A study on Geiger Muller Tube

A Project Report

Submitted to
National Examination Board
Sanothimi, Bhaktapur, Nepal

Submitted by
Gaurav Chhatkuli

In partial fulfillment of the requirements for the practical of Grade XII

Supervised by
Suresh Bhatta

New Capital Secondary School

January, 2025
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RECOMMENDATION

This is to recommend that Mr .Gaurav Chhatkuli has prepared this thesis

entitled “A Study on Geiger Muller Tube” for the partial fulfillment of the
requirements for the practical of Grade XII in Physic under my supervision. To
my knowledge, this work has not been submitted for any other degree. He has
fulfilled all the requirements laid down by the National Examination
Board,Sanothimi,Bhaktapur,Nepal for the submission of the thesis.

...............................
(Sanjay Shah)
Supervisor
New Capital Secondary School
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LETTER OF APPROVAL

We certify that New Capital College approved this research work entitled “A Study
on Geiger Muller Tube”carried out by Mr.Gaurav Chhatkuli in the scope and
generality as a thesis in the partial fulfillment for the requirement of the practical
marks by NEB in grade XII.

..................... ......................
Bhupendra Dhital Gaurav Chhatkuli
Principal: Date:
Date:

..................................
Prof.Suresh Bhatta
(Head of Department)
New Capital College
Date:
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Preface
The study of radiation detection has been a cornerstone of modern physics, with
applications spanning from nuclear research to medical diagnostics and environ-
mental monitoring. Among the various radiation detectors, the Geiger-Müller
(GM) tube stands out as one of the most widely used and historically significant
instruments. Its ability to detect ionizing radiation with simplicity and efficiency
has made it an indispensable tool in scientific research and practical applications
alike.
This thesis delves into the fundamental principles, construction, and opera-
tional mechanisms of the GM tube, exploring its response to different types of
radiation, detection efficiency, and limitations. Through a detailed analysis of
its working principles and practical implementations, this work aims to provide
a comprehensive understanding of the device and its relevance in contemporary
physics.
I am deeply grateful to my mentors, professors, and peers who have guided me
throughout this research. Their insights and encouragement have been instrumen-
tal in shaping this work. Additionally, I extend my appreciation to the pioneers
in the field of radiation physics, whose contributions have laid the foundation for
our understanding of radiation detection.
With this thesis, I hope to contribute to the broader knowledge of radiation
detection techniques and inspire further research in this ever-evolving field.

Gaurav Chhatkuli

New Capital Secondary School

January, 2025
Contents

1 Introduction 7

2 History 8

3 Principle and Working Mechanism 10

3.1 Operating Principle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
3.2 Working Mechanism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
3.2.1 Construction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
3.2.2 Explanation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12

4 Applications 13

5 Conclusion and Future Works 15

5.1 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
5.2 Future Works . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15

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6 CONTENTS

Abstract
The Geiger-Müller (GM) tube is a crucial radiation detector used in nuclear
physics, medical applications, and environmental monitoring. It operates by de-
tecting ionizing radiation through gas ionization, leading to a Townsend avalanche
that amplifies the signal. This thesis explores its working principles, including
quenching mechanisms (both gas and electronic), operating voltage, dead time,
and limitations such as energy insensitivity. The role of materials like tungsten in
electrode design and the impact of external factors on detection efficiency are also
discussed. By analyzing its advantages and constraints, this study highlights the
GM tube’s significance and potential improvements in radiation detection technol-
ogy.
Keywords: Geiger-Müller tube, ionization, Townsend avalanche, quenching,
dead time, tungsten, radiation detection.
Chapter 1

Introduction

The detection and measurement of ionizing radiation play a crucial role in numer-
ous scientific, medical, and industrial fields. Among the various radiation detection
devices, the Geiger-Müller (GM) tube remains one of the most widely used and
historically significant instruments. The GM tube is a gaseous ionization detector
capable of detecting a broad range of ionizing radiation, including alpha, beta, and
gamma particles. Its widespread use is attributed to its simple design, affordabil-
ity, and ability to provide reliable detection without requiring complex electronics.

The GM tube operates on the principle of gas ionization, where incoming radi-
ation ionizes gas molecules within a sealed tube, leading to an electrical discharge
that is recorded as a detection event. Despite its simplicity, the GM tube has
limitations, such as its inability to differentiate between radiation types and its
dead-time effect, which limits high-intensity radiation measurements. Neverthe-
less, it remains indispensable in applications such as radiation monitoring, nuclear
research, environmental safety, and medical diagnostics. This thesis explores the
development, working principles, and applications of the GM tube, providing a
comprehensive understanding of its significance in radiation detection technology.

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Chapter 2

History

The development of the GM tube can be traced back to early research on ioniza-
tion chambers, which were among the first devices used to detect radiation. The
limitations of these early detectors led to continuous improvements, ultimately
resulting in the invention of the GM tube by Hans Geiger and Walther Müller
in 1928. Geiger had previously worked with Ernest Rutherford in the early 20th
century, developing a device known as the Geiger counter, which could detect in-
dividual alpha particles. However, the original Geiger counter lacked amplification
capabilities, making it less efficient in detecting low-energy radiation.

Müller collaborated with Geiger to enhance the original design by introducing

a gaseous amplification mechanism, which significantly increased the sensitivity of
the detector. This advancement enabled the GM tube to detect a wider range of
ionizing radiation types, including beta and gamma rays. Over time, improvements
in construction materials, quenching techniques, and electronic readout systems
further refined the performance and reliability of GM tubes.

Throughout the 20th century, the GM tube became an essential tool in ra-
diation detection, widely used in nuclear physics experiments, radiation safety
programs, and environmental monitoring. Its adoption in handheld radiation
detectors and dosimeters has made it an invaluable instrument for professionals
working in fields involving radioactive materials. Despite the emergence of more

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advanced detection technologies, such as scintillation counters and semiconductor

detectors, the GM tube remains relevant due to its ease of use, robustness, and
cost-effectiveness.
This thesis provides an in-depth examination of the GM tube’s development
and operational principles while highlighting its contributions to the advancement
of radiation detection and measurement technologies.
Chapter 3

Principle and Working

Mechanism

3.1 Operating Principle

The GM tube operates based on gas ionization. It consists of a sealed tube filled
with a low-pressure gas, typically a mixture of noble gases with quenching agents.
A high voltage is applied between a central anode wire and an outer cathode.
When ionizing radiation enters the tube, it ionizes gas molecules, generating free
electrons and positive ions. This initial ionization triggers a rapid chain reaction
known as the Townsend avalanche, resulting in a detectable electrical pulse. The
quenching gas absorbs excess energy, stopping continuous discharge and allowing
the tube to reset for the next detection event. The GM tube functions within
a specific voltage range, known as the Geiger plateau, ensuring stable operation.
However, it does not provide information on radiation energy levels, limiting its
use in precise spectrometry.

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3.2. WORKING MECHANISM 11

Figure 3.1: GM tube

3.2 Working Mechanism

3.2.1 Construction
GM tube is nothing but a hollow cylinder.SO this is a metallic cylinder which
is hollow from inside and it contains some kind of a gaseous medium and the
gaseous medium is usually consisting of some kind of a noble gas like argon and
a mixture of other alcohol compound. This metallic cylinder is connected to the
negative terminal of a very high tension battery so this is acting as a cathode and
through the center of the cylinder we have a metallic electrode which is made out
of tungsten that is basically connected to a load resistance and which is again
connected to the positive terminal of the same power supply.
Now, across the load resistance you have some kind of an electronic setup which is
basically capable of determining any kind of a potential drop that happens across
resistance load and also measuring the amount of current paths associated with
that. It is also associated with some kind of a counter that can count that kind of
12 CHAPTER 3. PRINCIPLE AND WORKING MECHANISM

events over a period of time .

3.2.2 Explanation
When ionizing radiation enters the tube, it interacts with the gas, causing ioniza-
tion—meaning electrons are knocked off gas atoms, creating electron-ion pairs.
The electrons, being negatively charged, are attracted toward the positively
charged anode, while the positive ions are attracted to the cathode. As the elec-
trons move toward the anode, they gain enough energy to ionize additional gas
atoms, creating a cascade of ionization, known as the avalanche effect. This causes
a large electrical pulse, which is strong enough to be detected by an external circuit.
To prevent the tube from continuously discharging and to allow it to be ready
for further detection, a process called quenching occurs. Quenching agents, such
as halogens, are added to the gas inside the tube. These agents absorb the excess
energy from the free electrons, stopping the ionization process and ensuring that
the GM tube can reset itself.
The electrical pulses created during each ionization event are counted, allowing
the GM tube to measure the intensity of radiation by counting the number of
interactions. This simple yet effective mechanism makes the GM tube an important
tool in radiation detection.
Chapter 4

Applications

Applications of Geiger Muller counter

Geiger counters have many applications in radioactivity detection.

Here are few of the examples:

1)To detect radioactive rocks and minerals in the course of mineral prospecting.
2)For Fire responders for making an initial determination of radiation risk.
3) For Hazard Management personnel in checking for radiation danger in an
emergency situation.
4)To check for environmental levels of radioactivity near a nuclear power facility.
5)To test for danger amidst a nuclear accident or leakage of radioactive coolant.
6)To check for radioactive contamination of clothing and shoes in your workplace.
7)Radiation detection in the scrap metal processing business.
8) To check possible leakage or exposure to X-rays in a medical facility
9)To check for radiation in areas where depleted uranium ammunition shells have
been used.
10)To check for irradiated gemstones in the jewellery trade.
11)To check the levels of iodine 131 in cancer patients undergoing radiation
therapy.
12)You are in close proximity to a uranium mine and want to test the soil and
environment for dangerous levels of radioactivity.

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14 CHAPTER 4. APPLICATIONS

13)To test for radioactive contamination of food.

14)To check materials in your anthropology or archaeology field.
15)To check for radioactivity in metal objects in your home or office that could
be made of recycled radioactive materials.
Chapter 5

Conclusion and Future Works

5.1 Conclusion
The Geiger-Müller tube remains one of the most fundamental and widely used radi-
ation detection instruments due to its simplicity, reliability, and cost-effectiveness.
Despite its limitations, such as the inability to distinguish between different types
of radiation and its dead-time effect, it continues to be an essential tool in ra-
diation monitoring, safety applications, and scientific research. The GM tube’s
long-standing history and continued use highlight its significance in the field of
radiation detection and measurement. With proper advancements and optimiza-
tions, it can still play a crucial role in future radiation detection technologies.

5.2 Future Works

While the GM tube is a well-established radiation detector, future improvements
can enhance its efficiency and applicability. Research in quenching gas composi-
tion, tube materials, and signal processing techniques may help reduce dead time
and improve radiation differentiation capabilities. Integrating modern electronics,
such as digital pulse processing and wireless monitoring systems, can expand its
usability in automated radiation detection networks. Additionally, exploring al-

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16 CHAPTER 5. CONCLUSION AND FUTURE WORKS

ternative designs that maintain the simplicity of the GM tube while improving
energy resolution and sensitivity could lead to more advanced yet cost-effective
radiation detectors.
Bibliography

[1] Principle of Physics, AYAM Publication, Grade XII.

[2] https://youtu.be/jxY6RC52Cf0?si=9xOYaAa57xt9_kEw.

[3] My Supervisor, Sanjay Shah.

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