Education:
o Why: Historical research is used when examining the origins and evolution of
educational practices, policies, and institutions. It helps researchers, educators,
and policymakers learn from past experiences and make informed decisions in
the present. It is also valuable for understanding how historical contexts have
shaped current educational systems and structures.
o Where: It is primarily used in studies that explore the history of education—
such as analyzing the development of school systems, educational reforms,
curriculum changes, or the impact of historical events like wars or civil rights
movements on education.

3. Correlational Research:

Correlational research is used to examine the relationships between two or more variables to
determine if they are associated with each other. It does not aim to establish cause-and-effect
relationships but rather focuses on understanding how changes in one variable are related to
changes in another.

 Characteristics:
o Focuses on identifying and measuring the strength and direction of relationships
between variables.
o Uses statistical tools like correlation coefficients to quantify the degree of
association.
o Non-experimental, meaning variables are not manipulated by the researcher;
they simply observe natural variations.
 Examples in Education:
o Investigating the relationship between student attendance and academic
performance.
o Examining how socioeconomic status correlates with access to educational
resources.
o Exploring the connection between teacher-student ratios and student
achievement.
 Why and Where Used in Education:
o Why: Correlational research is useful when researchers are interested in
exploring associations between educational variables but cannot or do not want
to manipulate them. It helps to identify patterns or trends that can inform further
research or educational practice.
o Where: It is typically used in studies where variables cannot be controlled or
manipulated, such as in natural settings (e.g., examining the correlation between
technology use in classrooms and student learning outcomes). It is also used in
large-scale educational surveys to identify potential relationships between
variables like parental involvement and student achievement.
Comparison of Descriptive, Historical, and Correlational Research

Aspect Descriptive Historical Research Correlational

Research Research

Purpose To describe To explore and

To examine
characteristics of a understand past
relationships between
phenomenon. events and trends variables.
Method Observations, Document analysis, Surveys, statistical
surveys, case studies, archival research,
analysis of existing
content analysis. interviews data.
Data Collection Quantitative or Historical records,
Data on two or more
qualitative data about documents, past
variables, often
current phenomena events quantitative.
Analysis Describes what is Interprets historical
Measures
happening without context to understand
relationships or
manipulation. past phenomena. associations between
variables.
Outcome A snapshot of a Understanding the Measures
situation or issue evolution of relationships or
educational practices associations between
or policies. variables.

Application of These Research Types in Educational Phenomena

1. Descriptive Research in Education:

Descriptive research is used to gather and present facts about educational situations. It’s
commonly used to:

 Map out educational trends: For example, tracking changes in student enrollment
numbers or academic performance over time.
 Assess the needs of students: Understanding the current state of mental health
challenges faced by students, or measuring the satisfaction of teachers with their
professional development.
 Study classroom dynamics: Observing how students interact with one another and their
teachers, and identifying patterns of behavior.

Descriptive research is particularly important for educators and policymakers who need accurate
snapshots of current conditions to inform decisions.
2. Historical Research in Education:

Historical research is crucial for understanding how past educational policies, theories, or
practices have shaped the current system. It can:

 Inform the development of new policies by examining the success or failure of previous
educational reforms.
 Highlight the impact of social, political, and cultural events on the education system,
such as the impact of the civil rights movement on desegregating schools.
 Understand the evolution of educational theories and methods, such as how
traditional teaching methods have transformed into modern, student-centered approaches.

This type of research helps educators and administrators learn from the past to improve future
practices.

3. Correlational Research in Education:

Correlational research is often used to identify relationships between various educational factors.
It is valuable for:

 Identifying risk factors for poor academic performance or other challenges. For
example, if there is a correlation between poor attendance and low academic
achievement, educators can target interventions for absenteeism.
 Exploring factors influencing student success: Understanding how variables such as
socioeconomic status, parental involvement, and access to resources are related to student
achievement.
 Improving educational strategies: If there is a correlation between smaller class sizes
and improved student learning outcomes, policymakers may consider changes to class
structures.

While it cannot establish cause and effect, correlational research helps provide evidence of
associations that may be valuable for decision-making and further exploration.

Conclusion

In conclusion, descriptive, historical, and correlational research each play a vital role in the field
of education. Descriptive research provides a snapshot of current educational phenomena,
historical research connects the present to past developments, and correlational research explores
the relationships between variables. Each type of research method offers unique insights into
educational issues, and their use depends on the specific research questions, goals, and context.
By understanding the strengths and limitations of each, researchers and educators can better
choose the appropriate approach to address various educational phenomena and challenges.
QUESTION NO. 03
Define the concepts of history and historical research. What is the importance
of internal and external criticism in historical research. Also, distinguish
primary source of data from the secondary source of data with examples.

Introduction:

History is the study of past events, people, places, and activities. It is a systematic investigation
into the events that have shaped societies, cultures, and civilizations over time. The aim of
history is to understand and interpret the development of human societies, their achievements,
struggles, and transformations, as well as to connect the past to the present and future. Historical
research, on the other hand, is a method of research that focuses on collecting and analyzing
historical data to explain and interpret past events, actions, and outcomes. It involves the careful
investigation and interpretation of sources (documents, artifacts, records, etc.) to reconstruct and
understand the past. The purpose of historical research is to gather facts, analyze them critically,
and draw conclusions about the past, all while recognizing that history is often shaped by various
biases and perspectives. In this context, internal and external criticism are important tools used
by historians to evaluate sources for their authenticity, accuracy, and reliability.

Concept of Historical Research:

Historical research is a systematic approach to studying and interpreting past events or

phenomena. It involves the collection, evaluation, and analysis of historical data or sources to
create a coherent narrative or argument about past events. The process of historical research
typically includes:

1. Identifying a Research Question: Formulating a specific question or topic related to the

past.
2. Gathering Sources: Collecting primary and secondary sources that are relevant to the
research question.
3. Evaluating Sources: Critically assessing the authenticity, reliability, and bias of the
sources.
4. Analyzing Data: Interpreting the information and identifying patterns, causes, and
consequences.
5. Reconstructing the Past: Presenting a comprehensive account of the event or period
being studied.

Historical research helps researchers understand how past events and decisions have shaped
current social, political, and cultural realities.
Internal and External Criticism in Historical Research:

When conducting historical research, historians must evaluate the sources they use to ensure they
are reliable and accurate. This process is known as criticism. There are two primary types of
criticism in historical research:

1. Internal Criticism

Internal criticism refers to the process of evaluating the content and accuracy of a source itself.
This type of criticism is concerned with determining the authenticity of the source and its
internal consistency. Historians using internal criticism carefully analyze the information
presented in a source to assess whether the facts presented are consistent with other known facts
or whether there are internal contradictions.

 Key aspects of internal criticism:

o Authenticity: Does the source truly represent the event or period it claims to
describe?
o Accuracy: Is the information reliable, or is it exaggerated, fabricated, or biased?
o Consistency: Are there contradictions within the source itself? Does it align with
other known facts?
 Example: If a letter written by a historical figure is being used as a primary source,
historians will examine the handwriting, language used, and the context in which the
letter was written to determine if it is genuine or if it has been altered or fabricated.

2. External Criticism

External criticism refers to the process of evaluating the origin and context of the source. This
type of criticism focuses on the authorship, provenance, and authenticity of the document or
artifact. The goal is to determine if the source is genuine, whether it has been altered over time,
and if it has been properly preserved.

 Key aspects of external criticism:

o Authorship: Who created the source, and what was their perspective, purpose,
and credibility?
o Provenance: Where did the source originate from, and how has it been preserved
or transmitted over time?
o Context: What is the historical context in which the source was created, and how
does that affect its reliability?

 Example: When studying a historical manuscript, external criticism would involve

investigating the author’s background, examining where and how the manuscript was
preserved, and determining whether any alterations or forgeries were made before the
manuscript reached the researcher.
Primary vs. Secondary Sources of Data:

In historical research, data is classified into two types: primary and secondary sources. These
sources are the foundation of historical analysis and provide different perspectives on historical
events.

Primary Sources:

A primary source is an original document or artifact that was created during the time period
under study. These sources provide firsthand evidence of a particular event, person, or period in
history. Primary sources are considered the most valuable because they offer direct, unmediated
access to the past.

 Examples of primary sources:

o Documents: Official records, letters, diaries, treaties, speeches, government
reports.
o Artifacts: Objects, tools, clothing, artwork, architecture from a specific historical
period.
o Audio/Visual Materials: Photographs, film footage, audio recordings, and radio
broadcasts.
o Eyewitness Accounts: Personal narratives or testimonies from individuals who
directly experienced an event.

 Example in Education: A primary source in educational history could be a teacher’s

diary or a government report on the state of education in the 19th century. These would
provide insights into how education was structured and perceived during that time.

Secondary Sources:

A secondary source is a document or work that interprets, analyzes, or critiques primary

sources. These sources are typically created after the event has occurred and often provide a
broader analysis or overview of historical events, incorporating various primary sources.

 Examples of secondary sources:

o Books: Historical accounts or biographies that are based on primary sources.
o Journal Articles: Research papers or review articles that analyze primary data.
o Documentaries: Films or TV shows that summarize historical events using
various primary sources.
o Encyclopedias: General reference works that provide summaries of historical
topics.

 Example in Education: A secondary source could be a history book about the

development of educational systems in Europe. This book would analyze and synthesize
primary sources such as government policies, educators' writings, and statistical data.
Importance of Primary and Secondary Sources in Historical Research:

 Primary sources are crucial because they offer direct access to the past and provide
evidence that can lead to new interpretations. They allow historians to reconstruct
events and offer a more intimate understanding of the experiences of people at the time.
 Secondary sources are important because they provide a broader context and
interpretation of historical events. They synthesize primary sources and can offer
critical analysis and commentary, which helps historians understand the significance of
primary evidence in a broader context.

For example, if a historian is researching the civil rights movement in the United States, they
might use primary sources such as letters, speeches (e.g., Martin Luther King Jr.'s "I Have a
Dream" speech), and government records to understand the events and perspectives of that time.
However, they would also rely on secondary sources like books, journal articles, or
documentaries that analyze the movement's impact, the strategies employed, and the broader
socio-political context.

Conclusion:

In conclusion, history is the study of past events and actions, while historical research is the
systematic investigation of these events using various data sources. Internal and external
criticism are critical techniques in historical research to evaluate the authenticity and reliability
of sources, ensuring that historical conclusions are based on accurate evidence. Furthermore, the
distinction between primary and secondary sources is fundamental to historical research, as
both types of sources provide different but complementary perspectives on historical events.
Primary sources offer direct insight into the past, while secondary sources provide analysis and
context, together enriching our understanding of historical phenomena.

QUESTION NO. 04
Distinguish experimental research from non-experimental research. What are
different experimental designs that can be used to address educational issues.

Introduction:

In research, especially in the context of educational research, experimental and non-

experimental research represent two fundamental approaches to gathering and analyzing data.
The distinction between these two types of research is crucial, as they are used to answer
different types of research questions and solve different kinds of problems. Experimental
research focuses on manipulating variables to observe the effects on other variables, with the
goal of establishing cause-and-effect relationships. In contrast, non-experimental research does
not involve manipulation of variables and is often used to explore relationships, patterns, or
descriptions in natural settings. Understanding the differences between these approaches is
critical for selecting the appropriate research design, especially in the field of education, where
interventions, policies, and teaching methods need to be evaluated for their effectiveness.

Experimental Research vs. Non-Experimental Research:

Experimental Research:

Experimental research is a systematic investigation in which the researcher manipulates one or

more independent variables (IVs) and observes the effect on one or more dependent variables
(DVs). The key characteristic of experimental research is that it aims to establish causal
relationships between variables.

 Key Features of Experimental Research:

o Manipulation of variables: The researcher actively manipulates one or more
independent variables to examine their effect on dependent variables.
o Control over extraneous variables: To ensure that the results are due to the
manipulation of the independent variable, researchers use control groups or
random assignment to reduce the effects of extraneous variables (variables that
may influence the dependent variable but are not of primary interest).
o Randomization: Random assignment of participants to different groups (e.g.,
treatment and control groups) is used to ensure that groups are equivalent at the
start of the experiment.
o Cause-and-effect relationships: Experimental research is particularly focused on
determining whether changes in the independent variable cause changes in the
dependent variable.

 Example in Education: A researcher may want to test the effect of a new teaching
method on students’ academic performance. The researcher assigns students randomly to
two groups—one receiving traditional instruction (control group) and the other receiving
the new teaching method (experimental group). The academic performance of both
groups is compared to assess the effectiveness of the new teaching method.

Non-Experimental Research:

Non-experimental research refers to studies where the researcher does not manipulate any
variables but instead observes or measures variables as they naturally occur. Non-experimental
research is often used to explore relationships between variables or to describe phenomena
without trying to establish cause-and-effect relationships.

 Key Features of Non-Experimental Research:

o No manipulation of variables: The researcher does not control or manipulate the
independent variables; rather, they observe them as they naturally occur.
 o Observational nature: Non-experimental research often involves observing and
describing events or behaviors without intervention.
o Correlation, description, and exploration: This approach is typically used to
identify correlations, describe phenomena, or explore relationships between
variables, without inferring causal connections.
o Limitations in establishing causality: Since the researcher does not manipulate
variables, it is difficult to establish clear cause-and-effect relationships.

 Example in Education: A researcher might investigate the relationship between the

amount of time students spend on homework and their grades. In this non-experimental
design, the researcher does not assign homework time to the students but simply observes
their natural study habits and academic performance.

Distinguishing Experimental and Non-Experimental Research:

Non-Experimental
Aspect Experimental Research
Research
No manipulation; researchers
Yes, researchers manipulate
Manipulation of Variables observe naturally occurring
independent variables.
variables.
High level of control; often
Less control; often uses
Control uses random assignment.
natural settings.
To establish cause-and-effect To describe, explore, or
Purpose
relationships. correlate variables.
Can infer cause-and-effect Cannot establish causality;
Causality
relationships. only associations.
Experimental design with Correlational, descriptive,
Design
control and treatment groups. observational designs.

Experimental Designs Used in Educational Research:

There are several types of experimental designs that researchers can use to address educational
issues. These designs vary in their complexity and control over variables. The choice of
experimental design depends on the research question, resources, and ethical considerations.

1. True Experimental Design:

In a true experimental design, participants are randomly assigned to either a treatment

(experimental) group or a control group. This design is the most rigorous and allows for the
strongest inferences about causality.
  Key Features:
o Random assignment of participants to experimental and control groups.
o Manipulation of the independent variable.
o Control group used for comparison.
o The experiment is conducted in a controlled environment.

 Example in Education: A study that tests the effect of a new educational software on
student performance. Students are randomly assigned to either the software group
(treatment group) or a traditional teaching group (control group), and their academic
performance is compared.
 Types of True Experimental Designs:
o Pretest-Posttest Control Group Design: Participants are tested before and after
the intervention, with one group receiving the treatment and the other serving as a
control.
o Posttest-Only Control Group Design: Participants are tested only after the
intervention, with randomly assigned groups (experimental and control).

2. Quasi-Experimental Design:

Quasi-experimental designs are similar to true experimental designs, but they do not use random
assignment. Instead, groups are formed based on pre-existing characteristics or conditions. While
this design does not offer the same level of control as true experimental designs, it can still be
useful in real-world educational settings where random assignment is not feasible.

 Key Features:
o No random assignment to groups.
o The researcher still manipulates the independent variable.
o Groups may be formed based on natural grouping (e.g., classes, schools).

 Example in Education: A researcher wants to evaluate the effect of a school-based

mentoring program on students' self-esteem. Students are assigned to either the
mentoring program or a non-mentoring group based on pre-existing school programs,
rather than random assignment.
 Types of Quasi-Experimental Designs:
o Non-equivalent Control Group Design: One group receives the intervention,
while another group (not randomly assigned) serves as the control.
o Interrupted Time Series Design: Observations are made before and after the
intervention over several time points to assess the effects of the treatment.

3. Single-Subject Experimental Design:

This design focuses on individual participants or small groups. It is often used in special
education and when studying individual behavior. The researcher observes how a single subject
or a small group of subjects responds to an intervention over time.

 Key Features:
 o Focus on a single subject or a few participants.
o Repeated measurements are taken before, during, and after the intervention.
o It is often used for behavioral research.

 Example in Education: A study investigating the effect of a new reading intervention on

a single student’s progress. The student’s reading level is measured before and after the
intervention.

4. Factorial Design:

A factorial design is used when researchers want to study the effects of more than one
independent variable at the same time. This design allows for the examination of interaction
effects between variables.

 Key Features:
o Multiple independent variables are manipulated.
o Researchers examine the main effects of each variable and the interaction
between variables.
o Often used in more complex experiments.

 Example in Education: A study that examines how different levels of teacher feedback
(e.g., positive, neutral, negative) and classroom seating arrangements (e.g., rows vs.
groups) affect student participation and performance.

Conclusion:

In conclusion, experimental research is designed to test cause-and-effect relationships by

manipulating variables and controlling extraneous factors. It allows researchers to make strong
inferences about the impact of interventions. On the other hand, non-experimental research
does not involve manipulation of variables and is often used to explore correlations or describe
phenomena. In educational research, experimental designs such as true experimental, quasi-
experimental, single-subject, and factorial designs are used to address various issues, from
testing the effectiveness of teaching methods to understanding the impact of school policies. By
selecting the appropriate design, researchers can better address the complexities of educational
problems and contribute valuable insights into improving educational practices and outcomes.

QUESTION NO. 05
Define descriptive research .what are its major forms. Strengthen your
answer with the example of different types of descriptive research studies.

Introduction:
Descriptive research is a type of research that aims to describe characteristics or behaviors of a
population or phenomenon being studied. Rather than manipulating variables or testing causal
relationships, the primary goal of descriptive research is to observe, record, analyze, and
interpret the current status of a situation or condition. This type of research often serves as a
foundation for further investigations, allowing researchers to gain insights into the characteristics
or trends of a subject without making predictions or causal conclusions. Descriptive research is
valuable for understanding a wide range of educational phenomena, providing detailed
information that can help guide future studies or inform educational policy and practice.

Key Features of Descriptive Research:

 Non-Manipulative: Descriptive research does not involve manipulating variables; it

simply observes and describes.
 Focus on "What": It primarily answers the question "What is happening?" rather than
"Why it is happening."
 Collection of Data: It often involves surveys, observations, case studies, and archival
research to gather data about specific phenomena.
 Objective: The aim is to present an accurate snapshot of the current state of the subject
being studied, without the researcher influencing the outcome.

Major Forms of Descriptive Research:

There are several different forms of descriptive research, each of which employs different
methods for gathering and analyzing data. These include:

1. Case Study Research

2. Survey Research
3. Observational Research
4. Content Analysis
5. Developmental Research

Let’s discuss these forms in detail, along with examples from the educational field.

1. Case Study Research:

Case study research involves an in-depth, detailed examination of a single case or a small
number of cases. These cases can be individuals, groups, institutions, or events. Case studies
provide rich qualitative data and allow researchers to explore complex issues within their real-
life context.

 Key Features:
o Focuses on a specific case (individual, group, organization, etc.).
 o Uses multiple data collection methods (e.g., interviews, documents, observations).
o Provides deep insights into the context and dynamics of the case.
 Example in Education: A case study might examine the impact of a specific teaching
strategy on a group of students with learning disabilities. The researcher could observe
the students, interview the teacher, and collect student performance data to understand
how the strategy affects learning outcomes.

2. Survey Research:

Survey research involves gathering data from a large number of individuals using structured
questionnaires or interviews. The primary goal is to gather information about the attitudes,
opinions, behaviors, or characteristics of a population. Survey research is often used to obtain
quantitative data that can be generalized to a larger population.

 Key Features:
o Data collection is typically done using questionnaires or interviews.
o It involves a large sample of participants.
o Useful for obtaining information about attitudes, opinions, or behaviors.
o Data is often analyzed quantitatively (e.g., statistical analysis).

 Example in Education: A researcher might conduct a survey to gather opinions from

teachers about the effectiveness of a new curriculum. The survey would ask questions
about their perceptions of the curriculum’s strengths, weaknesses, and overall impact on
student learning.

3. Observational Research:

Observational research involves the systematic observation of behavior in its natural setting
without interference. Researchers collect data by watching and recording specific behaviors or
events as they happen, often without direct interaction with participants.

 Key Features:
o Observations are made in a natural setting (e.g., classroom, playground).
o Can be participant (the researcher actively engages with participants) or non-
participant (the researcher only observes from a distance).
o Useful for studying behaviors that cannot be easily measured through surveys or
interviews.

 Example in Education: A researcher may observe classroom behavior to examine how

students interact with each other during group work. The researcher might look for
patterns in student participation, collaboration, or conflict resolution without intervening
in the process.

4. Content Analysis:
Content analysis is the systematic examination of materials, such as written, visual, or audio
content, to identify patterns, themes, or trends. It is often used to analyze texts, media, or other
content sources to determine how certain ideas or messages are represented or communicated.

 Key Features:
o Focuses on the content of various materials (e.g., books, media, and curricula).
o Data is typically analyzed qualitatively or quantitatively.
o Identifies patterns, themes, or recurring messages.

 Example in Education: A content analysis might examine how textbooks represent

gender roles in science education. The researcher would analyze the language,
illustrations, and examples in the textbooks to see if there is a gender bias in the way
science concepts are presented.

5. Developmental Research:

Developmental research studies the changes or development of a particular phenomenon over

time. It focuses on understanding how things evolve, particularly in terms of developmental
stages or patterns. In education, this type of research can be used to examine how certain
educational practices or curricula evolve and impact learning outcomes over an extended period.

 Key Features:
o Focuses on studying changes over time (longitudinal).
o Can examine how students, teaching methods, or educational policies evolve.
o Uses data from multiple time points to track progress or changes.

 Example in Education: A researcher may study how a group of students develops their
reading skills from kindergarten through third grade, analyzing how their skills evolve
over time and what factors (e.g., instructional methods, family support) contribute to their
growth.

Strengths and Applications of Descriptive Research in Education:

Descriptive research plays a significant role in educational settings, as it provides valuable

insights into the current state of teaching practices, student performance, and educational
policies. Here are some strengths and applications:

1. Exploration of Current Practices: Descriptive research helps identify current

educational practices, trends, and conditions, which can inform policy decisions and
improvements in teaching.
o Example: A school district may conduct a survey of teachers to identify their
perceptions of professional development programs, allowing them to adjust
training sessions to meet teachers' needs.
 2. Foundation for Further Research: Descriptive research often serves as a preliminary
step before conducting experimental or correlational research. It helps researchers
identify patterns or variables to investigate more deeply.
o Example: A study identifying that students from lower-income households
perform worse on standardized tests may lead to further research investigating the
causes of this disparity.

3. Trend Analysis: It helps track changes or trends over time, which can be useful for
educational planning and decision-making.
o Example: Developmental research could track how the introduction of digital
tools in classrooms has impacted students' engagement and learning outcomes
over several years.

4. Provides Context for Understanding Phenomena: Descriptive research often paints a

clear picture of a situation, helping educators and researchers understand the factors
influencing educational outcomes.

Conclusion:

Descriptive research is a powerful tool for gaining insights into educational phenomena. By
focusing on "what" is happening, it helps educators and researchers observe, record, and
analyze various aspects of education without manipulating variables. The major forms of
descriptive research—case study research, survey research, observational research, content
analysis, and developmental research—offer a variety of approaches to collect data and
analyze educational issues. Through detailed descriptions, this type of research provides the
foundation for future inquiries, supports decision-making, and informs educational practice,
ultimately contributing to a deeper understanding of the complexities within the education
system.