DEFINITION OF SYSTEM :- A system is 2)ENTROPY :- entropy means loss of

defined as, ”a collection of related energy. 3)process, output and cycle:-

components that interface to perform a open system procedure useful output
task in order to accomplish goal”. and operate in cycle following a
SUB SYSTEM:- A component is either a continuous flow path.
complex part or an aggregate of part, INTERFACE :- an interface is a shared
also called a sub-system. boundary across which two or more
CHARACTERISTIC OF SYSTEM :- separate components of a computer
1)Organization:-It implies structure and system exchange information.
order. It is the arrangement of FEEDBACK:- Feedback is an event that
components that helps to achieve occurs when the output of a system is
objectives. 2)Interaction:-It refers to used as input back into the system as
the manner in which each component part of a chain of cause and effect.
functions with other components of the
system. 3)Interdependence:-It means CONTROL:- Software control is the
that parts of the organization or process of the physical storage in a
computer system depend on one definitive software library of all
another. 4)Integration: It refers to the software to ensure that only correctly
holism of systems. It is concerned with released, licensed, and authorized
how a system is tied together. versions of software are in use.
DIFFERENCE BETWEEN PHYSICAL AND BOUNDARY :- A system boundary is a
ABSTRACT rectangle that you can draw in a use-
Physical systems are tangible entities. case diagram to separate the use cases
We can touch and feel them. Physical that are internal to a system from the
System may be static or dynamic in actors that are external to the system.
nature. FORMAL SYSTEM :-Formal methods
Abstract systems are non-physical are system design techniques that use
entities or conceptual that may be rigorously specified mathematical
formulas, representation or model of a models to build software and hardware
real system. systems.
OPEN SYSTEM :- An open system is a An expert system is a computer
state, in which a system continuously program that uses artificial intelligence
interacts with its environment. (AI) technologies to simulate the
CLOSED SYSTEM :- A system which does judgment and behavior of a human or
not interact with the outside an organization that has expertise and
environment is know as the closed experience in a particular field.
system. INPUT AND OUTPUT is an information
OPEN SYSTEM CHARACTERISTIC :- processing system designed to send
1)input from outside: open system are and
self adjusting and self regulating.
receive data from a computer hardware Degree of independence.
component, device, or network. 4) Natural and artificial systems :-
NATURAL SYSTEM:- Systems which Nature system exist and also bound in
are in the environment made by nature like rivers, mountains etc.
nature are called natural system. 5)Man-machine system or man-made
ELEMENTS OF SYSTEM :- All the information system :- Generally most of
characteristics of the system are artificial system are main-machine
determined by the system elements system.
their properties and relationship. The
basic system elements are input, CBIS:- Computer Based Information
processor and output:- 1)Input are the System (CBIS) is an information system
information that enters into the system in which the computer plays a major
for processing while output is the role.
outcome of processing. OAS :- office automation system are
2)Processor(s) :- It is the operational among the newest and most rapidly
component of a system and involves extending computer based information
the actual transformation of input into system.
output. A Decision support system(DSS) :-
3)control:- This control elements guide 1)DSS system make use of analytical
the system. 4)Feedback :- is a method planning modules. 2)DSS mostly used
that helps to compare output produced for assisting top-level management in
with output expected and make decision making. 3)DSS also save cost
necessary changes in the process or and time.
input in order to reduce the difference Benefits of DSS:-
between output produced and output 1)DSS improving personal efficiency.
expected. 2)DSS improving problem solving.
3)DSS increasing organizational control.

TYPES OF SYSTEM :- Transaction Processing System(TPS)

1)Coceptual(abstract) and physical 1)this is most fundamental computer
system based system in an organization.
- the conceptual system is also know an 2)This relates to the processing of
abstract or analytical system. It is non- business transaction. 3)a system that
physical system. captures, classifies, stores, maintains,
2)DETERMINISTIC AND PROBABILITY updates, and retrieve transaction data
SYSTEM :- A deterministic system works for record keeping and input to the
in predictable manner. other types of CBIS.
3)OPEN AND CLOSE SYSTEM :- Another Management information system :- A
classification of system is based on MIS
their
is a system that provides historical
information, information on the current 2.INTRODUCTION TO SOFTWARE
status. It is a communication process in ENGENEERING.
which data are recorded and processed 1.Software engenee defn: it is the
for further operational uses. technological and managerial discipline
concerned with systematic production
Expert system :- This is also called and maintenance of software products
knowledge based system. It is a set of which all developed and modified on
computer program that perform a task time within the cost estimates.
at level of a human expert. 2.characteristics of software: There are
various characteristics of software as
Executive information system(EIS) explained below:1.Software is or
This system also called an Executive Engineered; Software is not
information system(EIS). It is made manufactured in the Classical Sense:
especially for top managers that There are some similarities between
specifically supports strategic decision software development and hardware
making . manufacturing that is high quality is
achieved through good design. but the
System components :- A system is a manufacturing phase for hardware can
group of interrelated components introduce quality problems that are
working together toward a common non- existence (or easily correted) for
goal or objective by accepting inputs software. 2. Software does not Wear
and producing outputs in an organized Out: • The relationship often called the
transformation process. %athtub curve' indicates that hardware
exhibits relatively high failure rates
early in its life. defects arc Corrected
and the failure rate drops to a Study
state level tor some period Of time.
3. Most Software is custom Built. rather
than being assembled from existing
components: • As an engineering
discipline evolves, a Collection Of
Standard deign componeb=nts arev
designed.
3. SOFTWARE APPLICATION DOMAINS:
A domain defines a set Of common
requirements terminology,
functionality for any software program
constructed to solve a problem in the
area Of computer programming
environment DBMS
1. System Software: System software is 4.LAYERED TECHNOLOGY OF
a collection of programs written to SOFTWARE ENGINEERING:software
service other pmgrams. • Examples; engineering is acut growth of hardware
Compilers, File Management Utilities, and system engineering. Software
Deviée Drivers. Editors and Operating engineering can be viewed as a layered
Systems. 2. Application Software: technology.
Application software is a stand-alone These elements of software layered
program. It solves a specific business technology are explained below:
requirement. It uses technical data 1.A Quality process layer: An
Which facilitates business operations. engineering approach must have a
Examples: Real-time manufacturing focus on quality which provide a
Proces control, Payroll system etc. 3. continuous proces improvement
Engineering/Scientif1c Software: culture. Software prodiuct should fulfill
Engineering/scientific software uses the customer quality requirements (Le
various number crunching algorithms. efficiency, reliabüty. etc).developer
Applications range from astronomy to quality requirements (maintainability.
volcanology, from automotive stress reunbility. etc). users (unbiljty. etc). 2.
analysis to space shuttle orbital Process Layer: Foundation for Software
dynamics etc. But new applications Engineering is the Process Layer.
may not base on the Conventional Software Engineerins process holds an
numerical algorithms. Examples: the technology layers together and
System simulation. Computer Added enable the timely development of
Design (CAD), etc. 4. Embedded computer software. It forms the base
Software: • Embedded software resides for management control of software
within a system or product It is uséd to project. 3.Methods Layer: it provide
implement and control features and technical knowledge for developing
functions for the end-user for the software. The method layer covers a
system itself. • Embedded. software broad array of tasks which include
can perform limited and esoteric requirements analysis. design. coding.
functions. testing and maintenance phase of the
5. Product Line Software product Line software development. 4. Tools Layer:
software is developed and designed to It provide automated or semi-
provide a specific capability for used by automated support for the Process and
different customers. • It can focus on Method layer. tools are used to bring
limited and estoric market place like automation In software development
Inventory control products Examples: process tools are integrated in such a
Spreadsheets. Software for way that other tools can use
Entertainmet .Business financial information by one i.e. Computer-
applications. Computer Multimedia.
Aided Software Engineering . be usable if human users find it easy to
use. (iv) Integrity: Integrity refers to the
5. MCALLS QUALITY FACTORS: • Quality extent to which access to software or
factor refers to the characteristics of a data by unauthorized persons or
product or service which denne its programs can be controlled.
ability to satisfy uær requirements. In (v) Efficiency: The amount of computing
software engineering. software quality resources and code required by a
depends on various characteristics such program to perform its function.
as correctness. reliability and efficiency. 2. Product Revision: It checks whether
These characteristics are used as a the software requires effort to modify.
checklist to implement quality in It includes following factors:
software and ensure that the software (i) Maintainability: The effort required
meets all the quality standards and to locate and fix errors in a program.
specifications. The term software maintenance is
• These factors focus on following three commonly used to refer to the
important aspects Of a software modifications that are made to a
product1. Its operational software system after initial release.
characteristics. 2. Its ability to undergo (ii) Flexibility: Efforts required to
change. 3. Its adaptability to new modify an operational program.
environments. (iii) Testability: Effort required to test a
1. product Operation: It checks whether program to ensure that it performs its
the software is able to perform the intended function.
function efficiently. It omprises the 6.QUALITY CRTERIA:• A quality criteria
following: is an attribute of a quality factor that Is
(i) Correctness: The extent to which the related to software development. For
program Satisfies its specifications and example, modularity Is an attribute of
fulfills the user's mission objectives. A the architecture of a software system.
software system is said to be List of Quality Criteria: L Access to
functionally correct if the system Audit: Ease with Which the software
satisfies all the functional and data can e checked for compliance
requirements. with standards. 2. Accuracy: Precisions
(ii) Reliability: The extent to which a of computations and output. 3. Access
pmgram can be expected to perform its Control: Provisions for control and
intended function with required protection Of the software 4.
precision. The efforts '15th which the Completeness: Degree to which full
software is expected to perform its implementation Of required
specified function accurately. functionalities have been achieved 5.
(Ill) Usability The effort. with which Communicativeness: Ease with which
software programs are understood and the inputs and outputs can be
operated. A software is considered to integrated. 6. Conciseness:
Compactness of the source code, In Rapidity: The speed with which the
terms of unes Of code 7. Execution complete software can be delivered
efflciency: Run time effidency ofthe with given specification.
software. 8. Expandability: Degree to
which storage requirements or 8.SOftware Process Model: • Aprocess
software functions can be expanded. model provides a basis for controlling
7. THE SOFTWARE PROCESS: • Software various activities required to develop
development process Is defined as, "a and maintain the software.
collection of procedures to develop the • A software process model is defined
software product according to certain as, •a strategy (software engineering
goals or standards. • Generally. the paradigm), comprising process,
following points are noted about the methods and tools layers as well as the
software process. It includes guidelines general phases for developing the
which explain the objectives of each software."
activity. 2. It includes various technical
and managerial issues that are required 9. SOFTWARE ENGINEERING PRACTICE:
to develq the software. 3. It uses The framework activities and umbrella
resources subject to given constraints activities establish a skeleton
and produces intermediate and final architecture for software Engineering
products. 4. It is carried out with an work 2.Software Engineering Practice is
entry and exit criteria that help in a collection of concepts, principles,
monitoring the beginning and methods, and tools that a software
completion (ending) Of the activity. engineer calls upon on a daily basis.3.
CHARACTERISTIC OF SOFTWARE This practice allows managers to
PROCESS: The characterlstia of manage software projects and software
software processes are listed below: 1. engineers to build computer
Understandability: The extent to which programs.4. It provides necessary
the process is explicitly defined and the technical and management how to
ease, simple with which the process getting the job done. 5.Practice
definition is understood. 2. Visibility: transforms a disorganized. unfocused
Whether the software process activities approach into something that is more
culminate in clear result or output so organized, more real. efficient and
that the pmgress of the process is more likely to achieve success.
visible externally. 3. Supportability: The 6.Principles are important because of
extent to which CASE tools can support they help us to establish a mind set for
the process activitie 4. Reliability: The solid Software engineering practice.
manner In which the software process 7.This section discusses the essence of
Is designed such that errors in the practice and general (core) principles.
process aN avoided (trapped) before
they result in in the product. 5.
9. UMBRELLA ACTIVITIES :In addition to SDLC :- A software life cycle model is a
frame activities proicess framework particular abstraction that represents a
also comprises a set of activities known software life cycle. A software life cycle
asd umbrella activities which are used model is often called a software
through th software process. development life cycle (SDLC).
These umbrella activities are explained Activities of SDLC :- The process used to
below: create a software product from scratch
1.Software Project Tracking and to its public release is called Sofware
Control. This activity monitors the Development Process model. The
actual procesthat the management can period of time during which these
take necessary steps if the software activities take place are called phases.
project move away from the plans laid ADVANTAGES OF SDLC :- 1)A common
down. It involves tracking procedures vocabulary for each steps. 2)Defined
and reviews to whether the software communication channels between
project is according to user development teams and stakeholders.
requirements 3)Clearly-defined inputs and outputs
2.Formal Technical reviews: this activity from one step to the next. 4)clear roles
consider the code, product' and and responsibilities among developers.
documents Of software engineering Designers, business analysts, and
practiæ to detect and remove errors. project managers.
3. Software Quality Assurance (SQA): SYSTEM ANALYSIS :- 1)System analysis
This activity assures that the software is is the process of examination of the
according to the user requirements. In problem. 2)It is related with identifying
addition, it is used to evaluate the all the constrains and influences. 3)It
processes of developing and deals with data collection and a detail
maintaining the quality of the software. evaluation of current system. 4)It gives
4. Reusability Management: This logical model of the system through
activity determines the criteria for data flow diagrams and data dictionary
product's re- use and establishes etc.
mechanisms to achieve reusable SYSTEM DESIGN :- 1)System design is
components. the creation as the system which is the
S. Software Configuration Management solution of the problem. 2)It is related
(SCM): SCM manages the changes made with the co-ordination of the activities,
in the software processes throughout job procedures and equipment
the life cycle of the software project. It utilization in order to achieves system
also controls changes made to the goals. 3)It deals with general and
configuration and maintains the detailed design specification of input,
integrity of the software. output files and procedures. 4)It
provides technical with which the and tested incrementally unit the
problem can be tackled. product is finished.”
GENERIC PROCESS MODEL :- A process Evolutionary process model :-
model is defined as “a model of a Evolutionary model are iterative. They
process system that describes process are characterized in a manner that
organization, categorization, hierarchy, enables you to develop increasingly
interrelationship, and tailorability”. more complete version of the software.
PRESCRIPTIVE PROCESS MODEL :- A Prototyping model :- The software
prescriptive process model defines as prototyping refers to building software
“a distinct set of activities, actions, application prototype which display the
tasks, milestones, and work products functionality of the product under
that are required to engineer high- development but may not actually hold
quality software. There are three types the exact logic of the original software.
of prescriptive process model :- Cycle of any prototyping model :-
1)Waterfall model. 2)Incremental 1)Requirement gathering. 2)Quick
process model. 3)Evolutionary process Design. 3)Building prototype. 4)User
model. evaluation. 5)Refining prototype.
Waterfall model :- The waterfall life 6)Engineer product.
cycle model is defined as, “the model of TYPES OF PROTOTYPE MODEL :-
building in stages, whereby one stages 1)Rapid Throwaway prototyping :- In
is completed before the next stage this method, the prototyping is
beings”. developed rapidly based on the initial
ADVANTAGES OF WATERFALL MODEL:- requirement and gives to the client for
1) This model is more flexible to change review.
scope and requirements. 2)Evolutionary prototyping :- In this
2) It is easier to test and debug during a method, a prototype is made, and the
smaller iteration. 3) In this model, client feedback is received.
customer can respond to each built. 4) 3)Incremental prototyping :- In the end,
Lowers initial delivery cost. all the parts are merged which becomes
Disadvantages OF WATERFALL MODEL:- a final product.
1)Needs good planning and design. 4)Extreme prototype :- This type of
2)Needs a clear and complete definition prototyping model is mainly used for
of the whole system before it can be web application.
broken down and built incrementally. Advantages Of Prototyping :-
3)Total cost is higher than waterfall 1)The development process of this
model. model users are actively involved.
Incremental process model :- The 2)Error are detected must earlier.
incremental model is define as, “ a 3)Gives quick user feedback for better
model of software development where solutions. 4)It also identifies confusing
the product is designed, implemented or difficult functions.
SPIRAL MODEL :- A model of the REQUIREMENT ENGINEERING is defined
software development process in which as, "the systematic process of
the constituent activities, typical documenting requirements through an
requirements analysis, preliminary and interactive co-operative process of
detailed design, coding , integration analyzing the problem, documenting
and testing are performed iteratively the resulting observations in a variety
until the software is complete. of representation format, and checking
ADVANTAGES OF SPIRAL MODEL :- the accuracy of the understanding
1)The spiral model accommodates life- gain."
cycle evaluation, growth and TYPES OF REQUIREMENT :-
requirement changes. 2)It focuses on 1)Functional Requirements :- IEEE
early error detection and design flaws. defines function requirements as, "a
3)It incorporates prototyping as risk- function that a system or component
reduction strategy. must be able to perform".
DISADVANTAGES OF SPIRAL MODEL :- 2) Non-Functional Requirements:-
1)spiral model can be a costly model to The non-functional requirements also
used. 2)It is not suitable for low risk known as quality requirements relate
projects. 3)Risk analysis in this model to system attributes, such as reliability
requires highly specific expertise. and response time.
CONCURRENT MODEL :- The concurrent 3) Domain Requirements :-
process model define a series of events In software engineering, the
that will trigger transitions from state requirements that are derived from the
to state for each of the software application domain of a system, instead
engineering activities, actions or tasks. from the needs of the users, are known
ADVANTAGES OF CONCURRENT MODEL as Domain Requirements.
1)It is flexible. 2)This model gives Requirement Engineering(RE) process:-
immediate feedback from testing. The process to determine the
3)this model has applicable for all kinds requirement specification of the
of development process. software is called the Requirement
DISADVANTAGES OF CONCURRENT Engineering (RE) process
MODEL :-1)analysis and designs are TYPES OF REQUREMENT :-
complex task according to requirement. 1) INCEPTION:- Inception means 'the
2)they focus mainly on flexibility and commencement/beginning' and it tells
not on quality. about how does software project gets
initialized.
2)ELICITATION :- Elicitation means
asking the customer, the user, and
other people about the objectives for
system or products in other words, This
is also known as the gathering of REQUIREMENT GATHERING :-
requirements. Software requirement gathering is
ELABORATION :- elaboration means subdomain of software requirement
refinement of requirement analysis and engineering of software engineering.
design. Elaborate focuses on Requirement gathering / Elicitation:
developing a refined technical model of 1)Involves customer interaction with
software functions, features, and the development team. 2)Collects all
constrains. relevant information regarding the
NEGOTIATION :- In this task , the software which is to be developed from
software engineer reconciles the the user requirement.3)Combines all
conflicts between what the customer the aspects of problem solving,
wants and what can be achieved given elaboration, negotiation, and
limited business resources. specification.
SPECIFICATION:- Specification is the
final work product produced by the FEASIBILITY STUDY :-
requirements engineers. It means 1)Feasibility is the practical extent to
different things to different people. A which a project can be performed
standard template should be developed successfully.2) To evaluate feasibility, a
and used. feasibility study is performed, which
REQUIREMENT MANAGEMENT :- determines whether the solution
Requirement Management is define as , considered to accomplish the
“the process of controlling and tracking requirements is practical and workable
change in the requirements during the in the software.
requirement engineering(RE) process TYPES OF FEASIBILITY :-
and system development. 1)Technical Feasibility:- Technical
REQUREMENT ENGINEERING :- is feasibility refers, "to the technical
actually a matter of conducting resources needed to develop, purchase,
meaningful conversation with install, or operate the system".
colleagues who are members of the 2) Operational Feasibility:- Operational
team. feasibility means that, "a proposed
system will be used effectively after it
has been developed".
3) Economic Feasibility:- It determines
whether the required software is
capable of generating financial gains for
an organization.
INTERVIEW :- interview is the best
method for producing qualitative OBSERVATION :- Unlike the other fact
information such as opinions, polices, finding techniques, in this method the
subjective descriptions of activities and team of experts visit the customer's
problems. Interviews are strong organization or workplace. Analysts
medium to collect requirements from observe the actual working of the
individuals or from group. existing installed systems or manual
TYPES OF INTERVIEWS :- system.
1)Structured (Closed) Interviews: In this
type, every single information to gather SOFTWARE REQUIREMENTS
is decided in advance. 2)Unstructured SPECIFICATION (SRS) :-
(Open) Interview: In this type the A software requirements specification
information to gather is not decided in (SRS) is a document that captures
advance, more flexible and less biased. complete description about how the
system is expected to perform.
QUESTIONNAIRES :- 1)It is the
technique used to extract information CHARACTERISTICS OF SRS:
from large number of people. This Various characteristics of SRS are:-
technique can be adopted and used 1) Correct:- The SRS should be made up
only by a skillful system analyst. 2) A to date when appropriate requirements
document with pre-defined set of are identified. 2) Unambiguous:- When
objective questions and respective the requirements are correctly
options is handed over to all customers understood then only it is possible to
to answer, which are collected and write an unambiguous SRS.
compiled. 3) Complete:- To make the SRS
complete, it should be specified what a
RECORD VIEW :- 1) Records and reports software designer wants to create a
are the collection of information and software. 4) Consistent:- It should be
data about the system and its consistent with reference to the
operations. 2) The information related functionalities identified.
to the system is available in documents,
newspapers, magazines, journals,
electronic media etc. 3) This record
review helps the analyst to get valuable
information about the system and
the organization. 4) The analyst may
examine the records either at the
beginning of the study which may give
him a fair and perfect data about the
system.
DECISION TREE AND DECISION TABLE 1 A Decision Table does not show the
Decision-making is an integral part of flow of logic for the solution to a given
any organization no matter how small, problem.
single or big and complex it may be. 2. If there are too many alternatives, it
Thus, decisions have to be made and is difficult to list in decision table
set procedures are DATA FLOW DIAGRAMS
to be followed as the subsequent IEEE defines Data Flow Diagram (DFD)
actions. as, "a diagram that depicts data
Decision Tree sources, data storage, and processes
A decision tree is a decision support performed on data as nodes, and
analysis and design tool that uses a logical flow of data as links between
tree-likegraph or model of decisions the nudes."
and their possible consequences. The Data Flow Diagram is a graphical
Decision tree is a diagram that representation of the flow of data
represents conditions and actions through an information system.
sequentially. It shows which condition Advantages of Data Flow Diagrams
to consider first, which second and so (DFDs): 1. A simple graphical technique
oh. It also shows therelationship of which is easy to understand by
each condition and its permissible technical and non technical users. 2. It
actions. is useful for communicating current
Advantages of Decision Tree: system knowledge to the users. 3. A
1. Decision ees are simple to DFD is used as the part of system
understand and interpret. documentation file.
2. It helps the analyst to identify the Disadvantages of Data Flow Diagrams
actual decision to be made. (DEDs): 1. Data flow diagram undergoes
Disadvantages of Decision Tree: lot of alteration before going to users,
Analysis and Design Tok so makes the process little slow. 2. The
1. A large number of branches with DFD takes a long time to create. 3.
many paths will confuse rather than Physical considerations are left out in
help in analysis. 2. Large decision trees DFD.
can be hard to interpret. DATA DICTIONARY
Advantages of Decision Table: A data dictionary refers to, "a collection
1. A decision table can be changed of descriptions of the data objects or
according to situation 2. A decision items in a system
table provides a framework for a Advantages and Disadvantages of DD
complete and accurate statement of 1. ADD manage the details in large
processing or decision logic systems and DD improves consistency.
Disadvantages of Decision Table: 2. It is used to locate omissions and
errors in the system.
3. ADD is used to communicate 4. Interactive Outputs: It involves the
common meaning for all system user communicating directly with
elements computer.
Disadvantages DD: PSEUDOCODE :Pseudocode is made up
1. For large organization, a DD is grows of two words 'pseudo and code'.
rapidly in size and complexity. 2. A DD Pseudo means imitation or false and
is difficult to maintain manually. 3. code refers to instructions, written in a
Some users and analysts who may use programming language. Pseudocode is
other methods find it difficult to simply a way to communicate
relearn their trade and start to use DDs. specifications to programmers or users.
Types of Outputs Pseudocode is a compact and informal
The users of output generated by a high-level description of a computer
computer can be varied. For example, programining algorithm that uses the
to a computer manufacturer, a structural conventions of some
computer using firm is a user. To the programming language.
computer services section of an Advantages of Pseudocode:
organization, anyone external to the 1. Writing of pseudocode involves
section who receives output forms the much less time and effort. 2.
computer. Pseudocode reduces complexity. 3. It is
Output can be categorized as follows: easier to modify the pseudocode of
1. External Outputs: These outputs are program logic whenever program
received by entities outside the modifications are necessary
organization like invoices, orders, etc.
Special attention is given to the format,
content, and organization of these
kinds of outputs as they directly have a
bearing on the Disadvantages of Pseudocode:
organization's business relations with 1 In case of pseudocode, a graphic
its customers. representation of program logic is not
2. Internal Outputs: These outputs are available 2. There are no standard rules
received by people within the to follow in using pseudocode. 3.
organization and require careful Different programmers use their own
consideration because they may affect style of writing pseudocode and hence
the operational of the system. communication problems occur due to
3. Computer Operations Outputs. lack of standardization
These outputs are used within the Coupling
computer services department such as In the system which uses functional
usage statistics, control reports, etc. abstraction, coupling and cohesion are
the the criteria's for modularization.
• The two modules are independent if 3. Walk dog.4. Have a juice. 5. Get out
they can function completely without of bed.
the presence of other modules. If they Procedural Cohesion
are independent, they are solvable and Commonly found this module at the
modifiable separately. top of hierarchy, such as the main
Stamp Coupling: program module. This module it one
Two normally coupled modules are whose elements are involved la
stamp coupled it one passes to other different and possible unrelated
with This term was introduced by activities in which control flows from
Myers in 1975. composite plece of data. each activity to the next
That is a piece of data with meaningful Temporal Cohesion This module is one
structure is passes for example, the whose elements are involved in
composite data might be a customer- activities that are related in time.
record comprising many fields. Logical Cohesion
Cohesion This is one whose elements contribute
Cohesion of the module determines to activities of same general category.
how tightly it will be coupled to other In these activities, only selected
modules in a system. Cohesion tells up activities are from outside the module.
about the bound of internal elements Functional Cohesion: It contains
of the module. elements those contribute to the
Features of Cohesion: execution of one and only one
1. Elements that contribute to cohesion problegreater cohesion gives related
are: instructions, groups definition, call task. For
of another module 2 We aim for 2. Sequential Cohesion This module is
strongly cohesive modules. of one whose elements are involved in
instructions, data Analysis and Design activities such that the output data any
Tools module belong Everything in Fo into modules.The idea of
module should be related to one T from one activity serves as input data
another-focus on the task Strong to the next activity.
cohesion will reduce relations between The sequence of steps might be
modules-minimise coupling. Cohesion something like this. 1. Take a pot.
is the measure of the strength of 2. Put sugar, tea powder, and water.
functional relatedness of elements 3. Put milk.
within a module. Elements mean an
instruction. . The sequentially cohesive module has
Coincidental Cohesion This module is good coupling and easily maintained.
one whose elements contribute to the The disadvantage is it is not so readily
activities with no meaningful reusable in the same system.
relationship to one another. For level. el of
example:1. Fix car. 2. Bake cake. 4. Switch on gas.
5. Put the pot on the flame. 6. Switch below: 1. Identify system inputs and
off gas if it boils. review logical requirements.
This group of activities cannot be 2. Select appropriate GUI (Graphical
summed up as a single function. It User Interface) controls.
means, the module is not functionally 3. Design, validate and test inputs using
cohesive. some combination of 1) Layout tools
Communicational Cohesion (e.g., hand sketches, printer/display
This is the module in which the layout chart, or CASE)
elements contribute to activities that ii) Prototyping tools (e.g., spreadsheet,
use the same input or output data. PC DBMS, 4GL) 4. If necessary, design
Suppose we want to find facts about a the source document.
book, we may see
Common (Alias Global) Coupling This is
the coupling which stays outside the
bounds of good modularity. The two
modules are common coupled if they
refer to the same global data area.
Control Coupling
Two modules are control coupled if one
passes a piece of information intended
to control the internal logic of the other
to the other module. The value of flag
indicates to SYSTEM INPUT/OUTPUT
CONTROL which record to rend
STRUCTURED DESIGN CONCEPTS
The structured design is a disciplined
approach to computer system design.
Structured design was developed by Ed
Yourdon and Larry Constantine. This
technique deals with the size and
complexity of a program by breaking up
the .
program into a hierarchy of modules
which result in a computer program.
These modules are easier to implement
and maintain.
Process of Input Design The following
steps are to be followed during the
process of input design are given
AGILITY is the capability to manage couple of months, with a preference to
various kinds of changes during the the shorter timescale. Principle #4:
development process.Agility is Developing team and developers must
dynamic, content specific, aggressively work together daily throughout the
change embracing and growth oriented project.
team able to appropriately respond to Principle #5: Build projects around
changes. motivated individuals. Give them the
Human Factors For Agile Process : environment and support they need,
1. Competence: Competence in the and trust them to get the job done.
agile development context includes ADVANTAGES OF AGILE:
natural talent and specific software 1. Change is included: With shorter
related skills with overall technical planning cycles, it is easy and to
knowledge. 2. Collaboration: Software accommodate and accept changes at
development is about analyzing, any time during the software project. 2.
assessing and using information that is End-goal can be unknown: Agile is very
communicated to the software project beneficial for projects where the end-
development team. Team members goal is not clearly defined. As the
must collaborate with each other to project progresses, the goals will come
have smooth development of software. to light and development can easily and
3.Decision Making Ability: The project simply adapt to these evolving
team must be allowed the freedom to requirements. 3. Faster and High-
control its own destiny, so they can quality Delivery: Breaking down the
take individual decision on various project into iterations (manageable
issues.4. Mutual Trust and Respect: The units) allows the software team to
agile software project team must focus on high-quality development,
become DeMarco called a "jelled" team with faster delivery.4. Strong Team
shows respect and trust which is Interaction: Agile highlights the
necessary to make them strongly importance of frequent communication
connected. and face-to-face interactions. Teams
PRINCIPLES FOR AGILE PROCESS : work together and people are to take
Principle #1: In this methodology, responsibility and own parts of the
highest priority is to satisfy the projects.
customer through early and continuous DISADVANTAGES OF AGILE:
delivery of valuable software. Principle 1. Planning can be Less Concrete: Agile
#2: Accept changing requirements, is based on time-boxed delivery and
even late in development. Agile project managers are often
processes harness change for the reprioritizing tasks, it is possible that
customer's co!npetitive advantage. a some items originally scheduled for
Principle #3: Deliver working software delivery may not be complete in time.
frequently, from a couple of weeks to a 2. Team must be Knowledgeable: Agile
teams are usually small, so team Programming promotes high customer
members must be highly skilled in a involvement, rapid feedback loops,
variety of areas. 3. Time Commitment continuous testing, continuous
from Developers: Active involvement planning, and close teamwork to
and collaboration is required deliver working software at very
throughout the Agile process, which is frequent intervals, typically every 1-3
more time consuming than a traditional weeks. Extreme Programming
approach. emphasizes teamwork. Managers,
4. Final Product can be very different: customers, and developers together
Agile is so flexible, new iterations may make a team.
be added based on evolving customer ADVANTAGES OF THE DSDM:
feedback, which can lead to a very 1. DSDM provides a technique-
different final deliverable. independent process and flexible in
terms of requirement evolution.2.
SCRUM: Scrum is an iterative and DSDM designed from the grounded up
incremental agile software by business people, so the business
development framework for managing value is identified an expected to be
software projects and product or the highest priority deliverable. 3.
application development. Its focus is on DSDM incorporates stakeholders into
a flexible, holistic product development the development process.4. An
strategy where a development team emphasis as DSDM on testing is so
works as a unit to reach a common strong that at least one tester is
goal" as opposed to a "traditional, expected to be on each project team.
sequential approach". This improves software quality and
EXTREME PROGRAMMING(XP): performance.
Extreme Programming is a set of DISADVANTAGES OF THE DSDM: 1.
practices that conforms to the values DSDM focuses on RAD, which can lead
and principles of Agile. XP is a discrete to decrease in code robustness2. It
method, whereas Agile is a requires significant user involvement.3.
classification. There are many Agile DSDM requires a skilled development
methods, XP is just one of them. Kent team in both the business and technical
Beck's basic idea was, "Take observed areas.
effective team practices' and 'Push ADAPTIVE SOFTWARE DEVELOPMENT
them to extreme level'. XP is a (ASD) is a technique for building
disciplined approach to delivering high- complex software systems. ASD is a
quality software quickly and design principle for the creation of
continuously. It improves a software software systems. The principle focuses
project in five essential ways i.e., on the rapid creation and evolution of
communication, simplicity, feedback, software systems.
respect, and courage. Extreme ASD LIFE CYCLE:
Adaptive software development is Features of DSDM: The main features
made of three steps (See Fig. 8.4), each of the DSDM method are as follows:1.
revolving around the coding of a User involvement. 2. Iterative and
program. Step 1: Speculation: During incremental development.3. Increased
this phase, coders try to understand the delivery frequency. 4. Integrated tests
exact nature of the software and the at each phase.5. The acceptance of
requirements of the users. This phase delivered products depends directly on
relies on bugs and user reports to guide fulfilling requirements.
the project.
Step 2: Collaboration: Collaboration in
ASD is a balance between managing the
doing and creating and maintaining the
collaborative environment needed for
output.
Step 3: Learning: In an adaptive
environment, learning challenges all
stakeholders, including both developers
and customers to examine their
assumptions and use the results of each
development cycle to learn the
direction of the next.

DSDM is dynamic in nature as it's a

Rapid Application Development (RAD)
approach to software development. It
is an iterative and incremental
approach that emphasizes continuous
customer/ Client involvement. The
DSDM methodology has evolved and
matured to provide a comprehensive
foundation for planning, managing,
executing, and scaling agile process and
iterative software development
projects. The DSDM project framework
is independent of, and can be
implemented in conjunction with, other
iterative methodologies such as
Extreme Programming (XP) and the
Rational Unified Process (RUP).