STRUCTURAL STEEL

CONSTRUCTION
Structural steel is an economical construction material for building applications. It offers high ratios of

strength to weight and strength to volume. Thus, structural steel has the advantage of permitting long

clear spans for horizontal members and requiring less floor space for columns than other common

construction materials. It also can be used in combination with reinforced concrete to provide cost-

effective building components. For large industrial buildings, where the structural frame can be exposed,

it is often the material of choice.

The design of a structural building frame involves the following principal steps:

1. Select the general configuration and type of structure

2. Determine the service loads as required by the applicable building code

3. Compute the internal forces and moments for the individual members

4. Proportion the members and connections.

5. Check performance characteristics, such as deflection, under service conditions.

6. Make a general overall review for economy of function.

7. Prepare complete design drawings delineating all structural steel requirements.

Designers, in addition to performing these steps, should also have an appreciation of the complete

construction cycle to assure a practical and economical design. This includes understanding the needs of

other disciplines and trades, types and availability of the materials used in steel of construction, applicable

codes and specifications, the role and responsibilities of the fabricator and the erector, and a designer’s

own responsibilities in the area of quality assurance. The other principal parties involved in structural

steel construction are fabricators

the mill materials into shipping pieces ready for erection at the jobsite. These operations are generally

performed in a shop. The pieces are sized and shaped to the dimensions shown on detailed shop drawings

that are prepared by the fabricator and approved by the structural designer. Shop attachment of detail

pieces (stiffeners, connection materials, etc.) to the individual shipping pieces is most frequently done by

welding. Generally, the fabricator is responsible for moving the fabricated material to the jobsite. The

fabricator determines the size of shipping pieces, with the concurrence of the designer, at the time the

shop drawings are prepared.

Erectors receive the material and the position and connect the steel into its final location at the project

site. Erectors may have specific equipment on unique projects with which they are able to perform cost-

effective operations. Such equipment may require attachment points or stiffening of the frame elements,

in which case approval of the designer is requested.

Structural steel consists of hot-rolled steel shapes, steel plates of thickness of 1⁄8 in or greater, and such

fittings as bolts, welds, bracing rods, and turnbuckles. The owner and the engineer should understand

fully what will be furnished by the fabricator under a contract to furnish ‘‘structural steel.’’ To promote

uniformity in bidding practices, the American Institute of Steel Construction (AISC) has adopted a ‘‘Code

of Standard Practice for Buildings and Bridges’’ (American Institute of Steel Construction, One East

Wacker Drive, Suite 3100, Chicago, IL 60601-2001). Additional design guides are shown in Table 7.1.

Codes, specifications, and standards provide steel designers with sound design procedures

and guidelines. These documents cover selection of service and design loads, criteria for proportioning

members and their connections, procedures for fabrication and erection, requirements for inspections, and
standards for protection against corrosion and fire. Use of these documents generally ensures safety,

economical designs, and sound operational techniques.

Grades of Steel

Structural steel grades are referred to by their corresponding ASTM designation. For example, the most

commonly used grade of structural steel is A36, which is produced to meet the requirements of the ASTM

A36 specification. This grade offers a good mix of strength, weldability, and cost. In many designs, this

specification alone will satisfy designers’ needs.

Other specifications, such as A53 for pipe, provide an equivalent grade of steel for that type of product.

However, as loads on the structural elements becomes larger, other grades of steel may become more

economical because of dimensional limitations or simpler fabrication. These grades provide greater

strength levels at somewhat higher costs per unit weight.

AISC recommends certain grades of steel, all of which have desirable characteristics, such as weldability

and cost-effectiveness, for use where higher strength levels are required. The specifications covering

these grades are listed in Table 7.2. Several steels have more than one level of tensile strength and yield

stress, the

CRITICAL CHARACTERISTICS OF STEEL STRUCTURES

The basic limit states that govern the design of steel structures provide the basis for understanding why a

steel member, an assemblage of members, or the entire structure experiences distress or fails.15,16 These

limit states are the following:

_ Yielding is a common failure mode for many components as the elastic limit is exceeded. This can result

in visible deformation as members are stretched or bent.

at a connection where the section is reduced by holes or geometric change; large deformations and

necking of the material are often apparent.

_ Buckling of members and components is an indication that the buckling capacity has been exceeded.

This may be the result of inadequate bracing and lateral support, higher-than-anticipated load, or other

factors that were not anticipated in the design.

_ Fatigue cracking can result from cyclic loads that exceed the fatigue strength of a given detail. Another

possibility is that unusual defects or geometric crack like conditions exist that are susceptible to crack

growth from cyclic loads. Generally, fatigue cracks do not exhibit yielding. Fracture can result when the

material (base metal and/or weld metal) is relatively brittle or a large crack already existed. A preexisting

crack or defect may first enlarge from fatigue, and then fracture or fabrication defects and brittle welds

may cause a fracture. There is often no significant evidence of yielding indicating that the material’s

fracture resistance is low.

Bifurcation: A term relating to the load-deflection behavior of a perfectly straight and perfectly centered

compression element at critical load. Bifurcation can occur in the inelastic range only if the pattern of

post-yield properties and/or residual stresses is symmetrically disposed so that no bending moment is

developed at subcritical loads. At the critical load a member can be in equilibrium in either a straight or

slightly deflected configuration, or a bifurcation results at a branch point in the plot of axial load vs.

lateral deflection from which two alternative load-deflection plots are mathematically valid.

Braced frame: A frame in which the resistance to both lateral load and frame instability is provided by the

combined action of floor diaphragms and structural core, shear walls, and/or a diagonal K brace, or other

auxiliary system of bracing.

Effective length: The equivalent or effective length (KL) which, in the Euler formula for a hinged-end

column, results in the same elastic critical load as for the framed member or other compression element

under consideration at its theoretical critical load. The use of the effective length concept in the inelastic

range implies that the ratio between elastic and inelastic critical loads for an equivalent hinged-end

column is the same as the ratio between elastic and inelastic critical loads in the beam, frame, plate, or

other structural element for which buckling equivalence has been assumed. Instability: A condition

reached during buckling under increasing load in a compression member, element, or frame at which the

capacity for resistance to additional load is exhausted and continued deformation results in a decrease in

load-resisting capacity.

Stability: The capacity of a compression member or element to remain in position and support load, even

if forced slightly out of line or position by an added lateral force. In the elastic range, removal of the

added lateral force would result in a return to the prior loaded position, unless the disturbance causes

yielding to commence. Unbraced frame: A frame in which the resistance to lateral loads is provided

primarily by the bending of the frame members and their connections.

1.2.4 Buildability

The structural layout and design of the building must be chosen based on the buildability of the structure

from the point of view of fabrication, erection, maintenance and services with minimum interference with

existing adjacent structures and with regard to the operation of the equipment inside the building.

1.2.5 Choice of open or covered structure

projects, the machines and equipment do not need any enclosure to guard against weather conditions

during operation or maintenance. In our case, however, the building complex houses heavy machines and

equipment for the melting and finishing of steel products. Therefore, the building needs roof and side

enclosures during operation and maintenance to guard against all weather conditions.

1.2.6 Selection of construction materials

In general, two main types of construction material are in use in most industrial and service sector

projects, namely steel and concrete. The selection of either steel or concrete as a building material

depends on the following factors:

Easy availability. The procurement of steel is easier in industrialized countries than in developing

countries, whereas in developing countries concrete ingredients are easier to procure than steel.

Construction costs. In developing countries, owing to the limited availability of steel, the difficulties of

procurement within the scheduled project timeframe and of finding a suitable fabricator often cause

delays, giving rise to escalation in the project construction costs. Completion of a structure within the

scheduled timeframe provides benefits with respect to production costs for an industrial plant.

Financial aspects of the structure. Consideration of the utilization of the building during the operational

sequence is vital in the case of a process plant.

Sustainability. Compared with other construction materials, steel possesses characteristics that lead it to

being more sustainable as a construction material.

steel within the timeframe of a project is sometimes difficult; however, ensuring that the appropriate

construction material is used is paramount when the functions of the building are considered. Moreover,

selecting a material that supports speedy construction avoids delays to the project, which consequently

impacts on production and operational costs; the construction of the building lies on the critical path and

is considered to be in the sequence of the operational process. Also, the structure carries very heavy

overhead cranes with appreciable degrees of mechanical vibration during operation, thus generating some

fatigue stress in the material.

Considering the above points, we conclude that we should choose steel as the construction material for

the above building.

1.2.7 Choice of shop or site connection of steel structures in fabrication and erection

The choice between connection in the shop and on site depends on the following factors.

Fabrication facility and capacity of fabrication shop. Generally, the structures for small and medium-size

buildings are of simple braced and hinged or semi-rigid types of construction, consisting of roof trusses,

universal beams or trussed girders, and universal columns with horizontal and vertical bracings to resist

sway forces. These types of structures are shop fabricated with riveted and bolted connections or,

sometimes, welded connections.

In industrial projects, the plant layout dictates the structural layout and the arrangement of structural

members. In many cases, braced types of structure may have to be modified, with curtailment of bracings

to accommodate the layout of machines and equipment. So, modern steel structures for industrial projects

are designed as continuous portal frames to provide adequate clearance for the plant. This type of framing
system is mainly of welded steel construction with a neat architectural appearance, and reduces the

tonnage of steel required and the cost of fabrication.

Many fabrication shops do have not proper welding and testing facilities or a sufficient number of

certified welders. There may also be difficulties in fabricating the whole frame as one unit to act a rigid

framed construction, as it occupies a large surface area of the shop floor, which many fabrication shops

cannot afford to provide. Therefore we need larger fl oor shop areas and adequate fabrication equipment

and machines to maintain the optimum fabrication facilities and capacity of the shop.

Facilities for transport of fabricated structural components from the shop to the site.

It is not always possible to transport a whole frame unit or structural component from the fabrication shop

to the erection site, because of restrictions related to transport vehicle dimensions and highway

regulations. So it is general practice and convenient to fabricate a frame in parts to facilitate easy

transportation. In special circumstances, a fabrication shop is erected on site to meet the erection

schedule.

Portal frames made up of single universal sections or composite sections of universal columns braced

together by angles or channels are fabricated in three or more parts, namely:

Columns with bases. Each column, its base and a small portion of the end part of the rafter are welded

together. For composite sections, the bracings are welded. In the event that the length of the composite

section makes the section too heavy or long to handle, it may be convenient to make the section in two

parts; these are then connected on site. The bracings at the connection point are transported loose and

site connected with high-strength bolts along with the main column members. The length of the part

should preferably not exceed 12 m as the length of a trailer is generally limited to 12–13 m to satisfy
highway regulations. In special circumstances, longer lengths may be allowed with special highway

authority permission.

The central rafter (beam) portion. The section at which the rafter is cut off should be at the position of

minimum bending moment, and there should be provision of moment connections to the column ends at

the ends of the rafter during erection to form the full portal frame. In the case where the rafter is of truss

or lattice girder construction, the rafters are shop fabricated in parts of allowable length for transport

to the site. They are then assembled on site to full span length, and are provided at the ends with moment

connections to the columns during erection.

1.2.8 Sequence and method of erection of steel structures

The sequence and method of erection are generally dependent on the layout and arrangement of the

structural components. Normally, the following sequence and method of erection are followed.

Stage 1. Before the erection of steelwork starts, the sizes and exact locations of the holding-down bolts on

the foundation and base plates are checked, as often discrepancies occur that delay the erection schedule.

After these checks are made, the following steps are carried out:

- Erect the columns together with base plates.

- Align the columns.

- Adjust the holding-down bolts with adjustable screws underneath the base plate

to keep the required gap for grout between the underside of the base plate and the foundation.

- Use temporary bracings to hold the columns truly vertical so that they do not sway in any

direction.

- When the columns or stanchions are very long, these are erected in sections and bolted together on

site.
Stage 2:

Erect the central portion of each rafter. In the case of a roof truss, the whole section may be erected in one

piece. Connect the truss to the column ends with bolts to form the full structural frame.

Stage 3:

Install the vertical column bracing and roof bracings after the final alignments and adjustments of the

frame positions to make the whole structure stable.

Stage 4:

Fasten all roof purlins and sheeting rails to the structure with bolted connections.

Stage 5:

Erect crane girders where applicable.

Stage 6:

Install cranes where applicable.

Stage 7:

Fix the roof and side coverings.

Stage 8:

Finally, fill the underside of the base plates with non-shrink grout after completion of erection.

The above sequence of erection is applicable to normal construction. In the case of special structures, a

special sequence should be followed after the preparation of an erection program.