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CIRCUIT DIAGRAM - LOAD TEST ON DC SHUNT MOTOR

1

Fig 1.1 Load Test on DC Shunt Motor

1
Ex. No: 1
LOAD TEST ON DC SHUNT MOTOR
Date :

AIM:
To draw the performance characteristics of the given DC shunt motor by
conducting load test.

OBJECTIVES:
1. To determine the efficiency of the given DC shunt motor by conducting load test.
2. To find the various parameters such as torque, input power, output power etc.
3. To obtain the electrical and mechanical characteristics for the given DC shunt
motor.

APPARATUS REQUIRED:

APPARATUS
S.NO RANGE TYPE QUANTITY
NAME
01. Voltmeter (0 – 300) V MC 1
02. Ammeter (0 – 10) A MC 1
03. Rheostat 300Ω / 1.4A MC 1
04. Tachometer - Digital 1

FORMULA:

1. Torque (T) =(S1S2) x R x 9.81 Nm

Where
S1, S2 – Spring balance readings in kg
R – Radius of brake drum in m
2. Input power (Pi) = VL x IL watts
Where
VL – line voltage in volts
IL – load current in A
2 N T
3. Output power (P0) = watts
60
Where
N – Speed of motor in rpm
T – Torque in Nm
po
4. % Efficiency () = X 100
pi
Where
P0- Output power in watts
Pi - Input power in watts

2
 Table 1.1 Load Test on DC Shunt Motor
Circumference of brake drum 2 π R = m
Radius of brake drum R = m
3

3
PRECAUTIONS:

1. The fuse is selected such that the current rating is 120% of rated current of the
motor.
2. It is ensured that the starter handle is in OFF position.
3. The motor field rheostat should be kept at minimum resistance position at the time
of starting.
4. Heat produced due to friction between belt and brake drum is reduced by pouring
water inside the brake drum periodically.

PROCEDURE:

1. Circuit connections are made as per the circuit diagram shown in figure.
2. The supply is given by closing DPST switch.
3. The motor is started using 3point starter.
4. The motor field rheostat is adjusted from its minimum resistance position to get the
rated speed.
5. The no load readings of the voltmeter and spring balance are noted.
6. The load is increased and voltmeter, ammeter, spring balance readings & speed for
various load currents up to the rated current are noted.
7. Performance characteristics are drawn from the tabulated readings & calculated
values.

4
MODEL GRAPH:

5
RESULT:

MARKS ALLOCATION

Maximum Marks
Details
Marks Awarded
Performance 25
Record 15
Viva-voce 10
Total 50

6
 CIRCUIT DIAGRAM: LOAD CHARACTERISTICS OF SELF EXCITED DC SHUNT
GENERATOR

Fig 2.1 Load Characteristics of Self Excited DC Shunt Generator

7
 Ex. No: 2
LOAD TEST ON SELF EXCITED DC GENERATOR
Date :

AIM:
To conduct a suitable experiment on the given dc generator and to obtain internal and
external characteristics of DC shunt generator

OBJECTIVES:

1. To find the armature resistance (Ra)

2. To determine Internal, External Characteristics of given DC generator by
conducting load test.

APPARATUS REQUIRED:

Sl.No. Apparatus Range Type Quantity

Ammeter (0-2)A MC 1
1
(0-20) A MC 1
2 Voltmeter (0-300)V MC 1
3 Rheostats 1200𝛺, 0.8A Wire Wound 2
4 Loading Rheostat 5KW, 230V - 1
5 Tachometer (0-1500)rpm Digital 1
6 Connecting Wires 2.5sq.mm. Copper Few

FORMULA:

Eg = VL + Ia Ra Volts
Where Eg– Generated emf (V)
VL– Load Voltage (V)
Ia– armaturecurrent (A)
Ra– Armature resistance in ohms = 1.5 (given).
PRECAUTION:

1. The field rheostat of motor should be at minimum position.

2. The field rheostat of generator should be at maximum position.

3. No load should be connected to generator at the time of starting and stopping.

8
 Table 2.1 Load Test on DC Shunt Generator

Armature Resistance Ra = 1.5 ohm

S.NO FIELD LOAD LOAD Ia = IL Eg =VL

CURRENT CURRENT VOLTAGE (A) + IaRa
If IL VL (Volts)
(A) (A) (Volts)

DETERMINATION OF ARMATURE RESISTANCE:

9
PROCEDURE:
1. Connections are made as per the circuit diagram.

2. After checking minimum position of DC shunt motor field rheostat and maximum
position of DC shunt generator field rheostat, DPST switch is closed and starting
resistance is gradually removed.

3. Under no load condition, Ammeter and Voltmeter readings are noted, after bringing
the voltage to rated voltage by adjusting the field rheostat of generator.

4. Load is varied gradually and for each load, voltmeter and ammeter readings are noted.

5. Then the generator is unloaded and the field rheostat of DC shunt generator is brought
to maximum position and the field rheostat of DC shunt motor to minimum position,
DPST switch is opened.

FORMULAE:
Eg = V + Ia Ra (Volts)
Ia = IL + If (Amps)
Eg : Generated emf in Volts
V : Terminal Voltage in Volts
Ia : Armature Current in Amps
IL : Line Current in Amps
If : Field Current in Amps
Ra : Armature Resistance in Ohms
PROCEDURE TO FIND ARMATURE RESISTANCE :
1. Connections are made as per the circuit diagram.
2. Supply is given by closing the DPST switch.
3. Readings of Ammeter and Voltmeter are noted.
4. Armature resistance in Ohms is calculated as Ra = (Vx1.5) /I

10
TABULAR COLUMN:
Voltage Current Armature Resistance
Sl.No.
V(Volts) I (Amps) Ra (Ohms)

MODEL GRAPH:

11
RESULT:

MARKS ALLOCATION

Maximum Marks
Details
Marks Awarded
Performance 25
Record 15
Viva-voce 10
Total 50

12
11

Fig 3.1 Load Test on Single Phase Transformer

13
Ex. No: 3
LOAD TEST ON SINGLE PHASE TRANSFORMER
Date :

AIM:
To draw the load characteristics of a given single phase transformer by conducting
load test.
OBJECTIVE:
To plot the following graphs
1. Load current Vs efficiency
2. Load current Vs % regulation
APPARATUS REQUIRED:

S.NO APPARATUS NAME RANGE TYPE QUANTITY

1. Transformer 270 V/ 5A - 1
2. Ammeter (0 – 5) A MI 1
3. Voltmeter (0 – 300)V MI 1
4. Wattmeter 300 V/ 5 A UPF 1
5. Lamp Load - - 1

FORMULA USED:
W2
1. Percentage of efficiency = x 100
W1
Vnl V
fl
2. Percentage of up regulation = x 100
V fl
Vnl V fl
3. Percentage of down regulation = x 100
Vnl
Where W1 = is the input power in watts
W2 = is the output power in watts
Vfl = is the full load voltage in volts
Vn = is the no load voltage in volts.

PRECAUTIONS:
1. Fuse should be selected such that its current rating is 120% of no load current of the
transformer.
2. The DPST switch is kept opened at the time of starting the experiment while giving
connections.
3. The load should be in the off position while at the start of the experiment.

14
 Table 3.1 Load Test on Single Phase Transformer
13

15
PROCEDURE:
1. The connections are made as per the circuit diagram shown in the diagram.
2. The DPST switch is closed and the supply is given to the circuit
3. The no load readings are noted.
4. By varying the lamp load in steps, corresponding ammeter, voltmeter and
wattmeter readings are noted down.
5. The same procedure is repeated up to the rated current.
6. All the readings are tabulated in tabular column and required quantities are
calculated to draw characteristics curves.

MODEL GRAPH:

Efficiency
Up voltage Regulation
%EFFICIENCY

%REGULATION

Down Regulation

LOAD CURRENT (A)

Fig 3.2 Characteristic of Single Phase Transformer

RESULT:

MARKS ALLOCATION

Marks
Details Maximum Marks
Awarded
Performance 25

Record 15

Viva-voce 10

Total 50

16
Circuit Diagram:

Fig. 5.1 Circuit Diagram for Measurement of three phase power

17
Ex. No: 4
MEASUREMENT OF THREE PHASE POWER
DATE:

Aim
To measure the three phase power of the given star connected load using
two wattmeter
method.

Apparatus Required
S.No. Name of the equipment Type Range Quantity
1 Voltmeter (0 - ) V
2 Ammeter (0-

3 Wattmeter
4 Three Phase Autotransformer
5 Three Phase resistive load
6 Connecting wires as required

Formulae
1. Total Power P = W1 + W2 Watt
2. Power factor = P/(√3*V*I)

Theory

The total power consumed by any circuit or load in a three phase system is
measured by two wattmeter method or using single three phase wattmeter
method. Two wattmeter methods is commonly used to measure the power. The
load is either balanced or unbalanced. Similarly the load may be connected
either in star or in delta. The current coils of the two wattmeter are inserted in
two of the lines and voltage coil of each wattmeter is connected from its own
current coil to the line in which no wattmeter is connected.

Precautions

1. Auto transformer must be in minimum position

2. Loose connections must be avoided
3. At the time of starting, load must be zero

Procedure

1. Connections are given as per the circuit diagram

18
 2. DPST switch is closed
3. By adjusting the three phase autotransformer rated voltage is obtained
4. Under no load condition, voltmeter, wattmeter and ammeter readings are noted
5. Load is gradually increased and the corresponding voltmeter, wattmeter
and ammeter readingsare noted.
6. Power factor is calculated using formula.

Tabular Column 5.1

S.No Voltmeter Ammeter Wattmeter 1 (W1) Wattmeter 2 (W2) √3*V*I P =W1+W2 Pow
Reading Reading (VA) facto
Observed Actual Observed Actual
(V) (A)

19
RESULT:

MARKS ALLOCATION

Marks
Details Maximum Marks
Awarded
Performance 25

Record 15

Viva-voce 10

Total 50

20
Fig 4(a).1CIRCUIT DIAGRAM FOR LOAD TEST ON 3 PHASE SQUIRREL CAGE
INDUCTION MOTOR

21
EX.NO:05(a) LOAD TEST ON THREE PHASE SQUIRREL CAGE
DATE: INDUCTION MOTOR

AIM:

To conduct the load test on three phase squirrel cage induction motor and to
draw the performance and mechanical characteristics.

OBJECTIVE:
The student can understand the performance of the three phase induction
motor in such a way that how the speed falls, the power factor improves and
current increases with increasing load.

APPARATUS REQUIRED:

S.NO APPARATUS NAME RANGE TYPE QUANTITY

1. Voltmeter (0-600)V MI 1
2. Ammeter (0-10) A MI 1
3. Wattmeter 600V/10A UPF 2
4. Tachometer - Digital 1

THEORY:
Induction motor employing squirrel-cage rotor is known as squirrel cage
induction motors. The squirrel cage rotor has simplest and most rugged construction
and is almost indestructible. The rotor consists of cylindrical laminated core with
parallel slots for carrying for rotor conductors. The rotor bars are permanently short
circuited on themselves; hence it is not possible to add any external resistance in
series with the rotor circuit for starting purposes. Performance of the induction motor
when the motor is supplied from a fixed frequency Ac source under load conditions is
understand by performance characteristics.

FORMULA:

1. Input Power (W) = W1 + W2 (watts)

2. 3VL I L cos  W
W
cos  
3VL I L
Where,
VL - voltmeter reading in volts.
IL - ammeter reading in ampere.
cos - power factor.
3. Output power = 2πNT / 60 in watts.
4. Torque = 9.81 (S1 ~ S2) x R Nm. Where, R- Radius of brake drum.
N N
5. %slip  s *100 Where NS = 120f / P = 1500 rpm (Synchronous speed)
Ns

22
 TABULAR COLUMN 4(a).1: LOAD TEST ON 3 PHASE SQUIRREL CAGE INDUCTION MOTOR

Multiplying factor = W1= W2= Radius of brake drum = m

SPRING EFFI
INPUT
LINE BALANCE OUTPUT CIEN
S. LOAD POWER (W) SPEED
VOLTAGE READINGS IN TORQUE POWER SLIP POWER CY
N CURRENT in watts (N) in
(VL) in Kg (T) in Nm FACTOR (%) Po (η)
O (IL) in amps rpm
volts (Watts) (%)
W1 W2 W S1 S2 S1~S2

23
 6. %efficiency = (output power / input power) x100

Where,
Ns - Synchronous speed in rpm
R - Radius of brake drum in meter
N - Rotor speed in rpm
S1, S2 - spring balance readings in Kg

PRECAUTIONS:

1. The rating of the fuse should not be more than 120% of rated current.
2. Ac electrical quantities should be measured by moving iron instruments.
3. There should be no load while starting the machine.
4. Water should be poured to the brake drum when load is applied to reduce the
heat.
5. The starter should be in OFF position while making connection.

PROCEDURE

1. Circuit connection is made as per the circuit diagram

2. Three phase AC supply is given by closing the TPST switch
3. Motor is started using “star- delta” starter.
4. At no load, voltage across the line, current flowing through the motor, input
power and speed are noted.
5. Now some load is applied and the changes in the line voltage, load current,
speed, Input power, spring balance readings are noted.
6. This procedure is repeated for different values of load up to the rated current.

24
 MODEL CHARACTERISTICS

Po Vs ή
Po Vs p.f
Po Vs S
Po Vs N
Po Vs T
Power Factor (p.f)

Po Vs IL
Line Current (IL)
Torque (T) Nm

Speed (N) rpm

Efficiency (ή)

% Slip (S)

Torque (T) Nm
Output Power (Po) watts % Slip (S)

Fig 4(a).2 Performance Characteristics Fig 4(a).3 Mechanical

Characteristics

25
RESULT:

MARKS ALLOCATION

Marks
Details Maximum Marks
Awarded
Performance 25

Record 15

Viva-voce 10

Total 50

26
Fig 4(b).1 CIRCUIT DIAGRAM FOR LOAD TEST ON SINGLE PHASE
CAPACITOR START INDUCTION MOTOR

27
EX.NO:5(b) LOAD TEST ON SINGLE PHASE CAPACITOR START
DATE: INDUCTION MOTOR

AIM:
To conduct load test on single phase capacitor start induction motor and also
to draw the performance and mechanical characteristics.

OBJECTIVE:
The student can understand the performance of the Single phase induction
motor in such a way that how the speed falls, the power factor improves and
current increases with increase in load.

APPARATUS REQUIRED:

S.NO APPARATUS NAME RANGE TYPE QUANTITY

1 Ammeter (0-10) A MI 1
2 Voltmeter (0-300) V MI 1
3 Wattmeter 300V / 10 A UPF 1
4 Tachometer - Digital 1

THEORY:

The single phase induction motors are small motors. These motors have power
rating in fractional horse power range. These motors are used in homes, offices, shops
and factories. They provide motive power for fans, washing machines, hand tools like
drillers, record player, refrigerators, juice makers, etc. The single phase motors are
simple in construction. The main disadvantages of these motors are lack of starting
torque, reduced power factor and low efficiency.

FORMULA :

1. Torque (T) = .(S1~S2) x 9.81 x R in Nm.

Where,
S1, S2 are spring balance readings in kg.
R is the radius of the brake drum in m.

2NT
2. Power output = in watts
60
Where,
N is the speed of the motor in rpm.
T is the torque in Nm.

3. Power input (Pi) = Wattmeter reading in Watts.

Output Power
4. Percentage efficiency = X100
Input Power
N N 120 f
5. %slip  s *100 , where Ns = Synchronous speed = =1500 rpm
Ns p

28
 TABULAR COLUMN 4(b).1: LOAD TEST ON SINGLE PHASE C APACITOR START INDUCTION MOTOR

Multiplying factor = Radius of brake drum = m

SPRING
LINE LOAD INPUT BALANCE %
SPEED OUTPUT
VOLTAGE CURRENT POWER READINGS TORQUE % EFFICI
S. NO N POWER POWER
VL IL Pi (Kg) T (Nm) SLIP ENCY
(rpm) FACTOR (Watts)
(Volts) (Amps) (Watts)
S1 S2 S1~S2

29
 Pi
6. Power factor = = W / VLIL
VL I L
Where,
VL is line voltage in volts.
IL is load current in amps.
Pi is input power in watts.

PRECAUTIONS:

1. The rating of the fuse should not be more than 120% of rated current
2. Ac electrical quantities should be measured by moving iron instruments.
3. There should be no load while starting the machine.
4. Water should be poured to the break drum when load is applied to reduce the
heat.

PROCEDURE:

2. The circuit connections are made as per the circuit diagram

3. The motor is started and the no load reading of ammeter, voltmeter, wattmeter,
spring balance and speed are noted in the tabular column
4. The motor is loaded till the rated current and the corresponding readings are
noted in tabular column.
5. The performance and mechanical characteristics are drawn by using tabulated
readings and calculated values.

30
 MODEL CHARACTERISTICS

Po Vs ή
Po Vs p.f
Po Vs S
Po Vs N
Po Vs T Torque –Slip Character
Power Factor (p.f)

Po Vs IL
Line Current (IL)
Torque (T) Nm

Speed (N) rpm

Efficiency (ή)

% Slip (S)

Torque (T) Nm
Output Power (Po) watts % Slip (S)
Fig 4(b).2 Performance Characteristics Fig 4(b).3 Mechanical Characteristics

31
RESULT:

MARKS ALLOCATION

Marks
Details Maximum Marks
Awarded
Performance 25

Record 15

Viva-voce 10

Total 50

32
 Viva Questions
Open Circuit and Load Characteristics of D.C. Generator
1. State the applications of D.C. shunt generator.
2. What is the purpose of drawing O.C.C.?
3. Why the motor field rheostat is kept at minimum position and generator field rheostat is
kept at maximum resistance position?
4. Write the E.M.F. equation of a D.C. Generator.
5. What are all the classifications of D.C. generator?
6. Whether a same D.C. machine can be used as a D.C. motor as well as generator. If yes,
how?
7. What is the purpose of providing commutator?
8. What are all types of windings used in armature?
9. How will you find the critical resistance at 2000 r.p.m., if you are given OCC at 1000
r.p.m.?
10. What are all the reasons for the DC generator not building up the E.M.F.?
Load Test on Single Phase Transformer
1. Mention the factors on which Hysteresis loss depends?
2. What is the purpose of using core in a transformer?
3. For what type of load the % regulation will be negative?
4. Why transformers are rated in KVA instead of KW?
5. What is meant by all day efficiency?
Load Test on D.C. Shunt Motor:
1. What are the applications of D.C. shunt motor?
2. What are the special characteristics of D.C. shunt motor?
3. Why the shunt motor is not started with load?
4. What is the significance of back e.m.f.?
5. What is the condition for maximum efficiency in D.C. motor?
6. Write the voltage equation of the motor.
7. What is the relation between Torque and flux produced?
8. Give the equation linking speed, back e.m.f. and flux in D.C. motor.
9. If load on a D.C. shunt motor is increased, the speed is slightly decreased why?
10. If the field circuit of a loaded shunt motor is suddenly opened what will happen?
Rectifiers:
1. Define regulation of the full wave rectifier?
2. Define peak inverse voltage (PIV)? And write its value for Full-wave rectifier?
3. If one of the diode is changed in its polarities what wave form would you get?
4. Does the process of rectification alter the frequency of the waveform?
5. What is ripple factor of the Full-wave rectifier?
6. What is the necessity of the transformer in the rectifier circuit?
7. What are the applications of a rectifier?
8. What is meant by ripple and define Ripple factor?
9. Explain how capacitor helps to improve the ripple factor?
10. Can a rectifier made in INDIA (V=230v, f=50Hz) be used in USA (V=110v, f=60Hz)?

33
 1. When will the power extracted from a circuit is maximum?
2. How is the ammeter connected in circuit?
3. To find the voltage drop across a resistance, where should the voltmeter be connected?

Circuit Laws:
1. What is the statement of Kirchhoff‟s first law?
2. According to Kirchhoff‟s second law, the algebraic sum of all IR drops and emf‟s in any
closed loop of a network is equal to…
3. Kirchoff‟s second law is related to what?
4. What is the internal resistance of the ideal voltage source?
5. What is higher , the terminal voltage or the emf?
6. What is the internal resistance of the current source ideally?
7. What is the active network?
8. What is the bilateral network?
9. What is the difference between a node and a branch?
10. What is the non-linear circuit?

34
 EXP.NO. 6 Verification of Ohm`s and Kirchhoff’s Laws.

a) Verification of Ohm`s Law:

AIM:

To conduct a suitable experiment for verifying the ohm’s law

APPARATUS REQUIRED:

S. NAME OF RANGE TYPE QTY.

NO. THE
EQUIPMENT
1 RPS (0-30)V DC 1
2 Ammeter (0-10)mA MC 1
3 Voltmeter (0-10)V MC 1
4 Resistor 1KΩ - 1
5 Bread board - - 1
6 Connecting - Single strand As required
. wires

THEORY:
OHM`S LAW:
Ohm’s law states that at constant temperature the current flow through a conductor is directly
proportional to the potential difference between the two ends of the conductor.

IαV

Or VαI

V = IR
Where R is a constant and is called the resistance of the conductor.

PROCEDURE:
Connections are made as per the circuit diagram
Switch on the power supply.
For various values of voltage V, note the values of current I.
Draw a graph of Voltage Vs Current.
The Slope of the graph gives the resistance value.
.

35
 CIRCUIT DIAGRAM

TABULATION:

S.No Voltage in volts Current in mA

MODEL GRAPH.

RESULT:

Thus the Ohm’s law for the given circuit is verified.

36
 b) VERIFICATIONS OF Kirchhoff’s Laws (KVL & KCL)

AIM:

To verify (i) kirchoff’s current law (ii) kirchoff’s voltage law

i) KIRCHOFF’S VOLTAGE LAW:

COMPONENTS REQUIRED:

S.No. Name of the apparatus Range Quantity

1. Regulated Power supply (0-30V) 1No

2. Resistor 1KΩ 3No

3. Voltmeter (0-10) V 3No

4. Bread board 1No

5. Connecting wires As required

THEORY:
(i) Kirchhoff’s voltage law
It states that the algebraic sum of all the voltages in a closed loop is equal to zero.
∑V = 0

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM KIRCHHOFF’S VOLTAGE LAW

37
PROCEDURE:
1. Connect the circuit as per the circuit diagram.
2. Switch on the supply.
3. Set different values of voltages in the RPS.
4. Measure the corresponding values of voltages (V1, V2 and V3) across resistors R1, R2 and R3 respectively.
5. Enter the readings in the tabular column.
6. Find the theoretical values and compare with the practical values.
Calculation:
Rtot=1000+1000+1000=3000 ohms
I=V/ Rtot for V=3V
I= 3/3000=0.001A
V1=I*R1=(0.001*1000)=1V
V2= I*R2=(0.001*1000)=1V
V3= I*R3=(0.001*1000)=1V
V=V1+v2+V3=1+1+1=3 Volts

TABULATION:

Theoretical Practical

S. V V1 V2 V3 V1 V2 V3 V =V1+ V2 +V3
No. Volts Volts Volts Volts Volts Volts Volts Volts
1
2
3
4
5

38
 ii) KIRCHOFF’S CURRENT LAW:

APPARATUS REQUIRED:

S.No Name of the apparatus Range Type Quantity

1 RPS (0-30)V - 1

2 Resistor 1KΩ Fixed 2No

(0-20)mA,
3 Ammeter (0-10)mA, MC 1 each
(0-10)mA

5 Bread board - - 1

6 Connecting wires - - As Required

FORMULA USED:

OHM’S
LAW:

Where, V = Voltage in Volts

I = Current in AmperesR
= Resister in Ohms

THEORY:
KIRCHOFF’S CURRENT LAW:
It states that the algebraic sum of the currents meeting at a node is equalto zero.

39
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM FOR KIRCHHOFF’S CURRENT LAW

Tabulation:

Theoretical Practical
V
S.No
(Volts)
I1 I2 I= I1 + I2 I1 I2 I= I1 + I2
(mA) (mA) ( mA (mA) (mA) ( mA)
1
2
3
4
5
6

40
PROCEDURE:
1. Connect the circuit as per the circuit diagram.
2. Switch on the supply.
3. Set different values of voltages in the RPS.
4. Measure the corresponding values of branch currents I1, I2 and I.
5. Enter the readings in the tabular column.
Find the theoretical values and compare with the practical values

Model Calculations

R Total = R1 ||R2 =( R1*R2)/(R1+R2)

=(1000*1000)/(1000+1000)
=500 ohms

I=V/Rtotal
(for V=1V) I=1/500=2mA
I1 =I*(R2)/(R1+R2)
=2m*(1000/2000)=1mA

I2 =I*(R1)/(R1+R2)
=2m*(1000/2000)=1mA

I=I1+I2=1+1=2mA

RESULT:
Thus the Kirchhoff’s current law and voltage law were verified.

41
 EX.NO. 7 a) CHARACTERISTICS OF PN JUNCTION DIODE

Diode schematic Symbol:

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:

B) Forward bias:

C) Reverse Bias:

42
 EX.No.7a) CHARACTERISTICS OF PN JUNCTION
DIODE
AIM:
 To plot Volt-Ampere Characteristics of Silicon P-N Junction Diode.
 To find cut-in Voltage for Silicon P-N Junction diode.
 To find static and dynamic resistances in both forward and reverse biased conditions
for P-N Junction diode.

APPARATUS REQUIRED:

S.No. Name of the apparatus Range Quantity

1. P-N Diode IN4007 1No

2. Regulated Power supply (0-30V) 1No

3. Resistor 1KΩ 1No

4. Ammeter (0-20 mA) 1No

5. Ammeter (0-200μA) 1No.

6. Voltmeter (0-1V) 1No.

7. Voltmeter (0-20V) 1No.

8. Bread board - 1No.

9. Connecting wires Single strand As required

THEORY:

A P-N junction diode conducts only in one direction. The V-I characteristics of the diode
are curve between voltage across the diode and current flowing through the diode. When external
voltage is zero, circuit is open and the potential barrier does not allow the current to flow.
Therefore, the circuit current is zero. When Ptype (Anode) is connected to +ve terminal and n-
type (cathode) is connected to –ve terminal of the supply voltage is known as forward bias.
The potential barrier is reduced when diode is in the forward biased condition. At some forward
voltage, the potential barrier altogether eliminated and current starts flowing through the diode and
also in the circuit. Then diode is said to be in ON state. The current increases with increasing Vf.

43
MODEL GRAPH:

1. Take a graph sheet and divide it into 4 equal parts. Mark origin at the center of the graph sheet.
2. Now mark +ve X-axis as Vf, -ve X-axis as Vr, +ve Y-axis as If and –ve Y-axis as Ir.
3. Mark the readings tabulated for Si forward biased condition in first Quadrant and Si reverse
biased condition in third Quadrant.

OBSERVATIONS:
A) FORWARD BIAS:

S.No. Applied Voltage(V) Forward Voltage(Vf) Forward Current(If(mA))

B) REVERSE BIAS:

S.No. Applied Voltage(V) Forward Voltage(Vr) Reverse Current((IR(μA))

44
Calculations:
In forward bias condition:
Static Resistance, Rs = Vf/If =
Dynamic Resistance, RD = ΔVf/ ΔIf =
In Reverse bias condition:
Static Resistance, Rs = VR/IR =
Dynamic Resistance, RD = ΔVR/ ΔIR =
When N-type (cathode) is connected to +ve terminal and P-type (Anode) is connected -ve
terminal of the supply voltage is known as reverse bias and the potential barrier across the
junction increases. Therefore, the junction resistance becomes very high and a very small current
(reverse saturation current) flows in the circuit. Then diode is said to be in OFF state. The reverse
bias current is due to minority charge carriers.
PROCEDURE:
A) FORWARD BIAS:
1. Connections are made as per the circuit diagram.
2. For forward bias, the RPS +ve is connected to the anode of the diode and RPS –ve is connected
to the cathode of the diode
3. Switch on the power supply and increase the input voltage (supply voltage) in steps of 0.1V.
4. Note down the corresponding current flowing through the diode and voltage across the diode for
each and every step of the input voltage.
5. The reading of voltage and current are tabulated.
6. Graph is plotted between voltage (Vf) on X-axis and current (If) on Y-axis.
B) REVERSE BIAS:
1. Connections are made as per the circuit diagram
2. For reverse bias, the RPS +ve is connected to the cathode of the diode and RPS –ve is connected
to the anode of the diode.
3. Switch on the power supply and increase the input voltage (supply voltage) in steps of 1V.
4. Note down the corresponding current flowing through the diode voltage across the diode for
each and every step of the input voltage.
5. The readings of voltage and current are tabulated
6. Graph is plotted between voltage(VR) on X-axis and current (IR) on Y-axis.

45
PRECAUTIONS:
1. While doing the experiment do not exceed the readings of the diode. This may lead to
damaging of the diode.
2. Connect voltmeter and ammeter in correct polarities as shown in the circuit diagram.
3. Do not switch ON the power supply unless you have checked the circuit connections as per the
circuit diagram.

RESULT:
Thus the V-I characteristics of PN junction diode was plotted and determined its cut in voltage,
static and dynamic resistances in forward and reverse bias condition.
Forward Bias of PN Junction Diode:
The Cut in Voltage or Knee Voltage (Vγ) is Volts.
The Dynamic Forward resistance is Ω.
The Static Forward resistance is Ω.
Reverse Bias of PN Junction Diode:
The Dynamic Reverse resistance is Ω.
The Static Reverse resistance is Ω.

46
 7 b) CHARACTERISTICS OF ZENER DIODE
Diode schematic Symbol

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM
A) FORWARD BIAS CHARACTERISTICS:

A) REVERSE BIAS CHARACTERISTICS:

47
 7 b) CHARACTERISTICS OF ZENER DIODE

AIM:
 To plot the volt ampere characteristics of a zener diode.
 To determine its knee voltage, breakdown voltage also its static and dynamic
resistances in forward and reverse bias.

APPARATUS REQUIRED:

S.No. Name of the apparatus Range Quantity

1 Zener diode IZ6 1No

2 Regulated Power supply (0-30V) 1No

3 Resistor 1KΩ 1No

4 Ammeter (0-1000µA) 1No

5 Ammeter (0-100 mA) 1No

7 Voltmeter (0-1V) 1No

8 Voltmeter (0-30V) 1No

10 Bread board - 1No

11 Connecting wires Single strand As required

THEORY:
A zener diode is heavily doped p-n junction diode, specially made to operate in the break
down region. A p-n junction diode normally does not conduct when reverse biased. But if the
reverse bias is increased, at a particular voltage it starts conducting heavily.

48
MODEL GRAPH:

OBSERVATIONS:
A) FORWARD BIAS:

S.NO Applied Voltage(V) Forward Voltage(Vf) Forward Current(If(mA))

B) REVERSE BIAS:

S.NO Applied Voltage(V) Forward Voltage(Vr) Reverse Current((IR(μA))

CALCULATIONS:
Forward bias
Static forward resistance Rdc = Vf / If Ω
Dynamic forward resistance rac = ΔVf/ΔIf Ω
Reverse bias
Static reverse resistance Rdc = Vr/ Ir Ω
Dynamic reverse resistance rac = ΔVf/ΔIf Ω
(𝑉𝑁𝐿 −𝑉𝐹𝐿)
For Load Regulation, % Voltage Regulation = X 100
𝑉𝐹𝐿
This voltage is called Break down Voltage. High current through the diode can
permanently damage the device. Applying a positive potential to the anode and a negative potential

49
to the cathode of the zener diode establishes a forward bias condition. The forward characteristic
of the zener diode is same as that of a pn junction diode i.e. as the applied potential increases the
current increases exponentially. Applying a negative potential to the anode and positive potential
to the cathode reverse biases the zener diode.
As the reverse bias increases the current increases rapidly in a direction opposite to that of
the positive voltage region. Thus under reverse bias condition breakdown occurs. It occurs because
there is a strong electric filed in the region of the junction that can disrupt the bonding forces
within the atom and generate carriers. The breakdown voltage depends upon the amount of doping.
For a heavily doped diode depletion layer will be thin and breakdown occurs at low reverse
voltage and the breakdown voltage is sharp. Whereas a lightly doped diode has a higher
breakdown voltage. This explains the zener diode characteristics in the reverse bias region.
PROCEDURE:
1) V- I CHARACTERISTICS:
a) Forward Bias Condition:
1. Connect the circuit as shown in figure .
2. Initially vary Vs in steps of 0.1V. Once the current starts increasing vary Vs in steps of 1V
up to 12V. Note down the corresponding readings of Vzf and Izf.
b) Reverse Bias Condition:
1. Connect the circuit as shown in figure (2).
2. Vary Vs gradually in steps of 1V up to 12V and note down the corresponding readings of
Vzr and Izr.
3. Tabulate different reverse currents obtained for different reverse voltages.
RESULT:
Thus plotted the VI characteristics of Zener diode and determined its parameters:
a) Forward Bias Zener Diode:
1. The Knee voltage or Cut-in Voltage (Vy) is Volts.
2. The Dynamic Forward resistance is Ω.
3. The Static Forward resistance is Ω..
b) Reverse Bias of Zener Diode:
1. Zener Breakdown Voltage (VZ) is Volts.
2. The Dynamic Reverse resistance is Ω
3. The Static Reverse resistance is Ω.
50
VIVAQUESTIONS:
PN Junction Diode
1. Define depletion region of a diode.
2. What is meant by transition & space charge capacitance of a diode?
3. Is the V-I relationship of a diode Linear or Exponential?
4. Define cut-in voltage of a diode and specify the values for Si and Ge diodes.
5. What are the applications of a p-n diode?
6. Draw the ideal characteristics of P-N junction diode.
7. What is the diode equation?
8. What is PIV?
9. What is the break down voltage?
10. What is the effect of temperature on PN junction diodes?

Zener Diode
1. What type of temp coefficient does the zener diode have?
2. If the impurity concentration is increased, how does the depletion width get effected?
3. Does the dynamic impendence of a zener diode vary?
4. Explain briefly about avalanche and zener breakdowns.
5. Draw the zener equivalent circuit.
6. How the breakdown voltage of a particular diode can be controlled?
7. What type of temperature coefficient does the Avalanche breakdown has?
8. By what type of charge carriers the current flows in zener and avalanche breakdown diodes?

51
 Ex.No:08 Characteristics of BJT, SCR and MOSFET

a) Characteristics of BJT
Common Emitter Input-Output Characteristics

SYMBOL:(NPN TRANSISTOR)) PIN DIAGRAM: (BOTTOM VIEW)

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:
INPUT CHARACTERISTICS

OUTPUT CHARACTERISTICS

52
8 a)COMMON EMITTER INPUT-OUTPUT CHARACTERISTICS OF BJT

AIM:
 To draw the input and output characteristics of transistor connected in CE configuration
 To find β of the given transistor and also its h parameters.
APPARATUS REQUIRED:
S.No. Name of the apparatus Range Quantity

1. Transistor BC107 1No

2. Dual Regulated Power supply (0-30V) 1No

Resistor 1KΩ 1No

3.

4. Ammeter (0-30 mA) 1No

5. Ammeter (0-1000μA) 1No

6. Voltmeters (0-20V) , (0-1)V, (0-10)V Each 1No

Bread board - 1 No
7.

8. Connecting wires Single strand As required

THEORY:

In common emitter configuration, input voltage is applied between base and emitter
terminals and output is taken across the collector and emitter terminals. Therefore the emitter
terminal is common to both input and output. The input characteristics resemble that of a forward
biased diode curve. This is expected since the Base-Emitter junction of the transistor is forward
biased. As compared to CB arrangement IB increases less rapidly with VBE. Therefore input
resistance of CE circuit is higher than that of CB circuit. The output characteristics are drawn
between Ic and VCE at constant IB. the collector current varies with VCE up to few volts only.
After this the collector current becomes almost constant, and independent of VCE. The value of
VCE up to which the collector current changes with V CE is known as Knee voltage. The
transistor always

53
MODEL GRAPH:
A) INPUT CHARACTERISTICS:

B) OUTPUT CHARACTERSITICS:

Calculations:
1. Input Characteristics: To obtain input resistance find VBE and IB for a constant VCE
on one of the input characteristics.
Input impedance = hie= Ri = VBE/ IB(VCEis constant)
Reverse voltage gain = hre= VEB/ VCE(IB= constant)
2. Output Characteristics: To obtain output resistance find ICand VCBat aconstant IB.
Output admittance 1/hoe = Ro = IC/ VCE(IBis constant)
Forward current gain = hfe = IC/ IB(VCE= constant)
3. Current amplification factor β = ΔIC/ΔIB
54
 Operated in the region above Knee voltage, IC is always constant and is approximately equal
to IB.The current amplification factor of CE configuration is given by

β = ΔIC/ΔIB
Input Resistance, ri = ΔVBE /ΔIB (μA) at Constant VCE
Output Résistance, ro = ΔVCE /ΔIC at Constant IB (μA)

PROCEDURE:
A) INPUT CHARACTERISTICS
1. Connect the circuit as per the circuit diagram.
2. For plotting the input characteristics the output voltage VCE is kept constant at 1V and for
different values of VBB , note down the values of IB and VBE
3. Repeat the above step by keeping VCE at 2V and 4V and tabulate all the readings.
4. Plot the graph between VBE and IB for constant VCE
B) OUTPUT CHARACTERISTICS:
1. Connect the circuit as per the circuit diagram
2. For plotting the output characteristics the input current IB is kept constant at 50μA and for
different values of VCC note down the values of IC and VCE
3. Repeat the above step by keeping IB at 75 μA and 100 μA and tabulate the all the readings
4. Plot the graph between VCE and IC for constant IB
PRECAUTIONS:
1. The supply voltage should not exceed the rating of the transistor
2. Meters should be connected properly according to their polarities

RESULT:
Thus obtained the input and output characteristics of transistor connected in CE
configuration and determined its parameters as follows.
Input impedance = hie= Ri =
Reverse voltage gain = hre=
Output admittance 1/hoe = Ro =
Forward current gain = hfe =

55
 Current amplification factor β =

TABULATION:

Input Characteristics

VCE = 0V VCE = 5V

VBB (Volts)
VBE IB VBE IB
(Volts) (µA) (Volts) (µA)

Output Characteristics

IB = 0 µA IB = 20 µA IB = 40 µA
VCC
(Volts) VCE IC VCE IC VCE IC
(Volts) (mA) (Volts) (mA) (Volts) (mA)

56
VIVA QUESTIONS:
1. What is the range of β for the transistor?
2. What are the input and output impedances of CE configuration?
3. Identify various regions in the output characteristics.
4. What is the relation between α and β?
5. Define current gain in CE configuration.
6. Why CE configuration is preferred for amplification?
7. What is the phase relation between input and output?
8. Draw diagram of CE configuration for PNP transistor.
9. What is the power gain of CE configuration?
10. What are the applications of CE configuration?

57
 b) VI Characteristics of SCR

SYMBOL

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:

V-I CHARACTERISTICS:

58
EXP.No.08(b) CHARACTERISTICS OF SILICON-CONTROLLED RECTIFIER (SCR)

AIM:
To obtain the V-I Characteristics of SCR and also to determine the break over voltage and holding
current.

APPARATUS REQUIRED:

S.No. Name of the apparatus Range Quantity

1. SCR TYN616 1No

2. Dual Regulated Power supply (0-30V) 1No

3. Resistor 10KΩ,1KΩ Each 1

4. Ammeters (0-50) mA 1No

5. Voltmeters (0-10V) 1No

6. Bread board - 1 No

7. Connecting wires Single strand As required

THEORY:
It is a four layer semiconductor device being alternate of P-type and N-type silicon. It
consists of 3 junctions J1, J2, J3 the J1 and J3 operate in forward direction and J2 operates in
reverse direction and three terminals called anode A, cathode K , and a gate G. The operation of
SCR can be studied when the gate is open and when the gate is positive with respect to cathode.
When gate is open, no voltage is applied at the gate due to reverse bias of the junction J2 no
current flows through R2 and hence SCR is at cut off. When anode voltage is increased J2 tends to
breakdown. When the gate positive, with respect to cathode J3 junction is forward biased and J2 is
reverse biased .Electrons from N-type material move across junction J3 towards gate while holes
from P-type material moves across junction J3 towards cathode. So gate current starts flowing,
anode current increase is in extremely small current junction J2 break down and SCR conducts
heavily.

59
OBSERVATION:

VAK(V) IAK ( μA)

When gate is open thee break over voltage is determined on the minimum forward voltage
at which SCR conducts heavily. Now most of the supply voltage appears across the load
resistance. The holding current is the maximum anode current gate being open, when break over
occurs.

PROCEDURE:
1. Connections are made as per circuit diagram.
2. Keep the gate supply voltage at some constant value
3. Vary the anode to cathode supply voltage and note down the readings of voltmeter and ammeter.
Keep the gate voltage at standard value.
4. A graph is drawn between VAK and IAK.
5. From the graph note down the threshold voltage and Holding current values.

CALCULATIONS:
Threshold Voltage =
Holding Current =
RESULT:
The V-I Characteristics of the SCR have been plotted.

60
VIVA QUESTIONS:
1. What the symbol of SCR?
2. In which state SCR turns of conducting state to blocking state?
3. What are the applications of SCR?
4. What is holding current?
5. What are the important types thyristors?
6. How many numbers of junctions are involved in SCR?
7. What is the function of gate in SCR?
8. When gate is open, what happens when anode voltage is increased?
9. What is the value of forward resistance offered by SCR?
10. What is the condition for making from conducting state to non conducting state?

61
 c) Characteristics of MOSFET

To plot the drain and transfer characteristics of a n-channel depletion type Metal
Oxide Semiconductor Junction Field Effect Transistor (MOSFET).
APPARATUS REQUIRED:
S.NO APPARATUS RANGE QUANTIT
Y
1 RPS (0-30)V 2
2 Resistor 220Ω 2
3 DC Voltmeter (0-10)V 1
4 DC Voltmeter (0-30)V 1
5 DC Ammeter (0-30)mA 1
6 MOSFET 1
7 Bread board - 1
8 Connecting wires - Few

THEORY:
N-channel JFET

The metal–oxide–semiconductor field-effect transistor (MOSFET, MOS- FET,

or MOS FET) is a device used to amplify or switch electronic signals.
The MOSFET differs from JFET in that it has no p-n junction structure. Instead,
the gate of the MOSFET insulated from the channel by a silicon dioxide (SiO2) layer.
Due to this the input resistance of MOSFET is greater than JFET.

62
 WWW.VIDYARTHIPLUS.COM

Symbol:

Circuit Diagram for MOSFET

DRAIN CHARACTERICTICS:

PROCEDURE:
1. Connections are given as per the circuit diagram.
2. The supply is switched ON.
3. The gate-source voltage VGS is kept constant.
4. By varying the drain-source voltage VDS, the various drain current IDis
noted.
5. The same procedure is repeated for various gate-source voltageVGS.

63
In the Ohmic region, the drain-source voltage is small and the channel behaves like a fairly
ordinary conductor. In this region the current varies roughly in proportion to the drain-source
voltage as if the MOSJFET obeys Ohm's law. However, as we increase the drain-source
voltage and move into the region with a light background we increase the drain-channel
voltage so much that we start to ‘squeeze down’ the channel. It is similar to that of JFET only
the difference is that it has positive part VGS.

Table for Drain Characteristics:

VGS = VGS =
S.No ID ID
VDS(volts) VDS(volts)
(mA) (mA)
1
2
3
4
5
6
7

64
 WWW.VIDYARTHIPLUS.COM

TRANSFER CHARACTERISTICS:
PROCEDURE:
1. Connections are given as per the circuit diagram.
2. The supply is switched ON.
3. The drain-source voltage VDS is kept constant.
4. By varying the gate-source voltage VGS, the various drain currentID is noted.
5. The same procedure is repeated for various drain-sourcevoltage VDS.

For positive values of VGS the positive gate will draw additional electronsfrom the p-
type substrate due to reverse leakage current and establish new carries through the collisions
between accelerating particles. Because of this, asgate to source voltage increases in positive
direction, the drain current also increases.
Table for Transfer Characteristics:

VDS = VDS =
S.No VGS(volts) ID (mA) VGS(volts) ID (mA)
1
2
3
4
5
6
7

RESULT:
Thus the drain and transfer characteristics of a MOSFET is analyzed.

65
 Ex.NO:9 Design and Analysis of Half Wave and Full Wave Rectifiers

AIM:
To design and analyze the performance of Half-Wave Rectifier Full- Wave Rectifier and to find its:

a. Percentage Regulation
b. Ripple Factor
c. Efficiency

Components:
S.No. Name Quantity

1 Bread board 1 (One) No.

2 Diodes (1N4007) 2 (Two) No.

3 Resistor (1K Ω ) 1 (One) No.

4 Capacitor(100µF) 1 (One) No.

Equipment:

S.No. Name Quantity

1 Transformer with Center Tapped 1 (One) No.

Secondary ( 9 - 0 - 9 )V

2 Digital Multimeter 1 (One) No.

3 Cathode Ray Oscilloscope (CRO) (0- 1 (One) No.

20MHz)

4 Connecting wires (Single Strand) few

Operation:

The conversion of AC into pulsating DC is called Rectification. Electronic

Devices canconvert AC power into DC power with high efficiency.

66
CIRCUIT DIAGRAMS

Half wave rectifier with filter:

Full wave rectifier with filter:

67
 Full Wave Rectifier (without filter):

Model graph:

68
 The full-wave rectifier consists of a center-tapped transformer, which results
in equal voltages above and below the center-tap. During the positive half cycle, a
positive voltage appears at the anode of D1 while a negative voltage appears at the
anode of D2. Due to this diode D1 is forward biased. It results a current Id1
through the load R.

Ripple Factor:

Ripple factor is defined as the ratio of the effective value of AC components to

the average DC value. It is denoted by the symbol ' '.

Rectification Factor:

The ratio of output DC power to input AC power is defined as efficiency.

= 81% (if R >> Rf, then Rf can be neglected).

Percentage of Regulation:

It is a measure of the variation of DC output voltage as a function of DC output

current (i.e., variation in load).

Percentage of regulation = %

VNL = Voltage across load resistance, when minimum current flows

through it. VFL = Voltage across load resistance, when maximum current

flows through.

For an ideal Full-wave rectifier, the percentage regulation is 0 percent. The

percentage ofregulation is very small for a practical full wave rectifier.

Peak- Inverse - Voltage (PIV):

It is the maximum voltage that the diode has to withstand when it is reverse

biased. PIV = 2Vm

69
 Tabulation

Type of Ripple factor %

Efficiency
Rectifier Theoretical Practical Regulation

FWR
without filter

HWR
without filter

Calculations:

Advantages of Full wave Rectifier:

1. is reduced.
2. η is improved.

Disadvantages of Full wave Rectifier:

1. Output voltage is half of the full secondary voltage.

2. Diodes with high PIV rating are to be used.

3. Manufacturing of the center-tapped transformer is quite expensive and so Full

wave rectifier with center-tapped transformer is costly.

70
Procedure:
1. Connect the circuit as shown in the circuit diagram.

2. Connect the primary side of the transformer to AC mains and the secondary side
to rectifier input.

3. Using a CRO, measure the maximum voltage Vm of the AC input voltage of the
rectifier and AC voltage at the output of the rectifier.

4. Using a DC voltmeter, measure the DC voltage at the load resistance.

5. Observe the Waveforms at the secondary windings of transformer and across load
resistance for a load of 1K .

6. Calculate the ripple factor ( ), percentage of regulation and efficiency ( ) as per

the below given formulae.

Observations:
1. Peak Voltage, V m =(From CRO for HWR without filter)

2. DC Voltage, VDC(full load) =(From Voltmeter/ Multimeter for HWR without filter)

3. No Load DC Voltage, VDC(No load) =(From Voltmeter/ Multimeterfor HWR without filter)
4. Percentage Regulation % 100

RESULT :

Ripple Factor (Practical)

71
 Ex.No:10 MEASUREMENT OF DISPLACEMENT OF LVDT

Aim:
To determine the characteristics of LVDT (linear variable differential transformer).

Apparatus required:
LVDT, Digital displacement indicator, Calibration jig (with micrometer).

Procedure:

1. Plug power chord to AC mains 230 V, 50 Hz and switch on the instrument.

2. Place the READ/CAL switch at READ position.
3. Balance the amplifier with the help of zero knob so that display should read zero
(00.00) without connecting the LVDT to instrument.
4. Replace the READ/CAL switch at CAL position.
5. Adjust the calibration point by rotating CAL knob so display should read 10.00
ie., maximum calibration range.
6. Again keep the READ/CAL switch at READ position and connect the LVDT
cable to instrument.
7. Make mechanical zero by rotating the micrometer. Display will read (00.00) this
is null balancing.
8. Give displacement with micrometer and observe the digital readings.
9. Plot the graph of micrometer reading v/s digital reading.

THEORY : LVDT (LINEAR VARIABLE DIFFERENTIAL TRANSFORMER)

The most widely used inductive transducer to translate the linear motion into electrical
signals is the linear variable differential transformer (LVDT). The basic construction of
LVDT is shown in fig:

Secondary winding

Primary winding

The transformer consists of a single primary P and two secondary windings S1 and S2
wound on a cylindrical former. The secondary windings have equal number of turns and
are identically placed on either side. A moveable soft iron core is placed inside the
transformer. The displacement to be measured is applied to the arm attached to the soft
iron core. In practice the arm is made of highly permeability, nickel iron which is hydrogen
annealed.
This gives low harmonics low null voltage and high sensitivity. This is slotted
longitudinally to reduce eddy current losses. The assembly is placed in stainless steel
housing and the end leads provides electrostatic and electromagnetic shielding. The
frequency of AC applied to primary windings may be between 50 Hz to 20 kHz.

Since the primary winding is excited by an alternating source, it produces an alternating

magnetic field which in turn induces alternating current voltage in the two secondary
windings.

Figure 3 depicts a cross-sectional view of an LVDT. The core causes the magnetic field
generated by the primary winding to be coupled to the secondaries. When the core is
centered perfectly between both secondaries and the primary, as shown, the voltage
induced in each secondary is equal in amplitude and 180 deg out of phase. Thus the LVDT
output (for the series-opposed connection shown in this case) is zero because the voltage
cancel each other. E0 = Es1 - Es2 = 0

Figure 3. Cross-Sectional View of LVDT Core and Windings

Displacing the core to the left (Figure 4) causes the first secondary to be more strongly
coupled to the primary than the second secondary. The resulting higher voltage of the first
secondary in relation to the second secondary causes an output voltage that is in phase with
the primary voltage.
 Figure 4. Coupling to First Secondary Caused by Associated Core Displacement

Likewise, displacing the core to the right causes the second secondary to be more strongly
coupled to the primary than the first secondary. The greater voltage of the second
secondary causes an output voltage to be out of phase with the primary voltage.

Figure 5. Coupling to Second Secondary Caused by Associated Core Displacement

Tabulation :

Push side readings Pull side readings

S.No.
Micrometer Indicated Micrometer Indicated
Reading(mm) reading(mm) Reading(mm) reading(mm)
1
2
3
4
5
6

Model graph : Micrometer reading Vs Indicated reading

Result : Thus the displacement is calibrated by using LVDT

Resistors in series Connection:
Resistors in Parallel Connection: