Sustainable Zero-Slump Concrete Containing Recycled

Aggregates from Construction and Demolition

Waste of a 63-Year-Old Demolished Building
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Gyanendra Kumar, CEng., A.M.ASCE 1; Ramesh Chandra Gupta, Ph.D. 2;

and Sandeep Shrivastava, Ph.D. 3

Abstract: In this study, recycled concrete aggregate (RCA) from construction and demolition waste (CDW) was utilized in zero-slump
concrete (ZSC) to produce M-40 grade paver blocks. Initially, coarse RCA (4.75 to 10 mm in diameter) replaced natural coarse aggregate
(NCA) and fresh (slump, compaction factor, density) and hardened (compressive strength, water absorption, abrasion resistance) properties
were investigated to optimize its replacement percentage. Then, the feasibility of incorporating RCA (<4.75 mm) was determined based on
fresh and hardened properties, i.e., bulk density, compressive strength, flexural strength, split tensile strength, water absorption, void ratio,
abrasion resistance, ultrasonic pulse velocity, and dynamic modulus of elasticity. Four samples of each formulation were tested, and the
average was recorded with the standard deviation as the error bar. Microstructural analysis [thermogravimetric analysis (TGA), Fourier
transform infrared (FTIR) spectroscopy, and scanning electron microscopy (SEM)] was conducted to validate the findings. The effects
of RCA incorporation with respect to environmental impact [global warming potential (GWP) and primary energy (PE) consumption] of
1 m3 optimized ZSC mixes were assessed. As per observation, mechanical as well as durability properties degraded with increase in RCA
content. Compressive strength decreased 17% at a combined replacement of 45% coarse and 100% fine RCA. Based on TGA analysis,
portlandite content decreased with increasing RCA concentration, as confirmed by FTIR spectroscopy. SEM results also confirms the findings
as pore counts, total area, average size, and percentage area increases with increase in RCA. Incorporation of 45% coarse and 100% fine RCA
resulted in 4% and 8.8% decrease in GWP and PE, respectively. The optimized ZSC mixture (coarse 45% and 40% fine RCA) was based on an
optimized compressive strength/GWP ratio. The production cost of 1 m3 concrete mix (45% coarse and 100% fine RCA) was 75% higher than
the control mix because of the associated higher cost of RCA. Based on these findings, RCA can replace up to 45% NCA and 40% river sand
without having a significant impact on its properties. Therefore, CDW can be viewed as a resource, not a waste, which can save natural resources
and pave the way to sustainable development. DOI: 10.1061/(ASCE)MT.1943-5533.0004257. © 2022 American Society of Civil Engineers.
Author keywords: Zero-slump concrete (ZSC); Recycled concrete aggregates (RCA); Construction and demolition waste (CDW);
Environmental impact; Recycle; Microstructural analysis.

Introduction world (some 33 billion tons per year). Natural aggregates, i.e., stone
aggregates and river sand, are crucial ingredients in concrete pro-
Concrete is the most widely used construction material around the duction. Due to the limited availability of natural resources for ag-
globe and the second most used substance, just behind water (Gagg gregate production, it is important to identify alternate natural
2014). This is due to its useful properties, i.e., strength, abundant, aggregates (NA). As per the study conducted by GIZ i.e., “Material
ready-made, reliable, and most importantly, versatile. Worldwide, Consumption pattern in India” on automotive and construction sec-
the construction industry’s annual consumption of concrete was tor, India required 1.5 billion tons of river sand for various con-
around 20 billion tons in 2009 (Mehta and Meryman 2009) and struction activities in 2020 (Satpathy et al. 2016). Recycled
projected to double in 20–30 years (Behera et al. 2014). As per concrete aggregates (RCA) may be a suitable alternative for
ISO (TC71 Strategic Business Plan-2016), approximately 4–7 t NA, which can replace a significant portion of NA and save a
of concrete is produced each year for every human being in the considerable number of natural resources.
RCA is produced from construction and demolition waste
1
Research Scholar, Dept. of Civil Engineering, Malaviya National (CDW), which is abundantly available, but is a big concern to re-
Institute of Technology, Jaipur, Rajasthan 302017, India. ORCID: lated authorities because of its characteristics and bulk generation.
https://orcid.org/0000-0002-0348-9871. Email: [email protected] Construction of new structures, demolition of old structures, ren-
2
Professor, Dept. of Civil Engineering, Malaviya National Institute of ovation, natural disasters, and wars generate a significant amount of
Technology, Jaipur, Rajasthan 302017, India. Email: [email protected] CDW globally (Noaman and Alsaffar 2019; Wang et al. 2019). The
3
Assistant Professor, Dept. of Civil Engineering, Malaviya National Insti- overall CDW generation in 40 countries around the world reached
tute of Technology, Jaipur, Rajasthan 302017, India (corresponding author). more than 3.0 billion tons annually in 2012, and this trend is con-
ORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0003-0108-0180. Email: sshrivastava.ce@
stantly increasing (Akhtar and Sarmah 2018). It was estimated
mnit.ac.in
Note. This manuscript was submitted on August 25, 2021; approved on
to generate 535 million tons CDW in 2011 as per center for
October 26, 2021; published online on April 18, 2022. Discussion period science and environment report (CSE 2014), whereas 11 million
open until September 18, 2022; separate discussions must be submitted for tons of CDW was estimated by the Technology of Information,
individual papers. This paper is part of the Journal of Materials in Civil Forecasting and Assessment Council (TIFAC 2011). India gen-
Engineering, © ASCE, ISSN 0899-1561. erated 716 million tons of CDW in 2015 (Satpathy et al. 2016).

© ASCE 04022115-1 J. Mater. Civ. Eng.

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 Municipal solid waste also constitutes 25% to 30% CDW in India (4.75 to 10 mm) and fine (<4.75 mm) RCA on the fresh and hard-
(TIFAC 2011). The onset of government initiatives around 2015, ened properties of ZSC, which is used in the manufacturing of con-
i.e., Home to all, made in India, AMRUT, development of a 100 crete paver blocks. Moreover, none of the studies discussed the
smart cities, and the Swachh Bharat Mission, should have added a design mix of ZSC (generally for paver blocks), which follows
significant amount of CDW generation as these initiatives required a different systematic approach different from conventional con-
infrastructure development, i.e., construction of new buildings, ren- crete mix design. This study incorporates coarse (diameter - 4.75
ovation of old structures, and demolition of old structures for the to 10 mm) and fine (diameter <4.75 mm) RCA manufactured from
construction of new structures. Therefore, the estimated amount of a reclaimed concrete slab of a demolished 63-year-old residential
CDW generation might have exponentially grown, as seen around building. The research was divided into two parts. The first part
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the major cities of India. consists of optimizing the content of coarse RCA based on fresh
At present, CDW is being dumped in landfill areas, near vacant properties and obligatory requirements of paver blocks, i.e., com-
plots, beside roads, and on the banks of rivers or sewage canals as it pressive strength (CS), water absorption (WA), and abrasion resis-
is difficult to handle due to its nature. CDW in landfill areas con- tance (AR) in Series 1. The second part deals with the optimization
sumes precious land in a densely populated nation like India, which of fine RCA (<4.75 mm) after opting for an optimized coarse RCA
could have been utilized for other developmental works. Dumping content (45%). Fresh properties (slump, compaction factor, and
CDW in vacant areas, such as beside roads, riverbanks, and sewage density) and hardened properties, i.e., bulk density (BD), CS, flexu-
canals may pollute the water and soil. Hazardous wastes, i.e., asbes- ral strength (FS), split tensile strength (STS), WA, void ratio (VR)
tos sheets, glass and tube lights, may also cause detrimental effects (%), AR, ultrasonic pulse velocity (UPV), and dynamic modulus
to humans and animals. CDW may constitute concrete, bricks, of elasticity were investigated. Moreover, microstructural studies,
mortar, stones, steel, ceramic, glass and soil, etc., which become i.e., thermogravimetry analysis (TGA), Fourier transform infrared
challenging to segregate if not done initially at the demolition site. spectroscopy (FTIR), and scanning electron microscopy (SEM),
So, reclaiming the concrete/brick/mortar/stone or ceramic waste were conducted to validate these findings. Environmental impacts,
from CDW is essential for its effective management and utilization. i.e., global warming potential (GWP) and PE consumption, were
Reclaimed concrete, brick, or stone can produce RCA, replacing a also assessed. The production costs of 1 m3 of optimized ZSC
significant portion of NA in the construction industry. mixes were compared. An index based on the CS/GWP ratio was
RCA utilization has been documented in standard codes, adopted to select the most sustainable optimized mix.
i.e., European and British (Concrete–Prat 2000) and India [IS 383 Few recommendations are suggested for the effective utilization
(BIS 2016)]. A significant number of research studies have been of RCA in concrete and concrete-related products. The results of
conducted to determine the effect of incorporating RCA in con- this study may guide or help related stakeholders in making calcu-
crete. (Soutsos et al. 2011) utilized coarse RCA (max. diameter - lated decisions regarding the effective utilization of CDW.
20 mm) in the construction of concrete paving blocks by replacing
(0%, 20%, 40%, 60%, 80%, and 100%) natural coarse aggregates
and noticed that there was no significant change in its properties up Material and Experimental Program
to 60% replacement. Gayarre (López Gayarre et al. 2013) replaced
natural coarse aggregates in concrete kerbstone and floor blocks
Materials and Mix Design
and found that 50% replacement of coarse RCA (max. diameter -
20 mm) can fulfill strength requirements led by different codes. Ordinary Portland cement (OPC) 43-grade with a specific gravity
Concrete floor blocks were manufactured by replacing (0%, 10%, of 3.14 and specific surface area of 265 m2 =kg was used as a
20%, 30%, 40%, 50%, 60%, and 70%) NA and 35% coarse cementitious material [BIS 269 (BIS 2015)]. Table 1 shows physi-
RCA was suggested to be used in blocks to have specified results cal properties of the OPC. Granite angular aggregates (specific
(López Gayarre et al. 2017). The properties of structural concrete gravity - 2.67) were used as the NCA, which was compatible with
decrease with increasing RCA content (Paul 2017). Coarse RCA IS 15658 (BIS 2006) and IS 383 (BIS 1997). River sand was
has replaced up to 75% NA (max. diameter - 20 mm) in concrete brought from the Banas River, which showed a specific gravity
building blocks or masonry blocks (Guo et al. 2018). Matar and of 2.61. RCA was manufactured from CDW generated from
El Dalati (2011) replaced up to 100% NA in precast masonry blocks the demolition of a 63-year old residential house in Jaipur, India.
and found blocks with 50% coarse RCA fulfill the strength require- This mixture consisted of debris, constituted stone, concrete,
ments necessary for the standard. According to a review study con- brick with mortar, ceramic, steel, and plastic, etc. The reclaimed
ducted by Behera et al. (2014) that consulted more than 100 research concrete slab was manually separated from the mixed debris and
articles, RCA can replace 35%–50% NA without having a significant transported to the crushing plant for RCA production. Jaws and
impact on the properties of conventional concrete but only after ap- secondary crushers crushed the reclaimed concrete to obtain
plying water correction and adding superplasticizers. Another critical coarse (diameter - 4.75–10 mm) and fine (diameter <4.75 mm)
review was performed on 200 research articles and found that RCA RCA. Fig. 1 shows the selected concrete and brick waste and
can replace up to 50% NA in concrete mix production (Kisku composition of CDW from the demolished building in Jaipur, In-
et al. 2017). dia. Table 2 shows the physical properties of the NCA, RS, and
Most of the studies incorporated coarse RCA (max. diameter–6 coarse and fine RCA. Sky-8777 (BASF) was used as the super-
and 20 mm) to replace NA for concrete production and precast plasticizer, which was free of chlorides and utilized to obtain the
masonry blocks. Only a few studies replaced both coarse and fine required workability while reducing water content. This super-
NA in concrete, i.e., Poon replaced both coarse (max. diameter - plasticizer was compatible with IS 9103 (BIS 1999). SEM-
10 mm) and fine (max. diameter - 5 mm) NA with RCA and re- EDX was conducted to understand the morphology and elemental
cycled brick waste in concrete to manufacture paver blocks (Poon profile of the materials. Raw samples were collected of each
et al. 2002; Poon and Chan 2006). Marios N. Soutsos also utilized material and no further processing was needed for sample prepa-
coarse RCA (max. diameter - 6 mm) to manufacture precast blocks ration. Figs. 2 and 3 show the visual appearance and particle size
(Soutsos et al. 2011). The author could not find the relevant distribution of the materials. Table 3 shows the chemical compo-
study, which studied the combined impacts of incorporating coarse sition of materials.

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 Table 1. Physical properties of cement
Requirements as per BIS 269
S. No. Physical properties Results (BIS 2015) (variety: OPC 43)
1 Specific gravity 3.14 Around 3.15
2 Specific surface area (m2 =kg) 289 Not less than 225
3 Setting time (min)
Initial setting time 125 Not less than 30
Final setting time 220 Not more than 300
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4 Compressive strength (MPa)

72  1 h (3 days) 30.6 Not less than 23.0
168  2 h (7 days) 41.7 Not less than 33.0
672  4 h (28 days) 47.8 Not less than 43.0
5 Normal consistency (%) 27 —
6 Le-Chatelier expansion (mm) 1 Not more than 10.0

Fig. 1. (a) Reclaimed concrete slab and brick waste; and (b) composition of CDW.

A systematic approach was followed to prepare a design mix for 2. According to IS 456 (BIS 2000), the minimum cement content
M-40 grade ZSC to produce paver blocks, as referred to by standard for M40 grade concrete is 360 kg=m3 for severe exposure. In
codes, i.e., IS 15658 (BIS 2006), IRC SP 63 (IRC 2004), and BIS contrast, the cement content in concrete paver blocks (starting
10262 (BIS 2019). The following changes were observed while from 30-grade to 55-grade) should be 380 kg=m3 [IRC SP 63
preparing the mix design for M-40 ZSC: (IRC 2004)].
0
1. The characteristic compressive strength (fck ) equation for ZSC 3. Total water content should lie in the range of 5–7% of the total
is different from conventional concrete (CC), as mentioned in mix weight, whereas 0.34–0.38 is the water/cement ratio, but
Eq. (1) [BIS 10262 (BIS 2019) and IS 15658 (BIS 2006)] for this may vary for CC up to 0.55.
CC and ZSC, respectively. This difference may be based on the
quality control measures taken during ZSC production as a sig-
nificant number of quality control measures can be implemented Table 2. Physical properties of the aggregates
in concrete paver block manufacturing units but are not imple- Physical properties NCA Coarse RCA Fine RCA RS
mented during CC production in the field
Specific gravity SSD (g=cm3 ) 2.67 2.42 2.27 2.61
0 Specific gravity 2.47 2.12 1.82 2.46
fck ¼ f ck þ 1.65 × S ð1Þ
(oven-dried) (g=cm3 )
Water absorption (%) 0.67 5.12 9.11 1.63
Bulk density 1.44 1.34 1.67 1.74
0
fck ¼ f ck þ 0.825 × S ð2Þ (compacted) (kg=m3 )
Bulk density (loose) (kg=m3 ) 1.35 1.24 1.58 1.6
where fck 0 is the characteristic compressive strength (MPa); Fineness modulus 5.77 5.62 2.74 2.82
f ck is the designed compressive strength (MPa); and S is the 10% fine (kN) 190 130 107 140
standard deviation [5 N=mm2 in Eq. (1) and 0.5 N=mm2 Material less than 0 0.1 2.63 0.3
0.075 mm (%)
in Eq. (2)].

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Fig. 2. (a) NCA; (b) river sand; (c) coarse RCA; and (d) fine RCAs.

Fig. 3. Particle size distribution of aggregates.

4. The maximum size of aggregates permitted for ZSC is 6–12 mm, The feasibility of incorporating (0%, 15%, 30%, 45%, 60%, and
whereas the maximum nominal size is 40 mm for a CC mix. 75%) coarse RCA (max. diameter - 10 mm) in ZSC was determined
5. The aggregate/cement ratio varies from 3.1 to 6.1 for ZSC, but in Series 1. A replacement percentage of coarse RCA up to 75% at
there are no provisions in a CC mix. intervals of 15% was decided based on a literature review and trials
ZSC mixes were prepared by varying superplasticizer content conducted in the laboratory. After optimizing the coarse RCA con-
(cement weight %), from 0.35% to 0.6% to obtain the required tent (45%), the feasibility of utilizing (0%, 20%, 40%, 60%, 80%,
workability (zero slumps) and compaction factor (0.7 to 0.8). The and 100%) fine RCA was determined in Series 2. Table 4 shows the
dosage of superplasticizer was finalized based on the compaction composition of ZSC mixes (Series 1 and 2).
factor test and density. Fig. 4 shows the density and compac-
tion factor of ZSC as a function of superplasticizer percentage
(cement weight %). Per the graph, 0.4% superplasticizer content SEM-EDX Analysis of RCA
was selected because the compaction factor at this loading, SEM along with energy-dispersive X-ray spectroscopy (EDX) was
0.76, lies between 0.7 and 0.8, and this loading yielded the highest conducted using a Nova Nano FE-SEM 450 (FEI). Figs. 5 and 6
bulk density of 2,522 kg=m3 . show the SEM images of coarse and fine RCA, respectively. SEM

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 Table 3. Chemical composition of the materials blocks were de-molded and then submerged in a curing tank for
Compounds Cement (%) Sand (%) NCA (%) RCA (%) 28 days to cure and gain strength.
SiO2 19.9 64.1 72.5 49.1
TiO2 0.34 1.3 0.55 0.48 Experimental Program
Al2 O3 5.26 12.5 7.6 7.97
MnO 0.06 0.1 0.04 0.05
Fe2 O3 3.32 5.06 6.15 5.44 Mechanical and Durability Properties
CaO 61 8.19 3 30.3
MgO 2.33 1.93 3.78 1.55 Table 5 shows standards [ASTM C936 (ASTM 2018); BS 6717
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Na2 O 0.88 1.5 3.51 0.51 Part 1 (BSI 1993); AS/NZS 4456.0-2003 (Standards Australia
K2 O 1.07 2.48 1.29 1.26 2003); IS 15658 (BIS 2006)] followed for calculating mechanical
P2 O 5 0.07 0.37 0.52 0.23 and durability properties of concrete paver blocks. Concrete paver
SO3 3.98 0.33 0.14 1.68 blocks were subjected to compressive strength (CS), water absorp-
Cl 0.04 0.04 0.13 0.05 tion (WA), and abrasion resistance (AR) tests (final value was the
average of four data points). Compressive strength was calculated
by dividing the maximum load (N) by plan area (mm2 ) of the paver
images show the adhered mortar on coarse RCA and the presence block as per IS 15658 (BIS 2006) (Annex B) and (Annex D). Four-
of calcium silicate hydrate (CSH). The presence of CSH gel is millimeter plywood was used to cap the depressions of the paver
block, and the corrected CS was calculated by multiplying the ap-
noticed in the SEM image of RCA, which was confirmed by
parent CS by a correction factor (1.18) as per Table 5 of IS 15658
EDX analysis, as shown in Fig. 7.
(BIS 2006) (Annex D). Other mechanical and durability perfor-
mance tests, i.e., density, CS, flexural strength (FS), split tensile
Manufacturing of Concrete Paver Blocks strength (STS), ultrasonic pulse velocity (UPV), and dynamic
modulus of elasticity (Ed ) of paver blocks with fine RCA content
M-40 grade interlocking paver blocks (80 mm-thick) were manu- was performed. Ed was calculated from density, and UPV was cal-
factured in a concrete lab with the help of a concrete mixer, vibrat- culated using Eq. (3) [ASTM C597 (ASTM 2016)]. The experi-
ing table, and PVC molds. As per the design mix, materials were mental setup for determining CS, FS, and STS was different
loaded into a stationary concrete mixer as per IS 456 (BIS 2000). from the setup used to test CC. Fig. 8 shows a pictorial represen-
Cement was sandwiched between sand and coarse aggregates. tation of the CS, STS, and FS setups
After observing the homogeneity of the wet mix, a superplasticizer
ð1 þ μÞð1 − 2μÞ
was added. The workability of each mix was checked by a com- Ed ¼ ρν 2 ð3Þ
ð1 − μÞ
paction factor test ranging from 0.7 to 0.8. PVC molds were filled
with a concrete mix in three layers and compacted with the help of a where Ed is the dynamic modulus of elasticity (GPa); v is the ultra-
vibrating table. Compacted molds were stacked for 24 h at room sonic pulse velocity (km=s); ρ is concrete density (kg=m3 ); and μ is
temperature, 27°C, to obtain their final shape. After 24 h, paver Poisson’s ratio (0.15 - high strength and 0.3 - low strength).

Fig. 4. Effect on compaction factor and density with changes in admixture dosage.

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 Table 4. Composition of ZSC mixes
Cement NCA Coarse RCA River sand Fine RCA Silica dust Water Superplasticizer
Mix ID (kg) (kg) (kg) (kg) (kg) (kg) (kg) (kg)
Composition of Series-1 mixes
CR0 422 756 — 1,108 — — 156 1.67
CR15 422 643 113 1,108 — — 162 1.67
CR30 422 529 227 1,108 — — 168 1.67
CR45 422 416 340 1,108 — — 174 1.67
CR60 422 302 454 1,108 — — 180 1.67
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CR75 422 189 567 1,108 — — 186 1.67

Composition of Series-2 mixes
C45F0 422 416 340 1,108 — — 174 1.67
C45F20 422 416 340 886 222 — 194 1.67
C45F40 422 416 340 665 443 — 214 1.67
C45F60 422 416 340 443 665 — 234 1.67
C45F80 422 416 340 222 886 — 254 1.67
C45F100 422 416 340 — 1,108 — 274 1.67

Fig. 5. SEM image of coarse RCA.

Environmental and Economic Performance compared to understand the economy of incorporating RCA into
concrete for paver block manufacturing.
The environmental impacts of incorporating RCA in ZSC were
assessed in terms of GWP and PE consumption. CO2 emissions
were converted into kg. CO2 eq. using conversion factors (USEPA Microstructural Analysis
2020). Factors to convert diesel (liter) and electricity consumption
To understand the microstructural properties and internal bond
(kilowatt-hours) into PE (MJ) consumption were adopted from the
strength of ZSC, TGA was conducted by using a Shimadzu
US Energy Information Administration (EIA 2020). Standard emis-
DTG-60H. This equipment used a parallel guide differential top
sions from diesel vehicles and generators were taken from pan balance mechanism that measures the mass changes and tem-
DieselNet (“Emission standards,” 2011), the only internet database perature difference between the reference and sample at high
for internal combustion engines and emissions information. A stan- sensitivity. Oven-dried samples were heated continuously between
dard methodology to assess environmental impacts defined by the room temperature to 1,000°C at a uniform rate of 10°C=min. TGA
International Organization for Standardization (ISO) [Instituto testing showed that the samples first released entrapped water at
Colombiano de Normas Técnicas y Certificación (ICONTEC 0°C–30°C, and then CSH cement paste dehydration took place in
2007)] was adopted. The system boundary was cradle-to-gate life the range of 30°C–450°C. After dehydration, decomposition of
cycle assessment, i.e., from the extraction of raw material till pro- Portlandite (CaðOHÞ2 ) took place with the release of water at
duction of 1 m3 ZSC. The production cost of 1 m3 of ZSC was 450°C to 540°C, and then decarbonation of calcite (CaCO3 ) occurred

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Fig. 6. SEM image of fine RCA.

Fig. 7. SEM-EDX images of recycled concrete aggregates.

between 540°C and 800°C leaving residue after CO2 release. WLCaðOHÞ2 × m: massCaðOHÞ2
CaðOHÞ2;Calculated ¼
The amount of portlandite and calcite was calculated using the m: massH2 O
molecular mass of portlandite and calcite (Scrivener et al. 2018).
74
Portlandite generally decomposes into CaO and H2 O between ¼ WLCaðOHÞ2 × ð4Þ
400°C and 500°C. The weight loss (WLCaðOHÞ2 ) during decom- 18
position was due to water evaporation, which may be calculated where WL is weight loss; and m: mass is molecular mass.
using the molecular masses of portlandite (74 g=mol) and water Decarbonation of calcite (CaCO3 ) takes place at temperatures
(18 g=mol) greater than 600°C and decomposes into CaO and CO2 . Weight

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 Table 5. Standards for precast concrete paver blocks used in medium traffic roads
[ASTM C936 [BS 6717 Part 1 [AS/NZS 4456.0-2003 [IS 15658
Properties (ASTM 2018)] (BSI 1993)] (Standards Australia 2003)] (BIS 2006)]
Compressive strength (MPa) 55.2 45 45 41
Split tensile strength (MPa) — > ¼ 3.9 > ¼ 3.9 —
Flexural load (kN) — — >¼5 >¼6
Skid resistance (BPN) > ¼ 45 > ¼ 45 > ¼ 45 —
Abrasion resistance < ¼ 15 cm3 < ¼ 23 mm — —
Water absorption (%) <¼5 <¼6 <¼5 <¼6
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loss (WLCaCO3 ) was calculated using molecular mass values of the effect of coarse and fine RCA on the compaction factor and
CaCO3 (100 g=mol) and CO2 (44 g=mol) density of ZSC.

WLCaCO3 × m: massCaCO3 Effect of Coarse RCA on Hardened Properties of Paver

CaCO3;Calculated ¼ Blocks
m: massCO2
100 Table 6 shows the 28-day hardened properties of the M-40 grade
¼ WLCaCO3 × ð5Þ paver blocks with incorporated coarse RCA. It is shown that the
44
properties degraded with increasing RCA proportion. There was
a 16.8% loss in CS at 45% coarse RCA replacement, and this loss
FTIR spectroscopy was conducted with a Bruker ALPHA, increased to 27% at 75% replacement. AL was 61.4% at 45%
which was integrated with both universal mode (KBr pellets) and coarse RCA replacement and grows to 100% at 75% replacement.
attenuated total reflectance mode (ATR) over a spectral range of WA was 35% higher than the control at 45% coarse RCA replace-
4,000–500 cm−1 . FTIR was used to study the presence of portlan- ment, which then almost doubled at 75% replacement. Paver blocks
dite (CaðOHÞ2 ), CSH gel, and calcite in the concrete samples to with up to 45% coarse RCA confirmed the requirement defined by
characterize the cementitious material. IS 15658, but a further increase of even 15% in coarse RCA re-
Microstructural studies of ZSC samples were conducted from sulted in poor quality paver blocks and did not comply with the
the SEM images with the help of ImageJ software, which calculates requirements specified in different standard codes. This may be
the number, total, and percent area and average size of pores ob- due to an increase in the porous structure of the concrete resulting
served on the surface of concrete samples. from the incorporation of RCA (Etxeberria et al. 2006), which leads
Samples for TGA and FTIR were prepared by crushing paver to an increase in water absorption and decrease in density as ob-
blocks of varying replacement percentages and then grinding the served in the SEM analysis in this study. Fig. 10 shows the effect of
mortar chunks to obtain a uniform particle size by sieving through coarse RCA on the relationship of compressive strength with re-
a 90-micron sieve. Mortar powder (16.5 g) was utilized to carry spect to water absorption and depth of wear.
out the TGA analysis, and pellets were formed by mixing 1 mg of
mortar powder with 300 mg KBr powder to carry FTIR analysis.
Combined Influence of Coarse and Fine RCA on
SEM-EDX samples were prepared by cutting a 1-cm cube from
Hardened Properties of Paver Blocks
the respective paver block and then ground. Samples were polished
using electrocoated SiC latex waterproof paper in a polishing Table 7 shows the 28-day hardened properties of concrete paver
machine. Polished samples were placed in an oven at 100°C for blocks incorporating coarse and fine RCA. Fig. 11 shows 7-,
one hour under vacuum. A thin layer of conductive gold was 28-, 56-, and 90-day CS at different fine RCA replacements with
coated over the 1-cm cube concrete sample to conduct SEM-EDX- optimized coarse RCA (45%) compositions (Series 1). Figs. 12
mapping. and 13 show 28-, 56-, and 90-days FS and STS values, respectively,
at varying fine RCA content. A standard deviation of 1 to 2.5 was
observed in CS results, whereas the standards were 0.19 to 0.36 and
Results and Discussion 0.01 to 0.04 for WA and AR, respectively. The deviations in the
test results are small, which means the results are very close to
the mean. The error may be due to sample setting in the testing
Effect of Coarse and Fine RCA on Fresh
machine and slight variations in initial compaction. There were
Properties of ZSC
significant losses in mechanical and durability properties of the
Concrete workability decreases with increasing RCA content control sample. Properties (density, CS, FS, STS, UPV, Ed )
(Braga et al. 2017) because the water absorption of RCA is signifi- decrease, whereas WA, VR, and AL increase with increasing fine
cantly higher than the water absorption of NA. In this study, the RCA content. There was around a 3% decrease in compressive
workability of the ZSC mix increases with an increase in coarse strength at 40% fine RCA, which grew to 7% at a further 20%
RCA contents. This may be due to the shape and texture of coarse increment. There was a 17% decrease in CS when fine RCA re-
RCA, which is smoother and more rounded than NCA, as shown in placed 100% river sand. There was a 3% to 4% decrease in density,
Fig. 2. Added water may provide free water and lead to an increase CS, FS, STS, UPV and Ed at 40% fine RCA content, which surged
in workability (Poon et al. 2002), whereas workability of the ZSC to around 18% at 100% replacement. The decrease in hardened
mix decreases with increasing fine RCA content. This decrease properties was due to an increase in porosity of the ZSC mix as
may be due to the higher water absorption, which is almost 5.5 porosity increases with an increase in RCA content (Etxeberria
times higher than the water absorption of river sand. A reduction et al. 2006). Porous coarse RCA might have extracted cement paste
in workability may be due to higher percentage of fines in fine from the interfacial transition zone (ITZ) due to the presence of
RCA, which requires more water to hydrate and flow. Fig. 9 shows mortar on the periphery that would reduce the effective cement

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Fig. 8. Pictorial representation along with real images of (a) CS; (b) FS; and (c) STS experimental set up.

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Fig. 9. Effect of (a) coarse RCA; and (b) fine RCA on the density and compaction factor of ZSC.

Table 6. Average 28 day properties of paver blocks incorporating coarse Table 8 shows the 28-day curing results of the mechanical and
RCA (Series 1) durability properties of paver blocks. There was a significant reduc-
Mix ID CS (MPa) AL (mm) WA (%) tion in hardened properties of paver blocks with the incorporation
CR0 56.9 0.76 3.1 of CDW. The results show that the density decreases with an in-
CR15 52.4 0.86 3.4 crease in fine RCA, whereas water absorption, void ratio, and depth
CR30 50.2 0.97 3.8 of wear increase with an increase in fine RCA. There was around a
CR45 47.3 1.05 4.2 3% reduction in density at 40% fine RCA, which increased to 7% at
CR60 41.56 1.12 5.1 100% replacement. There was around a 32% increase in water ab-
CR75 34.24 1.16 6.7
sorption, void ratio, and abrasion loss when fine RCA replaced up
to 40% river sand, which plunged to 90% at 100% replacement.
Fig. 16 shows the percentage reduction in properties due to RCA
incorporation. The decrease in density may be due to the more
paste required for bonding in concrete (Monu et al. 2020). Smaller
porous structure of the concrete as porosity increases with an in-
diameter RCA, which contains more mortar than larger sized RCA,
crease in RCA content (Zhang and Ingham 2010; Fakitsas et al.
decreases compressive strength (Akbarnezhad et al. 2013). Based
on these results, fine RCA may replace up to 40% river sand in ZSC 2012; Akbarnezhad et al. 2013; Ho et al. 2013; Xie et al. 2018).
without showing a significant effect on the properties of ZSC. ZSC Figs. 17 and 18 show the relationship of water absorption with re-
with 45% coarse and 40% fine RCA was confirmed to meet all spect to density and depth of wear, respectively. The reason behind
requirements specified in different standards codes and satisfied the the increase in water absorption, void ratio, and depth of wear is the
conditions mentioned. Fig. 14 shows the percentage decrease in inherent properties of RCA, i.e., higher water absorption due to
CS, FS, STS, and UPV at each replacement percentage. There is adhered mortar and porous structure. The presence of dust in fine
a strong correlation between CS and UPV as the R2 value is RCA leads to a harsher concrete mix, which significantly increases
0.98. Fig. 15 shows the relationship of CS with UPV at different the number of permeable voids (Singh et al. 2018). Fig. 19 shows
replacement percentages of RCA. the internal behavior of coarse RCA in the concrete microstructure.

Fig. 10. Relationship of compressive strength with respect to (a) water absorption; and (b) depth of wear due to abrasion.

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 Table 7. Average 28 day properties of paver blocks incorporating both
coarse and fine RCA
Density CS FS STS UPV Ed
Mix ID (kg=m3 ) (MPa) (MPa) (MPa) (km=s) (GPa)
C0F0 2,466 56.9 8.4 5 5.5 70.6
C45F0 2,422 47.3 6.3 4.2 4.3 42.4
C45F20 2,402 46.8 6.2 4.1 4.2 40.1
C45F40 2,383 45.4 6.0 4.0 4.1 37.9
C45F60 2,373 43.1 5.7 3.7 3.8 32.5
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C45F80 2,359 39.8 5.2 3.5 3.6 29.0

C45F100 2,339 37.7 4.8 3.3 3.4 25.6

Fig. 13. Split tensile strength (average of 4-samples) of ZSC mixes at

different RCA contents with standard deviation.

Fig. 11. Compressive strength (average of 4-samples) of ZSC mixes at

different RCA contents with standard deviation.

Fig. 14. Percent decrease in CS, FS, STS, and UPV at respective RCA
contents.

Fig. 12. Flexural strength (average of 4-samples) of ZSC mixes at

different RCA contents with standard deviation.

Microstructural Analysis

TGA Analysis
Samples from the control (C0F0) and optimized ZSC mixes
(C45F0 and C45F40) were prepared, and the weight loss of these
Fig. 15. Relationship between CS and UPV at different RCA replace-
mortar powders (<90 microns) was observed when these samples
ment percentages.
were heated between 500°C and 900°C). Dehydration of CSH paste

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 Table 8. Average 28 day hardened properties of paver blocks (Series 2)
BD AD WA VR AL
Mix ID (mg=m3 ) (mg=m3 ) (%) (%) (mm)
C0F0 2.466 2.7 3.1 5.5 0.76
C45F0 2.422 2.67 4.2 7.4 1.05
C45F20 2.402 2.63 4.7 8.34 1.08
C45F40 2.383 2.61 5.2 9.15 1.11
C45F60 2.373 2.59 6.1 10.76 1.17
C45F80 2.360 2.60 7.2 12.78 1.27
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C45F100 2.339 2.65 8.4 14.2 1.48

Fig. 17. Relationship between water absorption percentage and bulk

density.

Fig. 16. Percent increase/decrease in 28-day properties of paver

blocks.

samples took place at 30°C to 450°C, decomposition of portlandite

at 450°C to 500°C, and decarbonation of calcite at 500°C to 850°C. Fig. 18. Relationship between water absorption percentage and
There were 16%, 18%, and 19% weight losses observed in the abrasion loss.
C0F0, C45F0, and C45F40 samples, respectively. There was a con-
stant decrease in portlandite content and calcite content with an
increase in RCA proportion, as shown in Fig. 20. There was a sig-
nificant loss of H2 O at 30°C to 500°C and CO2 was emitted at and Setter 1977; Turgut 2008; Yilmaz and Olgun 2008), which shifts
500°C to 850°C. Calcite content increased because of the already towards lower wavenumbers with an increase in RCA proportion.
present unreactive calcium oxide present in RCA. Portlandite con- The shifting of peaks to lower spectra and increase in intensity
tent decreased with an increase in RCA content as the formation may increase bond length and result in weaker bonding. The pres-
of portlandite decreases with an increase in RCA content. An in- ence of the portlandite decreases as the proportion of RCA content
crease in weight loss during the TGA study confirms a decrease in increases in the concrete (Maschinen et al. 2017). However, the peak
mechanical and durability properties of ZSC. Fig. 21 shows the shifting and changes in intensities are minimal, which show slight
weight loss of portlandite and calcite during TGA. differences in mechanical properties. A weak band observed at
2,364 cm−1 is attributed to atmospheric CO2 because CO2 absorbed
in the walls of pores in KBr as the wavenumber and intensity at this
FTIR Spectroscopy Analysis peak are almost identical in all samples.
Table 9 shows the spectra of compounds found in concrete with There is a strong presence of calcite and CSH in the FTIR spec-
bond type, and Fig. 22 shows the individual peaks. The FTIR pat- tra (<2,000 cm−1 ). As per the observation intensity, the wavenum-
terns of all samples are almost identical. Still, there are relative ber of calcite and CSH peaks have slightly decreased. There are two
shifts of peaks and variations in its intensities, which may provide peaks of calcite i.e., 1,530 and 1,700 cm−1 (Pozo-Antonio 2015);
insightful information regarding the microstructure of concrete Yilmaz and Olgun 2008). Wavenumbers related to the C-O bond of
mixes. In the region >2,000 cm−1 , there is important information calcite are 1,530, 1,519 and 1,525 cm−1 for C0F0, C45F0, and
regarding the hydration mechanism of cement paste. Complete C45F40, respectively. The second peaks of calcite are at wavenum-
formation of portlandite is seen in all mixes of ZSC, as noticed in bers 1,700, 1,692 and 1,696 cm−1 for C0F0, C45F0, and C45F40,
the broad shoulder of its peak, and there are two portlandite bands, as respectively. Incorporation of RCA resulted in shifting of bond-
seen in Table 9. Wavenumbers, i.e., 3,614, 3,624, and 3,618 cm−1 , band to the lower wavenumber, resulting increase in bond length
are associated with portlandite peaks (Benosman et al. 2013; Soroka and subsequently decrease the properties of the concrete. Peaks of

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Fig. 19. Internal structure of recycled concrete.

Fig. 20. TGA curve with derivative: (a) control; (b) C45F0; and (c) C45F40.

CSH were observed at wavenumbers 1,005, 970, and 990 cm−1 for number, count, total area, average size, and percent area increase
C0F0, C45F0, and C45F40, respectively. The same observation with increasing RCA percentage. Porosity can easily be interpreted
was noticed while using RCA in concrete (Bulatović et al. 2017). from these results. There was a 3.7, 8, 2.3, and 8.4 times increase
in number, total area, average size, and percentage area of pores,
respectively, when RCA replaced 45% NCA and 100% river sand.
SEM In contrast, there were only 2.4, 3, 1.4 and 3.2 times increase in the
Table 10 shows the number, total area, average size, and percentage case of 45% coarse and 40% fine RCA. The increase in percent area
area of pores seen in SEM images of respective ZSC samples. of pores was almost more than double (2.6 times) when fine RCA
Fig. 23 shows the images of pores captured by SEM and threshold replacement changed to 100% from 40%. So, C45F40 was the most
and analyzed picture by ImageJ. As per the results, the pore optimized mix, and it met the standards codes and shaved a

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 The high cost of any product or service does not mean that it is
more environmentally friendly (Braga et al. 2017). ZSC production
cost increases with an increase in RCA content, as shown in Fig. 26.
The production cost of 1 m3 control mix (C0F0) was 23%, 44%,
and 75% less than C45F0, C4540, and C45F100, respectively. The
increase in production cost was due to the higher cost of RCA,
which was six times and 2.2 times the cost of NCA and river sand,
respectively. The cost of one ton of NA was lesser than the cost of
one tone of RCA (McGinnis et al. 2017). The higher cost of RCA
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was due to the selective crushing of CDW as there was no special-

ized CDW recycling plant for bulk production of RCA. The fea-
sibility of installing a recycling plant for CDW processing is not
possible at this time as there was no demand for RCA (Nunes
et al. 2007; Zhao et al. 2010). The installation of a CDW recycling
plant is not possible without government support as it requires high
Fig. 21. Portlandite and calcite weight loss with increasing RCA
investment, as compared to NA (Oliveira Neto et al. 2017). The
content.
economic viability of the RCA is only possible when there is
large-scale RCA production (Coelho and De Brito 2013). The cost
of RCA was found to be sensitive to transportation distance, so a
significant number of natural resources with minimal environmen- CDW recycling plant should be installed in the 20 km proximal to
tal impacts. old constructed regions of a city to minimize the cost of RCA and
environmental burdens.
Environmental and Economic Impact
Special Discussion and Recommendations
Generally, four steps are involved in assessing environmental im-
pacts: goal definition and scope, inventory analysis, impact assess- After studying the results, the water absorption of RCA due to ad-
ment, and interpretation. This study aims to assess cradle-to-gate hered mortar played an essential role in determining the hardened
environmental impacts of 1 m3 ZSCs (C0F0, C45F0, C45F40, and properties of the recycled concrete. The quality of RCA can be de-
C45F100). The system boundary for the study was from the extrac- fined by the amount of adhered mortar on the periphery of the old
tion of raw materials, transportation, demolition of the structure, aggregate. The workability of the concrete decreases with an in-
crushing/grinding, and concrete production. Inventory analysis in- crease in RCA content, which increases the water demand of the
volved resource consumption input data (materials, diesel and elec- ZSC mix and makes the mix stiffer and harsher. Porous mortar on
tricity) and output data (concrete, waste, emissions to land, air and RCA tried to extract water from the cement paste, resulting in a
water). Table 11 shows the resource consumption in 1 m3 ZSC weak ITZ by decreasing the bond strength. More pores may be
mixes. Emissions characterization was done by converting emis- created when the water leaves before the hydration of all cement
sions into impacts (GWP and PE consumption) by applying con- particles, resulting in a poor microstructure. The combined effect of
version factors (Huppes and Van Oers 2011). It was found that adhered mortar and more fines (< ¼ 0.075 mm) would have de-
incorporation of 45% CDW in ZSC production can reduce the creased the mechanical and durability properties of ZSC mixes.
GWP 4% and the PE consumption 8.8% while saving a significant Moreover, fines in RCA require more cement and water due to
number of natural resources. Fig. 24 shows GWP and PE consump- an increase in surface area, which leads to a harsher concrete mix
tion of ZSC mixes i.e., C0F0, C45F0, C45F40, and C45F100. and porous concrete because of improper compaction. There was a
The CS/GWP ratio was calculated to select the most optimized slight reduction in environmental impacts of ZSC with the incor-
ZSC. Table 12 shows the average 28-day CS/GWP ratios for ZSC poration of RCA, but it can save a significant number of natural
mixes. CS/GWP ratios decrease with an increase in RCA content as resources. Based on the findings, the following steps may be sug-
both CS and GWP decrease with RCA. A specified CS was adopted gested for effective utilization of RCA in concrete mixes:
to calculate the optimized value of CS/GWP as per the standard 1. Coarse and fine RCA can replace up to 45% and 40% NA,
code requirement, 45 MPa (BSI 1993). The smallest value of GWP respectively, in M-40 ZSC. But, it can replace up to 100% NA
(276 kg CO2 eq.) was considered. The C45F40 formulation was the in lower grade ZSC. Applications of RCA in precast materials
most optimized mix as its CS/GWP value is not much higher or production may be a better option for the utilization of CDW.
lower than the reference value (0.163). Fig. 25 shows the CS/GWP 2. To decrease the water demand and water absorption, RCA can
values concerning change in coarse and fine RCA. be used in saturated surface dry (SSD) conditions, enhancing the

Table 9. Spectra of ZSC mixes along with their respective functional groups and compounds
S. No. Functional group Compound C0F0 C45F0 C45F40 Reference
1 Si─O─Si SiO2 555 543 580 Yilmaz and Olgun (2008)
2 Si─O CSH 1,005 970 990 Benosman et al. (2013), and Yilmaz and Olgun (2008)
3 C─O Calcite 1,530 1,519 1,525 Benosman et al. (2013), Pozo-Antonio (2015), and
Yilmaz and Olgun (2008)
4 C─C C═C stretching 1,700 1,692 1,696 Corredor-Bedoya et al. (2017)
5 O─C─O CO2 2,364 2,356 2,362 —
6 O─H Portlandite 3,614 3,624 3,618 Benosman et al. (2013), Soroka and Setter (1977),
Turgut (2008), and Yilmaz and Olgun (2008)

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Fig. 22. FTIR spectra of (a) control; (b) C45F0; and (c) C45F40.

Table 10. Number, total area, average size, and percentage area of pores of 6. To decrease the environmental impacts and cost of concrete,
ZSC mixes a specialized CDW recycling plant should be installed in the
Mix ID Count Total area Average size % area within 20 km of a city for bulk production of RCA, as trans-
−4 portation and crushing are responsible for 80% of the environ-
C0F0 60 0.012 1.94 × 10 0.21
C45F0 145 0.036 2.51 × 10−4 0.655 mental impacts and higher cost of the concrete output.
C45F40 142 0.037 2.61 × 10−4 0.672 7. Durability tests, i.e., sulfate and acid attack, freeze and thaw,
C45F100 223 0.097 4.36 × 10−4 1.759 and shrinkage, can be conducted to understand the durability
properties.

workability of the ZSC. RCA in SSD conditions would help in

hydrating the cement paste due to internal curing and thus lead Conclusion
to an increase in properties (Fakitsas et al. 2012). Moreover,
fines/dust will also be removed and decrease the additional ce- This study attempted to find sustainable use of CDW in ZSC, which
ment demand but may result gap graded concrete. is generally used for casting concrete paver blocks. RCA obtained
3. Specialized admixtures can be utilized to reduce the water de- from the CDW of a 63-year old residential building was used to
mand and increase ZSC workability. This improves the quality replace NA. The effect of incorporating coarse RCA (dia. - 4.75 to
of ZSC by removing micropores, which are predominantly 10 mm) was evaluated based on the fresh and obligatory require-
found in recycled concrete mixes. ments of ZSC. The combined effects of optimized coarse RCA
4. To improve the physical properties of RCA, mechanized or (45%) and fine RCA (0%, 20%, 40%, 60%, 80%, and 100%)
chemical repealing of the adhered mortar can be employed but replacements were evaluated based on fresh, hardened, and
may cost more. A decrease in adhered mortar on RCA would microstructural properties, environmental impacts, and production
increase the quality of the concrete in many ways. cost. As per the observation, CDW is not a waste but a resource,
5. Mineral admixtures, i.e., silica fumes, fly ash, or rice husk ash, which can replace a significant portion of NA in concrete. More-
can be incorporated to enhance the workability and microstruc- over, utilization of RCA in precast construction materials can
ture of the ZSC, which may lead to pore filling by generating relieve land resources and minimize the consumption of natural re-
more CSH gel. sources. CDW is the most sustainable source of alternate aggregates

© ASCE 04022115-15 J. Mater. Civ. Eng.

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Fig. 23. Number, shape, and area of micropores of different ZSC mixes.

Table 11. Resource consumption in 1 m3 ZSC mixes NA, i.e., 45% NCA and 40% river sand, without a substantially
Resources C0F0 C45F0 C45F40 C45F100 negative impact on its properties.
2. Workability of ZSC increases with an increase in coarse RCA
Cement 421 421 421 421 and decreases with an increase in fine RCA content. The in-
NCA 756 416 416 416
crease in workability was due to the rounded shape and smooth
Coarse RCA 0 340 340 340
RS 1,108 1,108 665 —
texture of coarse RCA. In contrast, higher water absorption
Fine RCA 0 — 443 1,108 of fine RCA would result in a stiffer and harsher ZSC mix by
Fuel (diesel) 9.45 7.95 6.87 5.45 decreasing its workability.
Electricity (kWh) 84.29 83.55 85.25 88.86 3. The presence of dust in RCA increases the overall surface area
Primary energy (MJ) 1,628 1,574 1,535 1,484 that would consume more cement and water and make ZSC
stiffer and harsh, which results in improper compaction.
Improper compaction or less workable ZSC leads to an increase
in porosity and poor microstructure.
as per the mechanical, environmental, and economic impact analysis. 4. Hardened properties of ZSC decrease with increasing RCA
Some of the findings of the study are mentioned below: There was a 17% decrease in compressive strength at 100% fine
1. CDW incorporation in M-40 grade ZSC degraded the quality RCA, which was only 2% at 40% replacement. Abrasion loss
of paver blocks. Still, it can replace a significant portion of (depth of wear) was 1.11 mm at 40% fine RCA, which increased

© ASCE 04022115-16 J. Mater. Civ. Eng.

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Fig. 24. GWP and PE consumption of ZSC mixes. Fig. 26. Production cost of ZSC mixes.

Table 12. Average 28 day CS/GWP ratio of different ZSC mixes coarse and 40% fine RCA, respectively. So, weight loss of ZSC
CS GWP CS=GWP
increases with an increase in RCA content, and the same was
Mix ID (MPa) (kg CO2 eq.) ratio confirmed by FTIR spectroscopy as there was a shift in portlan-
dite and calcite peaks to a lower wavenumber, which denotes
C0F0 56.9 288 0.19757
a decrease in properties. As per SEM analysis, pore number,
C45F0 47.3 285 0.16596
C45F40 45.4 282 0.16099
area, percentage area, and average size increase with an increase
C45F100 37.7 276 0.13659 in RCA.
6. The incorporation of RCA would result in lowering the environ-
mental impacts of ZSC. There was a 4% reduction in GWP and
an 8.8% savings in PE. There was a slight reduction in ecologi-
to 1.48 mm at 100% replacement, and water absorption was cal impact but could save many natural resources when RCA
32% at 40% fine RCA, which increased to 90% at 100% replace- replaced up to 100% NA.
ment. The increase/decrease in properties of ZSC was due to the 7. The production cost of 1 m3 ZSC mixes increases with an in-
inherent properties of RCA, such as higher water absorption. crease in RCA replacement. There were 23%, 44%, and 75%
5. RCA content resulted poor microstructure, as demonstrated increases in production cost with 0%, 40%, and 100% fine RCA
through TGA, FTIR spectroscopy, and SEM analysis. Based on replacement, respectively. The increase in production cost was
TGA analysis, there was 16%, 18%, and 19% weight loss at 0% due to the higher cost of 1 kg RCA, which were 2.2 and 6 times
coarse and fine RCA, 45% coarse and 0% fine RCA, and 45% the cost of 1 kg of river sand and NCA, respectively.

Fig. 25. CS/GWP ratio with increasing RCA content.

© ASCE 04022115-17 J. Mater. Civ. Eng.

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 Data Availability Statement EIA (Energy Information Administration). 2020. “Energy conversion cal-
culators.” Accessed September 20, 2021. https://www.eia.gov/energy
All data, models, and code generated or used during the study explained/units-and-calculators/energy-conversion-calculators.php.
appear in the published article. Etxeberria, M., E. Vázquez, and A. Marí. 2006. “Microstructure analysis
of hardened recycled aggregate concrete.” Mag. Concr. Res. 58 (10):
683–690. https://doi.org/10.1680/macr.2006.58.10.683.
Fakitsas, C. G., P. E. A. Papakonstantinou, P. D. Kiousis, and A. Savva.
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