LESSON PROPER/DISCUSSION:

Background of the Problem

Providing background information in the introduction of a research paper serves as a

bridge that links the reader to the topic of your study. Precisely how long and in-depth
this bridge should be is largely dependent upon how much information you think the reader
will need to know in order to fully understand the topic being discussed and to appreciate
why the issues you are investigating are important.

From another perspective, the length and detail of background information also depends on
the degree to which you need to demonstrate to your professor how much you understand the
research problem. Keep this in mind because providing pertinent background information
can be an effective way to demonstrate that you have a clear grasp of key issues and concepts
underpinning your overall study. Don't try to show off, though! And avoid stating the
obvious.

The structure and writing style of your background information can vary depending upon the
complexity of your research and/or the nature of the assignment. Given this, here are some
questions to consider while writing this part of your introduction :

1. Are there concepts, terms, theories, or ideas that may be unfamiliar to the reader and, thus,
require additional explanation?
2. Are there historical elements that need to be explored in order to provide needed context,
to highlight specific people, issues, or events, or to lay a foundation for understanding the
emergence of a current issue or event?
3. Are there theories, concepts, or ideas borrowed from other disciplines or academic
traditions that may be unfamiliar to the reader and therefore require further explanation?
4. Is the research study unusual in a way that requires additional explanation, such as, 1)
your study uses a method of analysis never applied before; 2) your study investigates a
very esoteric or complex research problem; 3) your study introduces new or unique variables
that need to be taken into account; or, 4) your study relies uponanalyzing unique texts or
documents, such as, archival materials or primary documents like diaries or personal
letters that do not represent the established body of source literature onthe topic? Almost all
introductions to a research problem require some contextualizing, but the scope and
breadth of background information varies depending on your assumption about the
reader's level of prior knowledge. Despite this assessment, however, background
information should be brief and succinct; save any elaboration of critical points or in-depth
discussion of key issues for the literature review section of your paper.

Theoretical Framework

This refers to the structure that supports a theory of a research study. The theoretical
framework introduces and describes the theory that explains why the research problem under
study exists.

Guidelines in Writing a Theoretical Framework

 The following guidelines are used by the researchers in writing a theoretical
framework:

1. Write an introduction. This will guide the readers to the objective of the study. The
purpose of the researcher is to generate readers’ interest.
2. Present the topic in a logical and sequential manner. The topic must be presented
clearly and with sound reasoning.
3. The theoretical framework must be supported with findings of previous research.
4. Consider other problems in other areas in the field which have not been studied.

Conceptual Model

A conceptual model is a model made of the composition of concepts, which are used
to help people know, understand, or simulate a subject the model represents. According to
Fawcette (2000), a conceptual model gives direction to the search for relevant questions
about the phenomena of central interest to a discipline and suggests solutions to practical
problems. It shows how various concepts are interrelated and applies theories to predict or
evaluate consequences of alternative actions.

Media Devices

Media Devices Media Devices

Time
(Recency Effect Theory)

Student’s Retention Ability

(Student Retention Theory)

Other Affecting
Factors

Guidelines in Designing a Research Paradigm

The researchers in designing a paradigm are guided by the following:

1. A conceptual framework can guide research by providing a visual representation of

theoretical constructs and variables of interest.
2. Designing a conceptual model by conducting a thorough review of the literature.
3. Search peer- reviewed journal articles, books/monographs, conference papers, and
other relevant references.
4. Organize the literature around the topic.
5. Prepare drafts; and
6. Develop research questions or objectives based on theory.
 Example: Simulacrum on the Effects of Organizational Climate to Employees’ Job
Performance

Organizational
Process

Organizational
Climate

Employees’ Employees’ Employees’

Motivation Satisfaction Commitment

Job Performance

Student
Satisfaction

INPUT PROCESS OUTPUT

ANALYSIS OF
Profile of the PROPOSED HUMAN
ORGANIZATIONAL
Respondents RESOURCE
CLIMATE IN HUMAN
DEVELOPMENT
Organizational Climate RESOURCE
PROGRAM
DEPARTMENT

Research Paradigm on the relationship between organizational Climate and the

Effectiveness of the Services rendered by the Human Resource Department
 Accessibility
of the Store

Product’s Cost Employee’s

Services

CUSTOMER’S
SATISFACTION

Factors Contributing to the Satisfaction of Customers

Hypothesis

A hypothesis is a tentative prediction about the relationship between two or more

variables under study.

 According to Clifford (2000), hypotheses are speculations of how variables in the

study will work out and provide predicted answers to research questions. They
embody the variables and the populations based on the problem statement.
 According to Treece and Treece (2004), hypotheses are statements of the researcher’s
expectations regarding the relationship between and among the variables under
investigation.
 According to Newswiadomy, (1993), a hypothesis may be shrewd guess or inference,
an intellectual proposition formulated to explain observed facts or conditions in order
to guide the investigation further. It must be empirically testable and verifiable, which
means that it is capable of being tested in the real world by observations gathered
through the human senses.

Some research reports explicitly state the hypotheses that guided the study, but most
do not. In some cases, the absence of the hypotheses is appropriate, but it is absence
often does not indicate that the researcher has failed to consider logically and
scientifically the implication of theory or the existing knowledge base. It does not
also indicate that the researcher has failed to disclose the hunches that may have
influenced the research method or design.
Functions of Hypotheses

The following are functions of hypotheses:

1. A hypothesis translates a research question into a prediction of expected outcomes.

2. A hypothesis though does not validate a theory but evaluates the worth of a theory.

3. A hypotheses are sometimes derived from theories and the latter as too abstract to
comprehend and test can be deduced into former which can be tested;

4. A hypothesis offers direction and suggests explanation;

5. It is realized by means of prediction which could be based on theory, previous researches

and other personal observations of phenomena or conditions;

6. A hypothesis gives direction to research by identifying the research method or design;

7. It determines the significance of the variables under investigation and the importance of
research data.

8. A hypothesis helps the researchers analyze and interpret findings of the study and draw
conclusion,

9. In some cases, a hypothesis is not confirmed by evidence collected; thus, this failure forces
the researchers to analyze the theory and explore alternative explanations for the findings;

10. A hypothesis tends to induce critical thinking to facilitate interpretation of data; and

11. A hypothesis guards against superficiality and minimize the possibility that spurious
results will be misconstrued.

Sources of Hypotheses:

The following are sources of hypotheses:

1. Theories;

2. Previous researches/earlier studies;

3. Personal observations;

4. Expert’s opinion; and

5. Personal experiences.

Types of Hypothesis:

Hypotheses are statements related to problems which predict the relationship between the
independent and dependent variables under investigation.

Simple and Complex Hypotheses

1. Simple hypothesis. It is also called univariate hypothesis. This statement predicts the
relationship between a single independent variable and a single dependent variable.

Examples: 1. Boys eat more that girls.

2. Girls dance better than boys.
3. Boys are better in mathematics than girls.
 2. Complex hypothesis. This statement predicts relationship between two or more
independent variables and a single dependent variable or between a single independent
variable and two or more dependent variables.

Examples: 1. Girls who graduate for exclusive schools and girls from rich families are
more Fashionable than girls raised in slum areas.
2. Boys eat more and work faster than girls.
3. Girls are more passionate and more caring than boys.

3. Directional Hypothesis. This is a statement related to problem which specifies not only
the existence but the expected direction of the relationship between and among variables
under study.

Examples: 1. Women who exercise during post- partum have lower weight retention than
women who do not.
2. Mothers who smoke and drink alcohol have a higher risk of babies with birth
defects than mothers who do not.
3. Post- operative patients who adhere to early ambulation have faster recovery
than post- operative patients who do not.

4. Non- Directional Hypothesis. This is a statement related to a problem which does not
stipulate the direction of the relationship between and among variables under investigation.

Examples: 1. Patients who adhere to early ambulation have a faster recovery than clients who do
not.
2. Individuals with different coping strategies experience different level of
anxiety.
3. Faculty members with different teaching strategies receive different
performance evaluation rate.

5. Research Hypothesis. This is a statement related to a problem which shows actual

expected relationships between and among variables under study. It is also called substantive
or scientific hypothesis. Generally, hypotheses are presented in this form which indicates the
researchers’ true expectation.

Examples: 1. There is a significant relationship between the level of anxiety of employees and
their choice of coping strategies.
2. There is a significant relationship between the educational attainment of the
post- operative patient and extent of adherence to early ambulation.
3. Employees who employ adaptive coping strategies have the same level of
anxiety of employees who employ palliative coping strategies.

6. Statistical Hypothesis. This is a statement related to problem which shows that there is
no relationship between the independent and dependent variables under investigation. It is
also called null hypothesis which is a formal statement of a presumed innocence.

Examples: 1. The level of anxiety of employees has no significant relationship with their????
2. Educational attainment of mothers has no relationship with their extent of
participation in maternal practices during labor.
3. There is no significant relationship between the educational attainment of post-
operative patients and their extent of adherence to early ambulation.

According to Ahuja (2001), the following are considered in formulating a hypothesis:

1. It should be empirically testable, whether it is right or wrong;

2. It should be specific and precise;
3. The statements in the hypothesis should not be contradictory;
 4. It should specify the relationship to be established between two or more
variables; and
5. It should describe one issue only.

According to Treece and Treece (1989), the following are

characteristics of a hypothesis:

1. It is testable;
2. It is logical;
3. It is directly related to the research problem;
4. It is factually or theoretically based;
5. It states a relationship between variables; and
6. It is stated in such a form that it can be accepted or rejected.