 ILO Brief 1

Generative AI and the media and culture industry

 Research Brief

2025

Generative AI and the media and culture industry

Janine Berg; Pawel Gmyrek; Margherita Licata; Tinovimbanashe Gwenyaya; Martín Sánchez Freytes Scaiano

Key points

 Technological Transformation: AI, particularly  Employment and Skills: Traditional skills like critical
Generative AI (GenAI), is transforming how tasks are thinking, creativity and ethics are becoming more
performed in journalism, music, film production, and essential, complemented by new competencies in AI
other creative domains. Unlike previous technologies, tool management and digital literacy. Nevertheless,
GenAI influences not just production but also creative the increased use of AI in the sector may result in job
and decision-making processes, challenging traditional displacement, revenue losses, and reduced demand
notions of human agency and oversight in creativity. for traditional roles, necessitating strategic adaptation.

 Occupational Impact: Media and culture jobs show  Policy and Governance: The integration of AI calls for
varying exposure to GenAI. Physical and performance- frameworks to address ethical concerns, workforce
based roles (e.g., dancers, choreographers) remain transitions, and labour protection issues, including fair
largely human-centred, while roles like those of remuneration and compensation models. Social
journalists, writers, and translators face high exposure. dialogue, including collective bargaining, can play a
GenAI augments some roles while automating others, crucial role in addressing concerns around the "3Cs"
potentially leading to evolving job profiles emphasizing (compensation, control and consent) as well as
oversight of AI-generated content rather than direct improving working conditions. Collaborative efforts
creation. involving governments, industry stakeholders,
employers’ organizations and trade unions can
mitigate risks and foster a human-centred AI
governance system.

 Introduction

“Media and culture” is a diverse sector that consists of a range of sub-sectors, including: creative, arts and entertainment
activities; publishing; motion pictures, video and television program production; sound recording and music publishing;
programming and broadcasting; and the activities of libraries, archives, museums and other cultural institutions. 1 Various
occupations make up the workforce of the different subsectors: the “creatives” encompassing photographers, visual artists
or musicians, among others; and “technical” occupations supporting creative work, such as audiovisual workers and sound
engineers, in addition to other professionals in the media or cultural space. New professions have also emerged in

1
ILO, Report for the Technical Meeting on the Future of Work in the Arts and Entertainment sector, TMFWAE/2023, 2023.
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Generative AI and the media and culture industry

response to technological advancements, such as “influencers” who develop user-generated content on major digital
platforms.

Throughout its history, the media and culture sector has been shaped by technological change. Print, film and
photography were born from technological advances, and with each invention the media and culture sector has been
reshaped, as have its occupations. Over the past 25 years, some of the more consequential shifts have stemmed from the
internet and the emergence of technology platforms, which have transformed not only how consumers engage with
content, but also how content is produced, disseminated, and remunerated.2 The global reach of the platforms has meant
that independent artists, musicians, and writers have been able to gain exposure without relying on traditional media
gatekeepers. At the same time, it has also meant that traditional outlets such as newsrooms in broadcast and print media
have had to re-organize internal workflows to integrate technologies, whereas some sectors such as recorded music and
motion pictures have seen the emergence of new actors (i.e. content aggregators, such as streaming or content-sharing
platforms). Where employment has continued, remaining staff are often expected to handle a broader range of tasks,
requiring digital skills such as social media management and data analytics.

Advances in artificial intelligence (AI), and more recently in generative AI (GenAI), represent the latest chapter in a long
line of technological shifts that have shaped the creative process and redefined artistic expression. While previous
innovations, such as the invention of photography in the late 1800s, the rise of the hand-held film camera that fueled the
French New Wave, or even the shift to digital film and videos (i.e. though streaming), profoundly influenced creativity and
displaced earlier forms, these shifts did not fundamentally replace human oversight and originality.

AI, by contrast, introduces a new level of autonomy, enabling machines to take on significant portions of creative and
decision-making processes, including using creators’ work, likeness or images to produce new content (see box 1). Such
advances are poised to affect content creation such as scriptwriting, music composition, video production and journalism; 3
but also distribution, by allowing the prediction of viewers’ and listeners’ preferences in streaming platforms; 4 or
increasing accessibility and reach through AI-supported translation and voice-over systems.5

 Box 1 – Understanding AI and Generative AI in the Entertainment Sector

Artificial intelligence has been defined as “the science and engineering of making intelligent machines”.6 Machine
learning is a field of AI that uses algorithms to enable systems to learn and make predictions based on data. GenAI is
a subset of machine learning that “can create something new”. 7 In the creative process, GenAI can generate text,
images, music, and videos. It uses complex algorithms and large-scale data sets to produce content that mimics
human creation.

GenAI uses Large Language Models (LLMs), which are trained on diverse data sets including books, articles, films,
scripts, music scores, and other cultural artifacts. By scraping this diverse cultural data, LLMs learn the nuances of
language, style, and context, enabling them to generate content that resonates with human experiences and cultural
norms. The exact sources of data used by LLMs are extensive and varied, often incorporating publicly available
information and specific datasets curated for training purposes.

This brief explores some of the possible effects of AI, particularly GenAI, on the media and culture industries and includes
an assessment of the potential exposure of certain occupations within media and culture to generative AI technology, that
is to say how jobs in the media and culture industries might be affected by the growing use of AI tools that can perform
creative tasks. It includes case studies of the uses of GenAI technology in particular sub-sectors and probes issues around

2
ILO, The Future of Work in the Arts and Entertainment Sector – Report.
3
Trootech, “The Impact of Gen-AI on Media and Entertainment Industry”, 2024
4
Zeta, “The Impact of AI on Digital Content and Streaming Platforms”, 2024
5
EBU, "You can’t look at GenAI too fearfully. You have to find as many opportunities as you can", 2024
6
John McCarthy, (2007), “What Is Artificial Intelligence?” mimeo, Stanford University.
7
Bernard Marr, “The Difference Between Generative AI And Traditional AI: An Easy Explanation For Anyone”, Forbes, 24 July 2023.
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Generative AI and the media and culture industry

employment, skills, productivity, working conditions and remuneration. It also discusses policy measures to mitigate
possible harms, such as worker displacement, income loss, and the protection of creatives’ intellectual property, while also
highlighting the opportunities AI presents.

 Employment in media-related occupations

Media and culture jobs account for 0.96 percent of total employment around the globe, which corresponds to 32.7 million
jobs worldwide. To derive this estimate, we identify the principal occupations in “media and culture”, as defined by the
International Standard Classification System (ICSO) (Table 1). ISCO is a statistical framework that classifies occupations
according to the tasks and duties undertaken in the job, allowing comparisons across countries and over time.

 Table 1. Media-related occupations in ISCO-08 classification (4-digit level)

Title ISCO-08, 4-digit code

Graphic and multimedia designers 2166

Advertising and marketing professionals 2431

Public relations professionals 2432

Web and multimedia developers 2513

Authors and related writers 2641

Journalists 2642

Translators, interpreters and other linguists 2643

Visual artists 2651

Musicians, singers and composers 2652

Dancers and choreographers 2653

Film, stage and related directors and producers 2654

Actors 2655

Announcers on radio, television and other media 2656

Creative and performing artists not elsewhere classified 2659

Photographers 3431

Gallery, Museum and Library Technicians 3433

Other artistic and cultural associate professionals 3435

Broadcasting and audio-visual technicians 3521

Telecommunications engineering technicians 3522

Library Clerks 4411

Based on the occupational codes listed in Table 1, we rely on labour force survey data from ILO’s harmonized microdata
repository and use the ILO global employment estimation model to derive employment estimates at the global level, by
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Generative AI and the media and culture industry

country income groups and by region.8 As Figure 1 shows, the share of jobs in media and culture increases according to
countries’ per capita income, reflecting the greater economic diversification of higher-income countries. In high-income
countries, media and culture jobs represent 1.76 per cent of total employment (10.7 million jobs), compared to just 0.17
per cent of employment (0.4 million jobs) in low-income countries.

 Figure 1. Media related jobs: totals and as share of total employment by income group, region and sex

 Occupational exposure to generative AI

The ability of GenAI to produce written, audio and video content in response to simple prompts has raised growing
concerns over employment within the media and culture sector. To assess the potential exposure of GenAI on the selected
media-related occupations presented in Table 1, we apply the methodology developed in the ILO Working Paper 96. 9 The
methodology uses AI and human verification to assign a score between 0 and 1, reflecting the potential for automation
by generative AI technology among the tasks of individual occupations. Table 2 presents, as an example, the international
definition of a journalist (ISCO-08 code 2642), as well as the typical tasks associated with the profession. The tasks
associated with each occupation form the basis of the prediction of potential automation scores, with the procedure
repeated for each media-related occupation.

8
Data provided by David Bescond (ILO/STATISTICS).
9
Pawel Gmyrek, Janine Berg, and David Bescond, Generative AI and Jobs: A Global Analysis of Potential Effects on Job Quantity and Quality, ILO Working Paper
96 (Geneva: ILO, 2023), https://doi.org/10.54394/FHEM8239 .
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Generative AI and the media and culture industry

 Table 2. Sample of tasks and definitions from ISCO and GPT-4

ISCO-08 code: 2642

Definition in ISCO-08: Journalists research, investigate, interpret and communicate news and public affairs through newspapers,
television, radio and other media.

Tasks in ISCO-08

Collecting local, national and international news through interviews, Selecting material for publication, checking style, grammar, accuracy and
investigation and observation, attending public events, seeking out legality of content and arranging for any necessary revisions;
records, reviewing written work, attending film and stage
performances;

Writing editorials and commentaries on topics of current interest to Interviewing politicians and other public figures at press conferences and
stimulate public interest and express the views of a publication or on other occasions, including individual interviews recorded for radio,
broadcasting station; television or webcast media;

Collecting, reporting and commenting on news and current affairs for Liaising with production staff in checking final proof copies immediately
publication in newspapers and periodicals, or for broadcasting by prior to printing;
radio, television or webcast media;

Writing critical reviews of literary, musical and other artistic works Researching and reporting on developments in specialized fields such as
based on knowledge, judgement and experience for newspapers, medicine, science and technology;
television, radio and other media;

Receiving, analysing and verifying news and other copy for accuracy; Selecting, assembling and preparing publicity material about business or
other organizations for issue through press, radio, television and other
media.

Figure 2 presents the distribution of exposure scores assigned to individual tasks for each occupation. Low scores are
assigned to tasks that do not have the potential to be performed by GenAI, while high scores are assigned to tasks that
have the potential to be performed by GenAI technology. On the horizontal scale ranging from 0 to 1, scores between the
range of 0.5 and 0.75 are considered to have a medium level of exposure, and scores above 0.75 as high exposure. We
stress that this represents the top threshold of the theoretical concept of exposure. In practice, the actual automation of
tasks with high scores is likely to be significantly lower, due to constraints related to the technical feasibility of the
deployment of technology, the costs of deployment and other limiting factors.
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Generative AI and the media and culture industry

 Figure 2. Task-level scores by ISCO 4-digit, sorted by mean at job level

Note: Levels of exposure to potential automation by GenAI with capabilities similar to GPT-4 on 0-1 scale. “Medium exposure” for 0.5-0.75 scores and
“high exposure” for scores greater than 0.75. See ILO Working Paper 96 for details.

For example, full automation of the journalistic task of “receiving, analysing and verifying news and other copy for
accuracy” would require major trust in the consistent reliability of such an automation process. While current AI technology
can greatly enhance certain aspects involved in such type of verification, the associated risks, such as potential
inaccuracies and biases, would likely discourage most media organisations from fully removing the human element from
this process. In addition, GenAI also brings new challenges in content verification, particularly due to the possible
proliferation of false information generated through different automated or semi-automated processes (see box 3). As
such, it is more accurate to consider that this technical area involves a bundle of smaller tasks, which will evolve along
with the occupation’s exposure to the AI systems. While some tasks may eventually become automatable, new tasks are
likely to emerge as the content verification process evolves and adjusts to new technological advancements and
challenges. Nevertheless, analysing the distribution of theoretical exposure scores at the level of detailed occupations and
their internationally agreed task bundles in the ISCO-08 system, can help indicate the general direction of some of the
changes that the media and culture industry will possibly undergo.

In addition to the distribution of task-level scores, we can also consider the overall occupational scores, calculated as the
mean of individual task scores under each occupation. Figure 3 presents these occupational means of individual media-
related jobs in the context of all 436 occupations in the ISCO-08 system, plotted against the standard deviation (SD) of
task-level scores within each occupation. Jobs with a high mean score and a low standard deviation fall into the category
of high automation potential (red triangles in the plot), as the majority of the occupation’s tasks have high exposure scores.
Jobs with a high augmentation potential (blue squares in the plot) are at the other extreme, as they have a low occupation-
level mean score, but a high standard deviation of the task scores, meaning that the tasks are diverse enough to ensure
the continued need for human involvement. Media and culture jobs, as defined in Table 1, are marked with green dots.
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Generative AI and the media and culture industry

 Figure 3. Media-related jobs: exposure to AI, relative to other occupations in ISCO-08

Analysing Figures 2 and 3 jointly, we can observe that the level of exposure to GenAI varies greatly across different
occupations within the media and culture sector. The lowest exposure concerns such occupations as dancers,
choreographers and creative and performing artists, for whom most task-level scores and occupational mean scores are
placed far to the left of the 0.5 threshold, partly due to the physical necessities of this work. Several other occupations –
such as broadcasting and audiovisual technical or graphic and multimedia designers – are found in the middle range. For
these roles, only some tasks show exposure scores above 0.5, suggesting that while human involvement remains central
to most tasks they involve, GenAI tools could potentially “augment” or “complement” these jobs by taking over some of the
tasks, either partially or entirely, transforming the way these jobs are performed rather than fully replacing them.

On the highest end of that spectrum are the occupations of authors and writers, translators, interpreters and linguists, as
well as media announcers and journalists. The distribution of task-level scores (Figure 2) and the occupations’ average
scores (Figure 3) suggests that many of the tasks defined for these jobs in the ISCO-08 documentation have a medium or
high level of exposure to GenAI. The media and entertainment industry serves as a useful example of why the feasibility
of automating tasks must be assessed within a wider context, beyond just theoretical possibilities.
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Generative AI and the media and culture industry

Potential AI exposure does not imply immediate AI deployment for full automation. In most of these highly exposed
occupations, the human role remains crucial to the job. For example, while media messages can indeed be presented by
a machine with a human voice, few people would be willing to watch the evening news read by a digital avatar. In theory,
advanced chatbots could also be used to ask interview questions; however, such a product is unlikely to match the interest
generated by a skilled human journalist, or of interest enough to attract guests to a programme. Similarly, in the category
of Authors and Related Authors, creating written media content can indeed be supported by a machine in many ways, with
benefits for speed and even creativity. However, attempting to replace all writing with a bot trained on previous content
would be far from a viable strategy in the media industry. Therefore, the main objective of this analysis is to understand
the direction of possible changes and provide insights for consultations and debates that are necessary for the design of
evidence-based transition policies, measures and regulations, appropriate to national contexts.

As we explore the broader implications of AI exposure across various occupations, it is equally important to delve into
specific sectors to understand how AI technologies are being integrated and relevant impacts. Accordingly, case studies
are presented to examine the transformative effects of AI in different sub-sectors within this field, and to better appreciate
the nuanced benefits and challenges brought about by these advancements.

 Case studies on emerging practices and effects of GenAI in

specific media and culture sectors

The transformative effects of AI, particularly Generative AI (GenAI), on the media and culture sector are not uniform; they
vary significantly across sub-sectors and even within the same sub-sector. The use of automation for specific tasks may
benefit certain actors while disadvantaging others, creating trade-offs that complicate the identification of general trends.
In this section, we present several case studies that delve deeper into the potential transformations, examining both the
specific benefits and challenges introduced by AI and GenAI. These case studies aim to illustrate how AI can positively
enhance productivity and creativity in certain areas, while simultaneously posing risks related to job displacement,
working conditions and skills gaps, among others.

AI in Journalism: Shaping the Future of Reporting

AI has a wide range of applications in journalism, some of which offer clear advantages, while others raise concerns. With
respect to advantages, some of the key applications are in data analysis and fact-checking (see Box 2). AI can quickly
process large datasets, identify trends and verify claims much faster than humans. It can support investigative journalism
by identifying significant topics, monitoring social media for events such as protests or accidents and isolating factual
claims from complex texts. This allows journalists to focus on critical reporting with greater precision.10

Another transformative role of AI lies in content creation. Journalists can leverage AI to generate data-driven drafts,
drawing from public databases on topics such as economics, sports, or the weather, providing a foundation that reporters
can refine and contextualize, thus reducing the time required to produce content. Furthermore, AI facilitates content
personalization by analysing user behaviour and preferences. Platforms can deliver tailored articles, podcasts, or local
news, creating a more relevant experience for audiences. Additionally, AI can streamline workflows by automating tasks
like metadata generation, interview transcription, data visualization and content organization.

10
UNESCO, AI and the future of journalism, 2024 and UNESCO, Reporting on artificial intelligence: a handbook for journalism educators , module 7, 2023.
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Generative AI and the media and culture industry

 Box 2 - Pioneering AI in Journalism: La Nación's Innovation in News Gathering, Data Analysis, and Gender Bias
Reduction

The Argentine newspaper, La Nación, has been a pioneer in the use of artificial intelligence (AI) for journalism,
exploring its application in news and information gathering for both narrative and business purposes. Their
experimentation began with a 2016 project that investigated the progress of solar parks in Argentina, using machine
learning and computer vision to analyse satellite images. Eleven thousand images were used to train the algorithm,
after which 7 million images were processed, covering 2.8 million square kilometres of land. The data indicated the
government's renewable energy goals had not been met.

La Nación also established an AI laboratory that brought together journalists, data analysts, and developers to expand
their working capacity and accelerate learning. Among their projects was an analysis of trap music lyrics using AI,
which allowed them to identify trends and linguistic features of this globally popular music genre. The methods used
could also be applied to other types of music or even different texts, such as political speeches.

La Nación has also employed AI to reduce gender bias in journalism by developing a tool that measures the
proportion of female and male sources cited in articles, as well as the use of images by gender.

Source: Global Investigative Journalism Network, AI Journalism Lessons from a 150-Year-Old Argentinian Newspaper,
2022

At the same time, the integration of AI into journalism presents several challenges that could undermine the quality and
integrity of the profession. One major concern is the potential decline in content quality. AI struggles to fully grasp nuance,
cultural context, and linguistic subtleties, which are essential for in-depth and insightful reporting. This limitation risks
generating superficial coverage, especially on complex topics requiring critical analysis.

Bias is another concern. AI systems learn from large datasets that can reflect societal, political, or cultural biases. 11 These
biases can unintentionally be amplified by AI, leading to unbalanced reporting and the perpetuation of stereotypes,
threatening the credibility of journalism. Additionally, AI-generated content lacks the emotional depth and personal
perspective that human journalists bring and may lead to impersonal narratives that may fail to connect with readers on
a meaningful level.

AI also raises concerns about plagiarism, as its reliance on extensive datasets increases the likelihood of producing text
resembling existing work, posing ethical and legal risks (see Box 3). Lastly, an over-reliance on AI could erode journalists’
critical thinking, investigative skills, and creativity. This dependency risks turning journalism into a mechanized process,
diminishing its human-driven essence and weakening the profession's role as a cornerstone of truth and accountability.
Furthermore, a lack of recognition and fair remuneration can reduce incentives for creating original, high-quality content,
affecting both journalism and artistic work. This decline in original content could degrade the quality of outputs from AI
models, further destabilizing the information ecosystem and exacerbating challenges faced by news outlets due to the
influence of social media and search engines. Other challenges include potential harms to language diversity, cultural
expressions, as well as concerns over the economic viability of smaller outlets, particularly in the Global South, as a result
of unequal access to AI infrastructure and training.

11
Paweł Gmyrek, Christoph Lutz, and Gemma Newlands, "A Technological Construction of Society: Comparing GPT-4 and Human Respondents for
Occupational Evaluation in the UK," British Journal of Industrial Relations, August 2024, https://doi.org/10.1111/bjir.12840. Pre-print published as ILO
Working Paper 102.
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Generative AI and the media and culture industry

 Box 3 - Ethical Challenges in Journalism: The Risks of Unregulated AI in Newsrooms

In mid-2024, a local Wyoming newspaper was thrust into controversy after it was revealed that one of its journalists
had been using generative AI to write news stories. The issue came to light when a reporter from a competing
newspaper uncovered unusually robotic language and fabricated quotes in several articles, including a strange and
inaccurate explanation of the "inverted pyramid" writing structure in a story about a prominent comedian.

The journalist, who was relatively new to the field, admitted to relying on AI tools to assist in crafting his stories,
including the generation of fictitious quotes from high-ranking state representatives. Upon discovery, the journalist
resigned; the editor of the newspaper, who had been unaware of the use of AI, issued a public apology. The
newspaper has since established clear guidelines on the use of AI in news production, ensuring that such incidents
would not occur in the future.

Source: Amy Beth Hanson, Wyoming reporter caught using AI to create fake quotes, stories, AP News, 14 August 2024

These potential downsides highlight the need for careful consideration when integrating AI into journalism, to preserve
journalism's role as a public service that upholds accountability and democracy. It includes considerations around policies
that ensure rigorous oversight, transparent algorithmic design, and ongoing human involvement in editorial decision-
making.

Effectively managing AI’s integration into journalism also necessitates a reassessment of skills, as well as workforce
development, including addressing skills shortages. Traditional skills such as ethics, critical thinking, creativity, fact-
checking, and proofreading are now more in demand, as they address some of generative AI’s weaknesses. In contrast,
skills such as content editing, grammar, punctuation, and image editing are less needed due to AI’s growing ability in
these areas.12 The adoption of AI is bringing about increased collaboration between AI firms and the media industry. To
strengthen this collaboration, as well as foster interdisciplinary approaches within media organizations, it is essential to
build and enhance these critical skills.

To adapt, many news organizations are actively investing in upskilling their workforce through AI training programs, which
further emphasizes the rise of hybrid roles that blend traditional journalistic expertise with computational skills. As AI
continues to reshape the journalism workforce, these hybrid roles increasingly involve data management and algorithmic
understanding, requiring journalists to have a deep understanding of AI’s capabilities and limitations. 13

However, many new journalism graduates are not adequately trained in AI, leading to a rise in interdisciplinary
collaboration as a temporary solution for integrating AI tools into newsrooms. Experts emphasize the importance of
incorporating AI training into journalism curricula at the university level.14 Nonetheless, there is no universal consensus
on the most effective way to teach these skills or which technical competencies are essential for specific tasks, highlighting
the need for continuous adaptation and education as journalism evolves alongside AI advancements.

Another point of debate is determining how to operationalize and fairly distribute revenues ─ an issue explored in the
music section but equally relevant to journalism.

Composing with Algorithms: Music Creation in the Age of AI

The rise of GenAI poses a significant challenge to traditional roles within the music and performance industries, affecting
musicians, sound engineers and other behind-the-scenes roles, with possible repercussions on employment, income

12
Nick Diakopoulos. "The Impact of Generative AI on Journalistic Labor." Generative AI in the Newsroom. July 23, 2024.
13
Amaya Noain-Sánchez. "Addressing the Impact of Artificial Intelligence on Journalism: The Perception of Experts, Journalists, and Academics."
Communication & Society 35, no. 3 (2022): 105–121.
14
Diakopoulos, “The Impact of Generative AI on Journalistic Labor.”
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Generative AI and the media and culture industry

security, and working conditions. The dramatic upsurge in tech-enterprises dedicated to the integration of AI in the music
industry is likely to accelerate emerging trends.15

Music producers and sound engineers are increasingly using AI to adjust vocal pitch, to mix and refine music, and even to
create new songs. GenAI tools can enable musicians or sound engineers to generate customised and adaptive sounds
harmonies, or even entire arrangements, which musicians can incorporate into their compositions. Sound engineers are
particularly at risk, as GenAI tools are increasingly capable of automating tasks that sound engineers traditionally handle,
such as mixing, mastering, and sound design. Musicians may rely on AI software to self-produce tracks, reducing the need
for human producers and engineers, with possible negative implications on jobs in sound engineering. Some GenAI tools
also threaten to automate the ancillary jobs that come with sound engineering done by assistants. Sound engineers can
now perform previously labour-intensive tasks without requiring additional human labour support, particularly at the
postproduction phase where editing and organising of audio files has traditionally been the purview of assistants.16 Some
music and video platforms offer GenAI tools that let users type in an idea, choose an artist's voice from a list, and instantly
receive a unique soundtrack based on the prompts.17 GenAI was even used to isolate John Lennon’s voice from a 1978
recording, enabling a new song by The Beatles to be produced.18 Supporters of the technology argue that it can have a
democratising effect, by enhancing participation and access to music for those who may not have the skills, but have the
passion for it.19

Yet, at the heart of the controversy lies the issue of informed consent from the musician (or other artist or writer), whose
original works are used to train the AI system (see section below). In most cases, such consent has not been given,
resulting in litigation.20 In one legal case in the United States, three music companies are seeking a declaratory judgement
against two AI companies. The plaintiffs, who hold music rights of various musicians, allege that the AI companies violated
the copyrights during the training of their Gen AI tools. As one of the legal representatives submitted, “this process
involved copying decades worth of the world’s most popular sound recordings and then ingesting those copies [to]
generate outputs that imitate the qualities of genuine human sound recordings.” 21 A related issue concerns attribution,
as the sheer volume of music generated by AI, coupled with the challenges of detecting specific patterns in sound
recordings, makes it harder for rights holders and platforms to verify the origins of a piece.

It has also been argued that Gen AI’s reliance of vast inputs of data during the training and development phase has the
potential to infringe not just copyright law but also competition law. The United States Federal Trade Commission has
suggested that “if a person creates content or information that an AI company scrapes, and then the content or
information the AI generator produces competes with the original producer ‘to dislodge them from the market and divert
businesses … that could be an unfair method of competition’ that would violate antitrust law”.22

Furthermore, there are growing concerns about potential revenue losses for music creators. Musicians are already
struggling with reduced incomes from recordings as a result of the shift to streaming. There is now the risk that such
platforms will increasingly incorporate AI outputs in their offerings, potentially substituting for human-made works. A
2024 study published by the International Confederation of Societies of Authors and Composers (CISAC) projects a decline

15
Ruly Anam Ghazi and Drew Thurlow. "How AI is Creating a Wave of Innovation and Entrepreneurship That’s Reshaping the Music Industry." Billboard, May
8, 2024.
16
Mike Thornton. "AI Assistants in Audio Post Production." Production Expert, July 23, 2024. Accessed October 9, 2024.
17
Lyor Cohen and Toni Reid. "AI and Music: Experimenting with New Technologies." YouTube Official Blog, November 16, 2023.

18
Andrew R. Chow. "AI’s Influence on Music Is Raising Some Difficult Questions." Time, December 4, 2023.
19
Bernard Marr, “Generative AI is Revolutionising Music: The Vision for Democratising Creation.” 2023
20
Recording Industry Association of America, "Record Companies Bring Landmark Cases for Responsible AI Against Suno and Udio in Boston and New York
Federal Courts, Respectively," Press Statement, June 24, 2024.
21
Justin Cuto, "All 3 Major Labels Are Suing AI Start-ups for Copyright Infringement." Vulture, August 1, 2024.

22
Adam Clair, "What AI in Music Can — and Can’t — Do: Music Production Is Getting Easier. Does That Make It Better?" Vox, August 5, 2024.
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Generative AI and the media and culture industry

in revenue loss of 24 percent for music creators by 2028 (and a 21 percent decline for audiovisual creators) as a result of
the rise of AI-generated content.23

AI-Enhanced VFX, scriptwriting and film production: Redefining roles

GenAI tools are increasingly used for the overall production of movies, with some films and shots being entirely AI-
generated. In such cases, various AI tools can be employed to generate still images, animate them, and even create 3D
virtual objects from 2D photos.24 GenAI has also played a role in enhancing distribution to wider global audiences, as
GenAI tools can now rapidly enable tasks such as subtitling, dubbing, and audio description features, thereby enhancing
accessibility. 25

In addition, the use of AI in traditional tasks involved in film production is posing several new questions for screenwriters,
directors, and producers alike. Thus far, and as in many other media subsectors, the issues have largely centred on AI’s
potential to infringe intellectual property rights through the training and development-phase of GenAI tools, such as ones
which require millions of preexisting works by artists or data to generate novel scripts or imagery. In this context, GenAI’s
potential to replace actors by using their own images has led to widespread concern and even industrial action, with calls
for regulating issues around consent, remuneration and job security. 26

The use of AI in generating scenes, and managing tasks like animation and VFX, can cut down production timelines and
budgets, but may also change the type of expertise needed, increasingly moving from creative roles to roles that are more
able to manage technical and AI tools. For example, script writers may shift to roles where they oversee or "fine-tune" AI-
generated content rather than originating it themselves. These changes could lead to a significant shift in labour dynamics,
potentially reducing demand for traditional creative roles while increasing opportunities in technical and hybrid positions,
thereby necessitating reskilling and posing challenges for adaptation of the existing workforce.

 Addressing transformations in the world of work of media

and culture

The design of policies and regulations that support a human-centred AI transition begins with an understanding of the
various potential labour market transformations that AI, and GenAI in particular, may bring. AI presents a significant shift
in how creative content is produced, distributed, and monetized, potentially transforming the jobs and labour market for
artists, writers, musicians, and other creative professionals. While many of these shifts may simply augment workers’
abilities, some occupations may be retrenched. It is thus not surprising that there is fear among the creative community
of the potential for AI to substitute human creativity with algorithms, reducing the demand for human artists.

The multiple shocks stemming from the technological transition necessitate policy responses and social dialogue. The
media and culture sector is still grappling with the shift to streaming, which has upended traditional forms of labour
demand as well as remuneration and compensation models. 27 The advent of GenAI, and its ability to automate some of
the tasks that workers perform, but also to produce content based on digital replicas or creatives’ original work, adds
further challenges.

23
CISAC, The economic impact of Generative AI in the Music and Audiovisual industries, 2024
24
Will Douglas. "Welcome to the New Surreal: How AI-Generated Video Is Changing Film." MIT Technology Review, June 1, 2023.
25
Ketan Totlani. "The evolution of generative AI: Implications for the media and film industry." International Journal for Research in Applied Science and
Engineering Technology (2023).
26
Konnor Shetler, "AI and Consent: What the SAG-AFTRA and WGA Agreements Tell Us About the Future of Generative AI," Student Works, no. 1483 (2024).
27
ILO, The Future of Work in the Arts and Entertainment Sector – Report, 51-52.
 ILO Brief 13
Generative AI and the media and culture industry

As such, there is a need for protection frameworks around the ethical and fair use of AI based on the concept of “3Cs”
(compensation, control on the use of the work of the creator, informed consent), but also for policies to manage workforce
transition through skills development. This could include educational initiatives that can equip creative professionals with
the knowledge and tools to understand AI systems, as well as the use of social protection to support workers affected by
AI in the transition phase.

The 3Cs: Compensation, Control on the use and attribution of work, and
Informed Consent
The debate on the ethical and fair use of AI revolves around the concept known as “3C”:

• Fair Compensation: Performers should be fairly compensated for the use of their voice, likeness, or image in AI-
generated content. The SAG-AFTRA agreement with Narrativ.ai is an example of social dialogue that resulted in
ethical use and compensation of voice actors’ digital likeness (see box 4). Linked to this is the issue of revenue sharing
vis-à-vis labels, producers or GenAI providers.
• Informed Consent: Contracts must ensure artists know the specific uses of their digital replicas or likenesses and
performers must give explicit permission for the use of their name, image, and likeness (NIL) in AI applications. This
also means the ability to decide whether their works can be used to train AI models or as inputs for generative
processes; and decide on the scope of use, specifying how their work can be utilized—e.g., whether AI-generated
content based on their work can be used for commercial or non-commercial purposes. The current lack of robust
consent protocols disproportionately benefits large players, who often gain control over such uses without adequate
consideration for individual creators. Non-consensual use cases have underscored the urgent need for strict and
enforceable consent mechanisms.
• Controls: Creators—such as writers, musicians, filmmakers, visual artists, and other professionals—need to be able
to govern how their works, identities, and creative inputs are used, adapted, or reproduced by AI systems. This
control ensures that the creators’ intellectual property (IP), labour, and reputations are respected and that they
receive fair recognition and compensation. In order for this to be realized, creators need to have an understanding
on what AI – and particularly GenAI – entails; it is also necessary to build agency among them to negotiate relevant
employment conditions.

Connected to these three dimensions is the issue of attribution of work and the recognition of human authorship. While
recent collective agreements have partly addressed this issue in relation to the use of digital replicas, 28 this debate remains
open and particularly challenging in some sub-sectors such as music, where attributing a sound to a specific author is
significantly more complex compared to the attribution of an image to performers or visual artists. These developments
may require new governance systems that protect the rights of creators, ensuring fair compensation, proper control over
their creations, and explicit consent in the AI-driven entertainment landscape. Some efforts are being made to provide
guidance to workers in the sector, as for example the AI Guidelines for Voice Work produced by the United Voice Artists
(UVA).29

28
SAG-AFTRA, “TV/Theatrical Contracts 2023”, accessed December 4, 2024.
29
The AI guidelines for voice work emphasize the need for artists' consent, fair compensation, rights protection, transparency, and the ability to restrict use
for specific content. (United Voice Artists, AI Guidelines for Voice Work, 2024).
 ILO Brief 14
Generative AI and the media and culture industry

 Box 4 – Fair compensation and consent: Narrativ.ai and SAG-AFTRA collective agreement30

The Screen Actors’ Guild – American Federation of Television and Radio Artists (SAG-AFTRA) and Narrativ, an AI startup
that licenses audio replicas through an online marketplace, have reached an agreement allowing guild members to
license their digital voice replicas for use in AI-generated audio advertising. This collaboration establishes safeguards
including informed consent, fair compensation, and performer control over their digital likeness. Through Narrativ’s
platform, performers can set their own pricing and ad preferences, in line with SAG-AFTRA established rates.
Advertisers must disclose the use of the voice and secure explicit approval from talent for each ad. Payment includes
contributions to SAG-AFTRA’s Health and Retirement plans.

This partnership is hailed by both parties as a groundbreaking approach to managing the labour implications of AI for
voice actors. By prioritizing transparency and ethical practices, it offers performers new income opportunities while
ensuring informed consent and fair compensation. The agreement equips advertisers with innovative tools to create
personalized campaigns efficiently, while setting a precedent for ethical AI integration in the creative economy.

Managing workforce transition

The potential changes brought about by the advent of GenAI necessitate comprehensive policy responses, both for
ensuring that workers’ have the adequate skills to use the technology and adapt to new demands, but also to mitigate
harms that can arise in terms of employment or working conditions, including remuneration or compensation. Given the
wide range of potential effects from AI in the media and culture sector, social dialogue between employers’ and workers’
representatives is best suited for managing such change, as it can tailor responses to the particular needs of the
subsector.31 Nevertheless, in addition to sector-specific approaches, broader policy measures are needed, including the
development of training programmes, social protection systems, as well as regulations on AI to ensure its ethical use and
support fair competition.

For workers who may be at risk of losing their jobs, to the extent possible, governments and industry bodies should
implement policies that prioritize redeployment over job loss, in line with the ILO’s Employment Protection
Recommendation (No. 166, 1982). For workers who are retrenched, there is a need for income support measures that can
support them during the transition, such as unemployment benefits or other forms of social assistance. These financial
support mechanisms are critical for workers’ participation in retraining and reskilling programs – a critical element of any
policy aimed at managing a sector in transition.

Training programmes should be designed to support workers who remain in the media and culture sector, with an
emphasis on educational programs that focus on integrating AI tools with creative skills. Such training will allow workers
to adapt their skills to the demands of the changing industry and will also be critical for having workers understand the
risk of using generative AI, especially in fields such as journalism, which are grounded in institutional trust. There is also
a need to invest in continuous education and upskilling initiatives focused on digital literacy, AI competency, and other
emerging technologies, to ensure workers remain competitive in the evolving job market.

With respect to working conditions, the incorporation of the new technologies in the daily work of those in the sector
should also be monitored to ensure that work intensity is not exacerbated, particularly for those left behind after staff
cuts. Adequate remuneration policies are essential to offset potential revenue losses caused by GenAI. Additionally, robust
compensation models must be established to ensure fair payment for the use of performers' likenesses and authors'
images and sounds, even in cases where AI-generated content is created without their direct involvement or active
performance.

Efforts should be made to strengthen collective bargaining mechanisms, set minimum fee standards for all forms of
employment, and ensure greater transparency in revenue distribution, particularly on digital platforms. Collaborative

30
ILO, "Conclusions of the Technical Meeting on the Future of Work in the Arts and Entertainment Sector," TMFWAE/2023/8, 2023.
31
ILO, "Conclusions of the Technical Meeting on the Future of Work in the Arts and Entertainment Sector," TMFWAE/2023/8, 2023.
 ILO Brief 15
Generative AI and the media and culture industry

initiatives between governments, social partners, and industry stakeholders can help address these disparities, fostering
an environment where artists are compensated fairly for their work across all income channels. It needs to be said that in
many countries, artists, cultural professionals, and other creatives lack the effective representation and collective
organization provided by robust associations or trade unions, making them less likely to secure protective agreements or
fair compensation.

In terms of governance, policies and regulations should go hand-in-hand with social dialogue processes, including
collective bargaining, to establish baseline protections for those operating in the sector. Such governance is needed to
prevent unfair exploitation of creatives’ work and protect the human creative contribution. Public policies should
harmonize labour and intellectual property (IP) rights, while recognizing the need for approaches tailored to the specific
characteristics of each sub-sector, national context, and local cultural dynamics to ensure equitable and effective
implementation.

Ultimately, the evolving landscape of media and culture jobs under the influence of GenAI necessitates a balanced
approach that embraces technological advancements while safeguarding ethics and the human elements of creativity.
Strategic adaptation through continuous skill development, ethical AI governance, and collaborative policymaking can
ensure that the workforce transitions smoothly, mitigating potential job displacement and revenue losses. By fostering a
human-centred AI ecosystem, stakeholders can enhance the sector's resilience by ensuring sustainable growth and
protection for creators' work and livelihoods.

Contact details T: +41 22 799 7239 DOI: https://doi.org/10.54394/FOSL3256

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