Open channel hydraulics John Fenton

that point,and so we simply write, for the moment ignoring the coefficient ρ/2:
Z
¡ 2 ¢ Q3
u + v 2 + w2 u dA = αU 3 A = α 2 , (1.4)
A
A

which defines α as a coefficient which will be somewhat greater than unity, given by
R ¡ 2 2
¢
2 u dA
A u +v +w
α= . (1.5)
U 3A
Conventional presentations define it as being merely due to the non-uniformity of velocity distribution
across the channel:
R
u3 dA
α= A 3 ,
U A
however we suggest that is more properly written containing the other velocity components (and turbu-
lent contributions as well, ideally). This coefficient is known as a Coriolis coefficient, in honour of the
French engineer who introduced it.
Most presentations of open channel theory adopt the approximation that there is no variation of velocity
over the section, such that it is assumed that α = 1, however that is not accurate. Montes (1998, p27)
quotes laboratory measurements over a smooth concrete bed giving values of α of 1.035-1.064, while
for rougher boundaries such as earth channels larger values are found, such as 1.25 for irrigation canals
in southern Chile and 1.35 in the Rhine River. For compound channels very much larger values may be
encountered. It would seem desirable to include this parameter in our work, which we will do.
(b) Pressure and potential head terms
These are combined as
Z
(p + ρgz) u dA. (1.6)
A
The approximation we now make, common throughout almost all open-channel hydraulics, is the ”hy-
drostatic approximation”, that pressure at a point of elevation z is given by
p ≈ ρg × height of water above = ρg (η − z) , (1.7)
where the free surface directly above has elevation η . This is the expression obtained in hydrostatics for
a fluid which is not moving. It is an excellent approximation in open channel hydraulics except where
the flow is strongly curved, such as where there are short waves on the flow, or near a structure which
disturbs the flow. Substituting equation (1.7) into equation (1.6) gives
Z
ρg η u dA,
A

for the combination of the pressure and potential head terms. If we make the reasonable assumption that
η is constant across the channel the contribution becomes
Z
ρgη u dA = ρgηQ,
A

from the definition of discharge Q.

(c) Combined terms
Substituting both that expression and equation (1.4) into (1.3) we obtain
µ ¶
α Q2
E = ρgQ η + , (1.8)
2g A2

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Open channel hydraulics John Fenton

which, in the absence of losses, would be constant along a channel. This energy flux across entry and
exit faces is that which should be calculated, such that it is weighted with respect to the mass flow rate.
Most presentations pretend that one can just apply Bernoulli’s theorem, which is really only valid along
a streamline. However our results in the end are not much different. We can introduce the concept of the
Mean Total Head H such that
Energy flux E α Q2
H= = =η + , (1.9)
g × Mass flux g × ρQ 2g A2
which has units of length and is easily related to elevation in many hydraulic engineering applications,
relative to an arbitrary datum. The integral version, equation (1.8), is more fundamental, although in
common applications it is simpler to use the mean total head H , which will simply be referred to as the
head of the flow. Although almost all presentations of open channel hydraulics assume α = 1, we will
retain the general value, as a better model of the fundamentals of the problem, which is more accurate,
but also is a reminder that although we are trying to model reality better, its value is uncertain to a degree,
and so are any results we obtain. In this way, it is hoped, we will maintain a sceptical attitude to the
application of theory and ensuing results.
(d) Application to a single length of channel – including energy losses
We will represent energy losses by ∆E . For a length of channel where there are no other entry or exit
points for fluid, we have
Eout = Ein − ∆E,
giving, from equation (1.8):
µ ¶ µ ¶
α Q2 α Q2
ρQout gη + = ρQin gη + − ∆E,
2 A2 out 2 A2 in
and as there is no mass entering or leaving, Qout = Qin = Q, we can divide through by ρQ and by g , as
is common in hydraulics:
µ ¶ µ ¶
α Q2 α Q2
η + = η + − ∆H,
2g A2 out 2g A2 in
where we have written ∆E = ρgQ × ∆H , where ∆H is the head loss. In spite of our attempts to use
energy flux, as Q is constant and could be eliminated, in this head form the terms appear as they are used
in conventional applications appealing to Bernoulli’s theorem, but with the addition of the α coefficients.

2. Conservation of energy in open channel flow

In this section and the following one we examine the state of flow in a channel section by calculating the
energy and momentum flux at that section, while ignoring the fact that the flow at that section might be
slowly changing. We are essentially assuming that the flow is locally uniform – i.e. it is constant along
the channel, ∂/∂x ≡ 0. This enables us to solve some problems, at least to a first, approximate, order.
We can make useful deductions about the behaviour of flows in different sections, and the effects of
gates, hydraulic jumps, etc.. Often this sort of analysis is applied to parts of a rather more complicated
flow, such as that shown in Figure 1-1(c) above, where a gate converts a deep slow flow to a faster shallow
flow but with the same energy flux, and then via an hydraulic jump the flow can increase dramatically in
depth, losing energy through turbulence but with the same momentum flux.

2.1 The head/elevation diagram and alternative depths of flow

Consider a steady (∂/∂t ≡ 0) flow where any disturbances are long, such that the pressure is hydro-
static. We make a departure from other presentations. Conventionally (beginning with Bakhmeteff in
1912) they introduce a co-ordinate origin at the bed of the stream and introduce the concept of ”specific
energy”, which is actually the head relative to that special co-ordinate origin. We believe that the use of

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Open channel hydraulics John Fenton

that datum somehow suggests that the treatment and the results obtained are special in some way. Also,
for irregular cross-sections such as in rivers, the ”bed” or lowest point of the section is poorly defined,
and we want to minimise our reliance on such a point. Instead, we will use an arbitrary datum for the
head, as it is in keeping with other areas of hydraulics and open channel theory.
Over an arbitrary section such as in Figure 1-2, from equation (1.9), the head relative to the datum can
be written
αQ2 1
H =η + , (2.1)
2g A2 (η)
where we have emphasised that the cross-sectional area for a given section is a known function of surface
elevation, such that we write A(η). A typical graph showing the dependence of H upon η is shown in
Figure 2-1, which has been drawn for a particular cross-section and a constant value of discharge Q,
such that the coefficient αQ2 /2g in equation (2.1) is constant.

H=η

η1
1
Surface
elevation
η
ηc
αQ2 1
η2 H =η+ 2g A2 (η)
2
zmin

Hc
Head H = E/ρgQ

Figure 2-1. Variation of head with surface elevation for a particular cross-section and discharge

The figure has a number of important features, due to the combination of the linear increasing function
η and the function 1/A2 (η) which decreases with η .
• In the shallow flow limit as η → zmin (i.e. the depth of flow, and hence the cross-sectional area
A(η), both go to zero while holding discharge constant) the value of H ∼ αQ2 /2gA2 (η) becomes
very large, and goes to ∞ in the limit.
• In the other limit of deep water, as η becomes large, H ∼ η , as the velocity contribution becomes
negligible.
• In between these two limits there is a minimum value of head, at which the flow is called critical
flow, where the surface elevation is η c and the head Hc .
• For all other H greater than Hc there are two values of depth possible, i.e. there are two different
flow states possible for the same head.
• The state with the larger depth is called tranquil, slow, or sub-critical flow, where the potential to
make waves is relatively small.
• The other state, with smaller depth, of course has faster flow velocity, and is called shooting, fast, or
super-critical flow. There is more wave-making potential here, but it is still theoretically possible
for the flow to be uniform.
• The two alternative depths for the same discharge and energy have been called alternate depths.

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Open channel hydraulics John Fenton

That terminology seems to be not quite right – alternate means ”occur or cause to occur by turns,
go repeatedly from one to another”. Alternative seems better - ”available as another choice”, and
we will use that.
• In the vicinity of the critical point, where it is easier for flow to pass from one state to another, the
flow can very easily form waves (and our hydrostatic approximation would break down).
• Flows can pass from one state to the other. Consider the flow past a sluice gate in a channel as
shown in Figure 1-1(c). The relatively deep slow flow passes under the gate, suffering a large
reduction in momentum due to the force exerted by the gate and emerging as a shallower faster
flow, but with the same energy. These are, for example, the conditions at the points labelled 1 and
2 respectively in Figure 2-1. If we have a flow with head corresponding to that at the point 1 with
surface elevation η1 then the alternative depth is η 2 as shown. It seems that it is not possible to
go in the other direction, from super-critical flow to sub-critical flow without some loss of energy,
but nevertheless sometimes it is necessary to calculate the corresponding sub-critical depth. The
mathematical process of solving either problem, equivalent to reading off the depths on the graph,
is one of solving the equation
αQ2 αQ2
+ η 1 = + η2 (2.2)
2gA2 (η 1 ) 2gA2 (η 2 )
| {z } | {z }
H1 H2

for η2 if η 1 is given, or vice versa. Even for a rectangular section this equation is a nonlinear tran-
scendental equation which has to be solved numerically by procedures such as Newton’s method.

2.2 Critical flow

B
δη

δA

Figure 2-2. Cross-section of waterway with increment of water level

We now need to find what the condition for critical flow is, where the head is a minimum. Equation (2.1)
is
α Q2
H=η + ,
2g A2 (η)
and critical flow is when dH/dη = 0:
dH αQ2 dA
=1− 3
× = 0.
dη gA (η) dη
The problem now is to evaluate the derivative dA/dη . From Figure 2-2, in the limit as δη → 0 the
element of area δA = B δη,such that dA/dη = B , the width of the free surface. Substituting, we have
the condition for critical flow:
Q2 B
α = 1. (2.3)
gA3

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Open channel hydraulics John Fenton

This can be rewritten as

(Q/A)2
α = 1,
g (A/B)
and as Q/A = U , the mean velocity over the section, and A/B = D, the mean depth of flow, this means
that
U2 (Mean velocity)2
Critical flow occurs when α = 1, that is, when α × = 1. (2.4)
gD g × Mean depth
We write this as
√
αF 2 = 1 or αF = 1, (2.5)
where the symbol F is the Froude number, defined by:
Q/A U Mean velocity
F =p =√ =√ .
gA/B gD g × Mean depth
The usual statement in textbooks is that ”critical flow occurs when the Froude number is 1”. We have
chosen to generalise this slightly by allowing for the coefficient α not necessarily being equal to 1, giving
αF 2 = 1 at critical flow. Any form of the condition, equation (2.3), (2.4) or (2.5) can be used. The mean
depth at which flow is critical is the ”critical depth”:
U2 Q2
Dc = α = α 2. (2.6)
g gA

2.3 The Froude number

The dimensionless Froude number is traditionally used in hydraulic engineering to express the relative
importance of inertia and gravity forces, and occurs throughout open channel hydraulics. It is relevant
where the water has a free surface. It almost always appears in the form of αF 2 rather than F . It might
be helpful here to define F by writing
Q2 B
F2 = .
gA3
Consider a calculation where we attempt to quantify the relative importance of kinetic and potential
energies of a flow – and as the depth is the only vertical scale we have we will use that to express the
potential energy. We write
1
Mean kinetic energy per unit mass αU 2
= 2 = 12 αF 2 ,
Mean potential energy per unit mass gD
which indicates something of the nature of the dimensionless number αF 2 .
Flows which are fast and shallow have large Froude numbers, and those which are slow and deep have
small Froude numbers. For example, consider a river or canal which is 2 m deep flowing at 0.5 m s−1
(make some effort to imagine it - we can well believe that it would be able to flow with little surface
disturbance!). We have
U 0.5
F =√ ≈√ = 0.11 and F 2 = 0.012 ,
gD 10 × 2
and we can imagine that the rough relative importance of the kinetic energy contribution to the potential
contribution really might be of the order of this 1%. Now consider flow in a street gutter after rain. The
velocity might also be 0.5 m s−1 , while the depth might be as little as 2 cm. The Froude number is
U 0.5
F =√ ≈√ = 1.1 and F 2 = 1.2 ,
gD 10 × 0.02

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